COMPUTER NETWORK

1.TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE:

The TCP/IP protocol suite was developed prior to the OSI model. Therefore, the
layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match those in the OSI model.

The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as having four layers: host-to-
network, internet, transport, and application.
The TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers: physical, data link, network,
transport, and application. The first four layers provide physical standards, network
interfaces, internetworking, and transport functions that correspond to the first four layers of
the OSI model. The three topmost layers in the OSI model, however, are represented in
TCP/IP by a single layer called the application layer (see Figure 1.23).

1. Physical and Data Link Layers:

At the physical and data link layers, TCP/IP does not define any specific protocol. It
supports all the standard and proprietary protocols. A network in a TCP/IP internetwork can
be a local-area network or a wide-area network.

2. Network Layer:
At the network layer (or, more accurately, the internetwork layer), TCP/IP supports
the Internetworking Protocol. IP, in turn, uses four supporting protocols: ARP, RARP, ICMP,
and IGMP.
a. Internetworking Protocol (IP)
The Internetworking Protocol (IP) is the transmission mechanism used by the TCP/IP
protocols. It is an unreliable and connectionless protocol-a best-effort delivery service. The
term best effort means that IP provides no error checking or tracking.
b. Address Resolution Protocol
The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is used to associate a logical address with a physical
address. On a typical physical network, such as a LAN, each device on a link is identified by
a physical or station address, usually imprinted on the network interface card (NIC). ARP is
used to find the physical address of the node when its Internet address is known.
c. Reverse Address Resolution Protocol

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The Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) allows a host to discover its Internet
address when it knows only its physical address. It is used when a computer is connected to a
network for the first time or when a diskless computer is booted.
d. Internet Control Message Protocol
The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is a mechanism used by hosts and gateways
to send notification of datagram problems back to the sender. ICMP sends query and error
reporting messages.
e. Internet Group Message Protocol
The Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP) is used to facilitate the simultaneous
transmission of a message to a group of recipients.

3. Transport Layer:
Traditionally the transport layer was represented in TCP/IP by two protocols: TCP
and UDP. IP is a host-to-host protocol, meaning that it can deliver a packet from one physical
device to another. UDP and TCP are transport level protocols responsible for delivery of a
message from a process (running program) to another process. A new transport layer
protocol, SCTP, has been devised to meet the needs of some newer applications.
a. User Datagram Protocol
The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is the simpler of the two standard TCP/IP transport
protocols. It is a process-to-process protocol that adds only port addresses, checksum error
control, and length information to the data from the upper layer.
b. Transmission Control Protocol
The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) provides full transport-layer services to
applications. TCP is a reliable stream transport protocol. The term stream, in this context,
means connection-oriented: A connection must be established between both ends of a
transmission before either can transmit data.
c. Stream Control Transmission Protocol
The Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) provides support for newer applications
such as voice over the Internet. It is a transport layer protocol that combines the best features
of UDP and TCP.

4. Application Layer:
The application layer in TCP/IP is equivalent to the combined session, presentation and
application layers in the OSI model. Many protocols are defined at this layer.

