Bertrand Russell

Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell, OM

Bertrand Russell
FRS[65] (18 May 1872 – 2 February 1970) was a British
OM FRS
philosopher, logician, mathematician, historian, writer, essayist,
social critic, political activist, and Nobel laureate.[66][67] At
various points in his life, Russell considered himself a liberal, a
socialist and a pacifist, although he also confessed that his
sceptical nature had led him to feel that he had "never been any of
these things, in any profound sense."[68] Russell was born in
Monmouthshire into one of the most prominent aristocratic
families in the United Kingdom.[69]

In the early 20th century, Russell led the British "revolt against
idealism".[70] He is considered one of the founders of analytic
philosophy along with his predecessor Gottlob Frege, colleague
G. E. Moore and protégé Ludwig Wittgenstein. He is widely held
to be one of the 20th century's premier logicians.[67] With A. N.
Whitehead he wrote Principia Mathematica, an attempt to create Born Bertrand Arthur
a logical basis for mathematics, the quintessential work of William Russell
classical logic. His philosophical essay "On Denoting" has been 18 May 1872
considered a "paradigm of philosophy".[71] His work has had a Trellech,
considerable influence on mathematics, logic, set theory, Monmouthshire,
linguistics, artificial intelligence, cognitive science, computer United Kingdom[note 1]
science (see type theory and type system) and philosophy,
Died 2 February 1970
especially the philosophy of language, epistemology and
(aged 97)
metaphysics.
Penrhyndeudraeth,
Russell was a prominent anti-war activist and he championed Caernarfonshire,
anti-imperialism.[72][73] Occasionally, he advocated preventive Wales,
nuclear war, before the opportunity provided by the atomic United Kingdom
monopoly had passed and he decided he would "welcome with Nationality British
enthusiasm" world government.[74] He went to prison for his Education Trinity College,
pacifism during World War I.[75] Later, Russell concluded that Cambridge (B.A.,
war against Adolf Hitler's Nazi Germany was a necessary "lesser 1893)
of two evils" and criticised Stalinist totalitarianism, attacked the
Spouse(s) Alys Pearsall Smith
involvement of the United States in the Vietnam War and was an
(m. 1894; div. 1921)
outspoken proponent of nuclear disarmament.[76] In 1950,
Dora Black
Russell was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature "in recognition (m. 1921; div. 1935)
of his varied and significant writings in which he champions
Patricia Spence
humanitarian ideals and freedom of thought".[77][78] (m. 1936; div. 1952)
[1]

Edith Finch (m. 1952)

Contents
 Awards De Morgan Medal
Biography
(1932)
Early life and background
Childhood and adolescence Sylvester Medal
University and first marriage (1934)
Early career Nobel Prize in
First World War Literature (1950)
G. H. Hardy on the Trinity controversy and Russell's Kalinga Prize (1957)
personal life Jerusalem Prize
Between the wars (1963)
Second World War
Later life Era 20th-century
Political causes philosophy