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2. Explain the different layers of ATM.
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
ATM
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is the cell relay protocol designed by the ATM
Forum and adopted by the ITU-T. The combination of ATM and SONET will allow high-
speed interconnection of all the world's networks. In fact, ATM can be thought of as the
"highway" of the information superhighway.
1. Design Goals
Among the challenges faced by the designers of ATM, six stand out.
a) Foremost is the need for a transmission system to optimize the use of high-data-rate
transmission media, in particular optical fiber. In addition to offering large bandwidths,
newer transmission media and equipment are dramatically less susceptible to noise
degradation. A technology is needed to take advantage of both factors and thereby maximize
data rates.
b) The system must interface with existing systems and provide wide-area interconnectivity
between them without lowering their effectiveness or requiring their replacement.
c) The design must be implemented inexpensively so that cost would not be a barrier to
adoption. If ATM is to become the backbone of international communications, as intended, it
must be available at low cost to every user who wants it.
d) The new system must be able to work with and support the existing telecommunications
hierarchies (local loops, local providers, long-distance carriers, and so on)
e) The new system must be connection-oriented to ensure accurate and predictable delivery.
f) Last but not least, one objective is to move as many of the functions to hardware as
possible (for speed) and eliminate as many software functions as possible (again for speed).
2. Frame Networks
Before ATM, data communications at the data link layer had been based on frame
switching and frame networks. Different protocols use frames of varying size and intricacy.
As networks become more complex, the information that must be carried in the header
becomes more extensive. The result is larger and larger headers relative to the size of the data
unit. In response, some protocols have enlarged the size of the data unit to make header use
more efficient. Unfortunately, large data fields create waste. If there is not much information
to transmit, much of the field goes unused. To improve utilization, some protocols provide
variable frame sizes to users.
3. Mixed Network Traffic
The variety of frame sizes makes traffic unpredictable. Switches, multiplexers, and
routers must incorporate elaborate software systems to manage the various sizes of frames. A
great deal of header information must be read, and each bit counted and evaluated to ensure
the integrity of every frame. Internetworking among the different frame networks is slow and
expensive at best, and impossible at worst.

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4. Cell Networks
Many of the problems associated with frame internetworking are solved by adopting a
concept called cell networking. A cell is a small data unit of fixed size. In a cell network,
which uses the cell as the basic unit of data exchange, all data are loaded into identical cells
that can be transmitted with complete predictability and uniformity. As frames of different
sizes and formats reach the cell network from a tributary network, they are split into multiple
small data units of equal length and are loaded into cells. The cells are then multiplexed with
other cells and routed through the cell network.
5. Asynchronous TDM
ATM uses asynchronous time-division multiplexing-that is why it is called
Asynchronous Transfer Mode-to multiplex cells corning from different channels. It uses
fixed-size slots (size of a cell). ATM multiplexers fill a slot with a cell from any input
channel that has a cell; the slot is empty if none of the channels has a cell to send

6. Architecture
ATM is a cell-switched network. The user access devices, called the endpoints, are
connected through a user-to-network interface (UNI) to the switches inside the network. The
switches are connected through network-to-network interfaces (NNIs).

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Virtual Connection
Connection between two endpoints is accomplished through transmission paths (TPs),
virtual paths (YPs), and virtual circuits (YCs). A transmission path (TP) is the physical
connection (wire, cable, satellite, and so on) between an endpoint and a switch or between
two switches. Think of two switches as two cities. A transmission path is the set of all
highways that directly connect the two cities.
A transmission path is divided into several virtual paths. A virtual path (VP) provides
a connection or a set of connections between two switches. Think of a virtual path as a
highway that connects two cities. Each highway is a virtual path; the set of all highways is the
transmission path.
Cell networks are based on virtual circuits (VCs). All cells belonging to a single
message follow the same virtual circuit and remain in their original order until they reach
their destination. Think of a virtual circuit as the lanes of a highway (virtual path).
Identifiers
In a virtual circuit network, to route data from one endpoint to another, the virtual
connections need to be identified. For this purpose, the designers of ATM created a
hierarchical identifier with two levels: a virtual path identifier (VPI) and a virtual-circuit
identifier (VCI). The VPI defines the specific VP, and the Vel defines a particular VC inside
the VP. The VPI is the same for all virtual connections that are bundled (logically) into one
VP.

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3. Exlain about ATM Layers
The ATM standard defines three layers. They are, from top to bottom, the application
adaptation layer, the ATM layer, and the physical layer. The endpoints use all three layers
while the switches use only the two bottom layers.
Physical Layer
Like Ethernet and wireless LANs, ATM cells can be carried by any physical layer carrier.

The ATM layer provides routing, traffic management, switching, and multiplexing services.
It processes outgoing traffic by accepting 48-byte segments from the AAL sublayers and
transforming them into 53-byte cells by the addition of a 5-byte header.
Header Format:
ATM uses two formats for this header, one for user-to-network interface (UNI) cells and
another for network-to-network interface (NNI) cells.

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4. What is OSI Model? Explain the functions and protocols and services of each layer?
The OSI Reference Model:
The OSI model (minus the physical medium) is shown in Fig. This model is based on a
proposal developed by the International Standards Organization (ISO) as a first step toward
international standardization of the protocols used in the various layers (Day and
Zimmermann, 1983). It was revised in 1995(Day, 1995). The model is called the ISO-OSI
(Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Model because it deals with connecting open
systems—that is, systems that are open for communication with other systems. The OSI
model has seven layers. The principles that were applied to arrive at the seven layers can be
briefly summarized as follows:
1. A layer should be created where a different abstraction is needed.
2. Each layer should perform a well-defined function.
3. The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye toward defining internationally
standardized protocols.
4. The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow across the
interfaces.
5. The number of layers should be large enough that distinct functions need not be thrown
together in the same layer out of necessity and small enough that the architecture does not
become unwieldy

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THE OSI REFERENCE MODEL
1. The Physical Layer:

The physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a communication
channel. The design issues have to do with making sure that when one side sends a 1 bit, it is
received by the other side as a 1 bit, not as a 0 bit.

2. The Data Link Layer:

The main task of the data link layer is to transform a raw transmission facility into a
line that
appears free of undetected transmission errors to the network layer. It accomplishes this task
by having the sender break up the input data into data frames (typically a few hundred or a
few thousand bytes) and transmits the frames sequentially. If the service is reliable, the
receiver confirms correct receipt of each frame by sending back an acknowledgement frame.
Another issue that arises in the data link layer (and most of the higher layers as well) is how
to keep a fast transmitter from drowning a slow receiver in data. Some traffic regulation
mechanism is often needed to let the transmitter know how much buffer space the receiver
has at the moment. Frequently, this flow regulation and the error handling are integrated.

3. The Network Layer:

The network layer controls the operation of the subnet. A key design issue is
determining how packets are routed from source to destination. Routes can be based on static
tables that are ''wired into'' the network and rarely changed. They can also be determined at
the start of each conversation, for example, a terminal session (e.g., a login to a remote
machine). Finally, they can be highly dynamic, being determined anew for each packet, to
reflect the current network load. If too many packets are present in the subnet at the same
time, they will get in one another's way, forming bottlenecks. The control of such congestion
also belongs to the network layer. More generally, the quality of service provided (delay,
transit time, jitter, etc.) is also a network layer issue. When a packet has to travel from one
network to another to get to its destination, many problems can arise. The addressing used by
the second network may be different from the first one. The second one may not accept the
packet at all because it is too large. The protocols may differ, and so on. It is up to the
network layer to overcome all these problems to allow heterogeneous networks to be
interconnected. In broadcast networks, the routing problem is simple, so the network layer is
often thin or even nonexistent.

4. The Transport Layer:

The basic function of the transport layer is to accept data from above, split it up into
smaller units if need be, pass these to the network layer, and ensure that the pieces all arrive
correctly at the other end. Furthermore, all this must be done efficiently and in a way that
isolates the upper layers from the inevitable changes in the hardware technology. The
transport layer also determines what type of service to provide to the session layer, and,
ultimately, to the users of the network. The most popular type of transport connection is an
error-free point-to-point channel that delivers messages or bytes in the order in which they

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were sent. However, other possible kinds of transport service are the transporting of isolated
messages, with no guarantee about the order of delivery, and the broadcasting of messages to
multiple destinations. The type of service is determined when the connection is established.
The transport layer is a true end-to- end layer, all the way from the source to the destination.
In other words, a program on the source machine carries on a conversation with a similar
program on the destination machine, using the message headers and control messages. In the
lower layers, the protocols are between each machine and its immediate neighbors, and not
between the ultimate source and destination machines, which may be separated by many
routers.