Final years, death and legacy Region Western philosophy

Titles and honours from birth School Analytic philosophy
Views Aristotelianism
Philosophy Empiricism
Religion
Linguistic turn
Society
Foundationalism[2]
Selected bibliography Logicism
See also Predicativism
Notes Indirect realism[3]
References Correspondence
Citations theory of truth[4]
Sources
Utilitarianism
Further reading
Institutions Trinity College,
External links Cambridge, London
School of Economics
Doctoral Ludwig Wittgenstein
Biography students
Main Epistemology · ethics ·
interests
Early life and background logic · mathematics ·
metaphysics · history
Bertrand Arthur William Russell was born on 18 May 1872 at
of philosophy ·
Ravenscroft, Trellech, Monmouthshire, into an influential and
philosophy of
liberal family of the British aristocracy.[79] His parents, Viscount
language · philosophy
and Viscountess Amberley, were radical for their times. Lord
of logic · philosophy of
Amberley consented to his wife's affair with their children's tutor,
mathematics ·
the biologist Douglas Spalding. Both were early advocates of
philosophy of mind ·
birth control at a time when this was considered scandalous.[80]
philosophy of
Lord Amberley was an atheist and his atheism was evident when
perception ·
he asked the philosopher John Stuart Mill to act as Russell's
philosophy of religion ·
secular godfather.[81] Mill died the year after Russell's birth, but
philosophy of science
his writings had a great effect on Russell's life.
Notable
ideas
 His paternal grandfather, the Earl Analytic philosophy
Russell, had been asked twice by Automated reasoning
Queen Victoria to form a
Automated theorem
government, serving her as Prime
proving
Minister in the 1840s and
Axiom of reducibility
1860s.[82] The Russells had been
prominent in England for several Barber paradox
centuries before this, coming to Berry paradox
power and the peerage with the Chicken
rise of the Tudor dynasty (see:
Connective
Duke of Bedford). They
Criticism of the
established themselves as one of
coherence theory of
the leading British Whig families,
truth
and participated in every great
Russell as a four-year-old Criticism of the
political event from the
Dissolution of the Monasteries in doctrine of internal
1536–1540 to the Glorious Revolution in 1688–1689 and the relations/logical holism
Great Reform Act in 1832.[82][83] Definite description
Descriptivist theory of
Lady Amberley was the daughter of Lord and Lady Stanley of
names
Alderley.[76] Russell often feared the ridicule of his maternal
Direct reference
grandmother,[84] one of the campaigners for education of
theory[5]
women.[85]
Double negation
Epistemic structural
Childhood and adolescence realism[6]
Russell had two siblings: brother Frank (nearly seven years older Existential fallacy
than Bertrand), and sister Rachel (four years older). In June 1874
Failure of reference
Russell's mother died of diphtheria, followed shortly by Rachel's
Knowledge by
death. In January 1876, his father died of bronchitis following a
acquaintance and
long period of depression. Frank and Bertrand were placed in the
knowledge by
care of their staunchly Victorian paternal grandparents, who lived
description
at Pembroke Lodge in Richmond Park. His grandfather, former
Prime Minister Earl Russell, died in 1878, and was remembered Logical atomism
by Russell as a kindly old man in a wheelchair. His grandmother, Logical form
the Countess Russell (née Lady Frances Elliot), was the dominant Logical relation
family figure for the rest of Russell's childhood and youth.[76][80] Mathematical beauty

The countess was from a Scottish Presbyterian family, and Mathematical logic
successfully petitioned the Court of Chancery to set aside a Meaning
provision in Amberley's will requiring the children to be raised as Metamathematics
agnostics. Despite her religious conservatism, she held Philosophical logic
progressive views in other areas (accepting Darwinism and
Predicativism
supporting Irish Home Rule), and her influence on Bertrand
Russell's outlook on social justice and standing up for principle Propositional analysis
remained with him throughout his life. (One could challenge the Propositional calculus
view that Bertrand stood up for his principles, based on his own Naive set theory
well-known quotation: "I would never die for my beliefs because
I might be wrong".) Her favourite Bible verse, "Thou shalt not Neutral monism
follow a multitude to do evil" (Exodus 23:2), became his motto. Paradoxes of set
The atmosphere at Pembroke Lodge was one of frequent prayer, theory
emotional repression, and formality; Frank reacted to this with
Peano–Russell
open rebellion, but the young Bertrand learned to hide his
notation
feelings.
Propositional formula
Russell's adolescence was very lonely, and he often contemplated Self-refuting idea
suicide. He remarked in his autobiography that his keenest Quantification
interests were in religion and mathematics, and that only his wish
Round square copula
to know more mathematics kept him from suicide.[86] He was
Russell's conjugation
educated at home by a series of tutors.[87] When Russell was
Russell-style
eleven years old, his brother Frank introduced him to the work of
universes
Euclid, which he described in his autobiography as "one of the
great events of my life, as dazzling as first love."[88][89] Russellian change
Russell's paradox
During these formative years he also discovered the works of
Russellian
Percy Bysshe Shelley. Russell wrote: "I spent all my spare time
propositions
reading him, and learning him by heart, knowing no one to whom
Russell's teapot
I could speak of what I thought or felt, I used to reflect how
wonderful it would have been to know Shelley, and to wonder Russell's theory of
whether I should meet any live human being with whom I should causal lines[7]
feel so much sympathy".[90] Russell claimed that beginning at Set-theoretic definition
age 15, he spent considerable time thinking about the validity of of natural numbers
Christian religious dogma, which he found very unconvincing.[91] Singleton
At this age, he came to the conclusion that there is no free will Theory of descriptions
and, two years later, that there is no life after death. Finally, at the
Type theory/ramified
age of 18, after reading Mill's Autobiography, he abandoned the
type theory
"First Cause" argument and became an atheist.[92][93]
Tensor product of
He traveled to the continent in 1890 with an American friend, graphs
Edward FitzGerald, and with FitzGerald's family he visited the Unity of the
Paris Exhibition of 1889 and was able to climb the Eiffel Tower proposition
soon after it was completed.[94]
Influences
Euclid · Mill · Peano · Boole[8] · De
University and first marriage Morgan[9] · Frege · Cantor ·
Russell won a scholarship to read for the Mathematical Tripos at Santayana · Kant[10] · Meinong ·
Trinity College, Cambridge, and commenced his studies there in Spinoza · James · Mach[11] ·
1890,[95] taking as coach Robert Rumsey Webb. He became Hume[12] · Leibniz · Wittgenstein ·
acquainted with the younger George Edward Moore and came Whitehead · Moore · Stout · Ward[13]
under the influence of Alfred North Whitehead, who · Sidgwick[14] · Shelley
recommended him to the Cambridge Apostles. He quickly Influenced
distinguished himself in mathematics and philosophy, graduating Ludwig Wittgenstein · A. J. Ayer ·
as seventh Wrangler in the former in 1893 and becoming a Rudolf Carnap[15] · John von
Fellow in the latter in 1895.[96][97] Neumann[16] · Kurt Gödel[17] · Karl
Popper[18] · W. V. Quine[19] · Noam
Chomsky[20] · Hilary Putnam[21] ·
Russell was 17 years old in the summer of 1889 when he met the Saul Kripke[22] · Moritz Schlick[23] ·
family of Alys Pearsall Smith, an American Quaker five years Vienna Circle[24] · J. L. Austin · G. H.
older, who was a graduate of Bryn Mawr College near Hardy[25] · Alfred Tarski[26] · Norbert
Philadelphia.[98][99] He became a friend of the Pearsall Smith Wiener[27] · Robert Oppenheimer[28]
family – they knew him primarily as "Lord John's grandson" and · Leon Chwistek[29] · Alan Turing[30] ·
enjoyed showing him off.[100] Jacob Bronowski[31] · Frank P.
Ramsey[32] · Jawaharlal Nehru[33] ·
He soon fell in love with the puritanical, high-minded Alys, and, Tariq Ali[34] · Michael Albert[35] · Che
contrary to his grandmother's wishes, married her on 13 Guevara[36] · Bernard Williams ·
December 1894. Their marriage began to fall apart in 1901 when Donald Davidson[37] · Thomas
it occurred to Russell, while he was cycling, that he no longer Kuhn[38] · Nathan Salmon[39] ·
loved her.[101] She asked him if he loved her and he replied that Christopher Hitchens[40] · Richard
he did not. Russell also disliked Alys's mother, finding her Dawkins[41] · Carl Sagan[42] · Isaiah
controlling and cruel. It was to be a hollow shell of a marriage. A Berlin[43] · Albert Ellis[44] · Martin
lengthy period of separation began in 1911 with Russell's affair Gardner[45] · Daniel Dennett[46] ·
with Lady Ottoline Morrell,[102] and he and Alys finally divorced Buckminster Fuller[47] · Pervez
in 1921 to enable Russell to remarry.[103] Hoodbhoy[48] · John Maynard
Keynes[49] · Isaac Asimov[50] · Paul
During his years of separation from Alys, Russell had passionate
Kurtz[51] · Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn ·
(and often simultaneous) affairs with a number of women,
James Joyce[52] · Kurt Vonnegut[53] ·
including Morrell and the actress Lady Constance Malleson.[104]
Ray Kurzweil[54] · Marvin Minsky[55] ·
Some have suggested that at this point he had an affair with
Herbert A. Simon[56] · B. F.
Vivienne Haigh-Wood, the English governess and writer, and first
Skinner[57] · John Searle[58] · Andrei
wife of T. S. Eliot.[105]
Sakharov[59] · Stephen Hawking[60] ·
Joseph Rotblat[61] · Edward Said[62]
Early career · Sidney Hook · Frank Wilczek[63] ·
A. C. Grayling · Colin McGinn ·
Russell began his published work in 1896 with German Social
Txillardegi[64]
Democracy, a study in politics that was an early indication of a
lifelong interest in political and social theory. In 1896 he taught Signature
German social democracy at the London School of
Economics.[106] He was a member of the Coefficients dining club
of social reformers set up in 1902 by the Fabian campaigners
Sidney and Beatrice Webb.[107]