5. The Session Layer:

The session layer allows users on different machines to establish sessions between
them. Sessions offer various services, including dialog control (keeping track of whose turn it
is to transmit), token management (preventing two parties from attempting the same critical
operation at the same time), and synchronization (check pointing long transmissions to allow
them to continue from where they were after a crash).

6. The Presentation Layer:

The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
transmitted. In order to make it possible for computers with different data representations to
communicate, the data structures to be exchanged can be defined in an abstract way, along
with a standard encoding to be used ''on the wire.'' The presentation layer manages these
abstract data structures and allows higher-level data structures (e.g., banking records), to be
defined and exchanged.

7. The Application Layer:

The application layer contains a variety of protocols that are commonly needed by
users. One widely-used application protocol is HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), which is
the basis for the World Wide Web. When a browser wants a Web page, it sends the name of
the page it wants to the server using HTTP. The server then sends the page back. Other
application protocols are used for file transfer, electronic mail, and network news.

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5. Explain about the different types of connecting devices in computer networks?

Answer:

"Local-Area Networking Introduction," discussed the different types of hardware found in a

LAN environment hubs, bridges, and switches and how each piece of hardware functions
specifically in an Ethernet environment.

1. Repeaters (Layer 1 Devices)

A repeater is a network device used to regenerate or replicate a signal. Repeaters are

used in transmission systems to regenerate analog or digital signals distorted by
transmission loss. Repeaters are used in both local-and wide-area networking
environments to extend the distance a signal can reach. In the LAN environment, you
would use a repeater to extend the distance a data signal can travel on a cable

2. Hubs( Layer 1 Devices)

> A hub is often used to connect small LAN segments in which the number of devices is
generally 24 or fewer, and hubs are multiport repeaters. Hubs provide the signal amplification
required to allow a segment to be extended a greater distance.

> A hub takes an incoming signal on any one port and repeats it out all ports to enable users to
share the Ethernet network resources.

> Ethernet hubs create star topologies in 10-Mbps or 100-Mbps half-duplex Ethernet LANs.

> It is the hub that enables several point-to-point segments to be joined together into one single
network.

> A shared Ethernet LAN means that all members of the network are contending for transmission
of data onto a single network.

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3. Bridges (Layer 2 Devices)

Repeaters and hubs have no intelligence; they just repeat whatever signal is received from
one port out all ports without looking at what is being sent or received. Bridges add a level of
intelligence to the network by using the MAC address to build a table of hosts, mapping these
hosts to a network segment and containing traffic within these network segments. For
example, Figure 5-6 illustrates a bridged network with two network segments.

4. Switches (Layer 2 Devices)

Switches sit in the same place in the network as hubs. Unlike hubs, however, switches
examine each frame and process the frame accordingly instead of just repeating the signal to
all ports. Switches map the MAC addresses of the nodes residing on each network segment
and then allow only the necessary traffic to pass through the switch. A switch performs the
same functions as a bridge; so when the switch receives a frame, it examines the destination
and source MAC addresses and compares them to a table of network segments and addresses.
If the segments are the same, the frame is dropped, or filtered; if the segments differ, the
frame is forwarded to the proper segment.

The filtering of frames and regeneration of forwarded frames enables switches to split a
network into separate collision domains. Frame regeneration enables greater distances and
more network devices, or nodes, to be used in the total network design, and lowers the overall
collision rates. In switched networks, each segment is an independent collision domain,
whereas in shared networks all nodes reside in one, big, shared collision domain.

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5. Routers (Layer 3 Devices)

Routers are devices that forward data packets from one LAN or WAN to another. Based on
routing tables and routing protocols, routers read the network address in the packet contained
within each transmitted frame. Routers then select a sending method for the packet based on
the most expedient route. This most expedient route is determined by factors such as traffic
load, line quality, and available bandwidth. Routers work at Layer 3 (network) in the protocol
stack, whereas bridges and switches work at Layer 2 (data link).

Routers segment LANs to balance traffic within workgroups and to filter traffic for security
purposes and policy management.

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