He now started an intensive study of the foundations of

mathematics at Trinity. In 1898 he wrote An Essay on the
Foundations of Geometry which discussed the Cayley–Klein
metrics used for non-Euclidean geometry.[108] He attended the
International Congress of Philosophy in Paris in 1900 where he
met Giuseppe Peano and Alessandro Padoa. The Italians had
Childhood home, Pembroke Lodge
responded to Georg Cantor, making a science of set theory; they
gave Russell their literature including the Formulario
mathematico. Russell was impressed by the precision of Peano's arguments at the Congress, read the
literature upon returning to England, and came upon Russell's paradox. In 1903 he published The
Principles of Mathematics, a work on foundations of mathematics. It advanced a thesis of logicism, that
mathematics and logic are one and the same.[109]
 At the age of 29, in February
1901, Russell underwent what he
called a "sort of mystic
illumination", after witnessing
Whitehead's wife's acute
suffering in an angina attack. "I
found myself filled with semi-
mystical feelings about beauty ...
and with a desire almost as
profound as that of the Buddha to
find some philosophy which
Russell in 1907 should make human life
endurable", Russell would later
recall. "At the end of those five
minutes, I had become a completely different person."[110]
Russell at Trinity College in 1893
In 1905 he wrote the essay "On Denoting", which was published
in the philosophical journal Mind. Russell was elected a Fellow
of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1908.[65][76] The three-volume Principia Mathematica, written with
Whitehead, was published between 1910 and 1913. This, along with the earlier The Principles of
Mathematics, soon made Russell world-famous in his field.

In 1910 he became a University of Cambridge lecturer at Trinity College where he studied. He was
considered for a Fellowship, which would give him a vote in the college government and protect him
from being fired for his opinions, but was passed over because he was "anti-clerical", essentially because
he was agnostic. He was approached by the Austrian engineering student Ludwig Wittgenstein, who
became his PhD student. Russell viewed Wittgenstein as a genius and a successor who would continue
his work on logic. He spent hours dealing with Wittgenstein's various phobias and his frequent bouts of
despair. This was often a drain on Russell's energy, but Russell continued to be fascinated by him and
encouraged his academic development, including the publication of Wittgenstein's Tractatus Logico-
Philosophicus in 1922.[111] Russell delivered his lectures on Logical Atomism, his version of these ideas,
in 1918, before the end of World War I. Wittgenstein was, at that time, serving in the Austrian Army and
subsequently spent nine months in an Italian prisoner of war camp at the end of the conflict.

First World War

During World War I, Russell was one of the few people to engage in active pacifist activities. In 1916,
because of his lack of a Fellowship, he was dismissed from Trinity College following his conviction
under the Defence of the Realm Act 1914.[112] He later described this as an illegitimate means the state
used to violate freedom of expression, in Free Thought and Official Propaganda. Russell played a
significant part in the Leeds Convention in June 1917, a historic event which saw well over a thousand
"anti-war socialists" gather; many being delegates from the Independent Labour Party and the Socialist
Party, united in their pacifist beliefs and advocating a peace settlement.[113] The international press
reported that Russell appeared with a number of Labour MPs, including Ramsay MacDonald and Philip
Snowden, as well as former Liberal MP and anti-conscription campaigner, Professor Arnold Lupton.
After the event, Russell told Lady Ottoline Morrell that, "to my surprise, when I got up to speak, I was
given the greatest ovation that was possible to give anybody".[114][115]
The Trinity incident resulted in Russell being fined £100, which he refused to pay in hope that he would
be sent to prison, but his books were sold at auction to raise the money. The books were bought by
friends; he later treasured his copy of the King James Bible that was stamped "Confiscated by Cambridge
Police".

A later conviction for publicly lecturing against inviting the United States to enter the war on the United
Kingdom's side resulted in six months' imprisonment in Brixton prison (see Bertrand Russell's views on
society) in 1918.[116] He later said of his imprisonment:

I found prison in many ways quite agreeable. I had no engagements, no difficult decisions to
make, no fear of callers, no interruptions to my work. I read enormously; I wrote a book,
"Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy"... and began the work for "Analysis of
Mind"[117]

Russell was reinstated to Trinity in 1919, resigned in 1920, was Tarner Lecturer 1926 and became a
Fellow again in 1944 until 1949.[118]

In 1924, Bertrand again gained press attention when attending a "banquet" in the House of Commons
with well-known campaigners, including Arnold Lupton, who had been a Member of Parliament and had
also endured imprisonment for "passive resistance to military or naval service".[119]

G. H. Hardy on the Trinity controversy and Russell's personal life

In 1941, G. H. Hardy wrote a 61-page pamphlet titled Bertrand Russell and Trinity – published later as a
book by Cambridge University Press with a foreword by C. D. Broad – in which he gave an authoritative
account about Russell's 1916 dismissal from Trinity College, explaining that a reconciliation between the
college and Russell had later taken place and gave details about Russell's personal life. Hardy writes that
Russell's dismissal had created a scandal since the vast majority of the Fellows of the College opposed
the decision. The ensuing pressure from the Fellows induced the Council to reinstate Russell. In January
1920, it was announced that Russell had accepted the reinstatement offer from Trinity and would begin
lecturing from October. In July 1920, Russell applied for a one year leave of absence; this was approved.
He spent the year giving lectures in China and Japan. In January 1921, it was announced by Trinity that
Russell had resigned and his resignation had been accepted. This resignation, Hardy explains, was
completely voluntary and was not the result of another altercation.

The reason for the resignation, according to Hardy, was that Russell was going through a tumultuous
time in his personal life with a divorce and subsequent remarriage. Russell contemplated asking Trinity
for another one-year leave of absence but decided against it, since this would have been an "unusual
application" and the situation had the potential to snowball into another controversy. Although Russell
did the right thing, in Hardy's opinion, the reputation of the College suffered due to Russell's resignation
since the ‘world of learning’ knew about Russell's altercation with Trinity but not that the rift had healed.
In 1925, Russell was asked by the Council of Trinity College to give the Tarner Lectures on the
Philosophy of the Sciences; these would later be the basis for one of Russell's best received books
according to Hardy: The Analysis of Matter, published in 1927.[120] In the preface to the Trinity
pamphlet, Hardy wrote:
 I wish to make it plain that Russell himself is not responsible, directly or indirectly, for the
writing of the pamphlet ... I wrote it without his knowledge and, when I sent him the
typescript and asked for his permission to print it, I suggested that, unless it contained
misstatement of fact, he should make no comment on it. He agreed to this ... no word has
been changed as the result of any suggestion from him.

Between the wars

In August 1920, Russell travelled to Soviet Russia as part of an official delegation sent by the British
government to investigate the effects of the Russian Revolution.[121] He wrote a four-part series of
articles, titled "Soviet Russia—1920", for the US magazine The Nation.[122][123] He met Vladimir Lenin
and had an hour-long conversation with him. In his autobiography, he mentions that he found Lenin
disappointing, sensing an "impish cruelty" in him and comparing him to "an opinionated professor". He
cruised down the Volga on a steamship. His experiences destroyed his previous tentative support for the
revolution. He subsequently wrote a book, The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism,[124] about his
experiences on this trip, taken with a group of 24 others from the UK, all of whom came home thinking
well of the Soviet regime, despite Russell's attempts to change their minds. For example, he told them
that he had heard shots fired in the middle of the night and was sure that these were clandestine
executions, but the others maintained that it was only cars backfiring.

Russell's lover Dora Black, a British author, feminist and socialist

campaigner, visited Soviet Russia independently at the same
time; in contrast to his reaction, she was enthusiastic about the
Bolshevik revolution.[124]

The following autumn, Russell, accompanied by Dora, visited

Peking (as it was then known in the West) to lecture on
philosophy for a year.[87] He went with optimism and hope,
seeing China as then being on a new path.[125] Other scholars
present in China at the time included John Dewey[126] and
Rabindranath Tagore, the Indian Nobel-laureate poet.[87] Before
leaving China, Russell became gravely ill with pneumonia, and
Russell with his children, John and incorrect reports of his death were published in the Japanese
Kate press.[126] When the couple visited Japan on their return journey,
Dora took on the role of spurning the local press by handing out
notices reading "Mr. Bertrand Russell, having died according to
the Japanese press, is unable to give interviews to Japanese journalists".[127][128] Apparently they found
this harsh and reacted resentfully.

Dora was six months pregnant when the couple returned to England on 26 August 1921. Russell arranged
a hasty divorce from Alys, marrying Dora six days after the divorce was finalised, on 27 September
1921. Russell's children with Dora were John Conrad Russell, 4th Earl Russell, born on 16 November
1921, and Katharine Jane Russell (now Lady Katharine Tait), born on 29 December 1923. Russell
supported his family during this time by writing popular books explaining matters of physics, ethics, and
education to the layman.
From 1922 to 1927 the Russells divided their time between London and Cornwall, spending summers in
Porthcurno.[129] In the 1922 and 1923 general elections Russell stood as a Labour Party candidate in the
Chelsea constituency, but only on the basis that he knew he was extremely unlikely to be elected in such
a safe Conservative seat, and he was unsuccessful on both occasions.

Together with Dora, Russell founded the experimental Beacon Hill School in 1927. The school was run
from a succession of different locations, including its original premises at the Russells' residence,
Telegraph House, near Harting, West Sussex. On 8 July 1930 Dora gave birth to her third child Harriet
Ruth. After he left the school in 1932, Dora continued it until 1943.[130][131]

On a tour through the US in 1927, Russell met Barry Fox (later Barry Stevens), who became a well-
known Gestalt therapist and writer in later years.[132] Russell and Fox developed an intensive
relationship. In Fox's words: "... for three years we were very close."[133] Fox sent her daughter Judith to
Beacon Hill School for some time.[134] From 1927 to 1932 Russell wrote 34 letters to Fox.[135]

Upon the death of his elder brother Frank, in 1931, Russell became the 3rd Earl Russell.

Russell's marriage to Dora grew increasingly tenuous, and it reached a breaking point over her having
two children with an American journalist, Griffin Barry.[131] They separated in 1932 and finally
divorced. On 18 January 1936, Russell married his third wife, an Oxford undergraduate named Patricia
("Peter") Spence, who had been his children's governess since 1930. Russell and Peter had one son,
Conrad Sebastian Robert Russell, 5th Earl Russell, who became a prominent historian and one of the
leading figures in the Liberal Democrat party.[76]

Russell returned to the London School of Economics to lecture on the science of power in 1937.[106]

During the 1930s, Russell became a close friend and collaborator of V. K. Krishna Menon, then secretary
of the India League, the foremost lobby in the United Kingdom for Indian self-rule.

Second World War

Russell opposed rearmament against Nazi Germany. In 1937 he wrote in a personal letter: "If the
Germans succeed in sending an invading army to England we should do best to treat them as visitors,
give them quarters and invite the commander and chief to dine with the prime minister."[136] In 1940, he
changed his view that avoiding a full-scale world war was more important than defeating Hitler. He
concluded that Adolf Hitler taking over all of Europe would be a permanent threat to democracy. In
1943, he adopted a stance toward large-scale warfare: "War was always a great evil, but in some
particularly extreme circumstances, it may be the lesser of two evils."[137][138]

Before World War II, Russell taught at the University of Chicago, later moving on to Los Angeles to
lecture at the UCLA Department of Philosophy.[139] He was appointed professor at the City College of
New York (CCNY) in 1940, but after a public outcry the appointment was annulled by a court judgment
that pronounced him "morally unfit" to teach at the college due to his opinions, especially those relating
to sexual morality, detailed in Marriage and Morals (1929). The matter was however taken to the New
York Supreme Court by Jean Kay who was afraid that her daughter would be harmed by the appointment,
though her daughter was not a student at CCNY.[139][140] Many intellectuals, led by John Dewey,
protested at his treatment.[141] Albert Einstein's oft-quoted aphorism that "great spirits have always
encountered violent opposition from mediocre minds" originated in his open letter, dated 19 March 1940,
to Morris Raphael Cohen, a professor emeritus at CCNY, supporting Russell's appointment.[142] Dewey
and Horace M. Kallen edited a collection of articles on the CCNY affair in The Bertrand Russell Case.
Russell soon joined the Barnes Foundation, lecturing to a varied audience on the history of philosophy;
these lectures formed the basis of A History of Western Philosophy. His relationship with the eccentric
Albert C. Barnes soon soured, and he returned to the UK in 1944 to rejoin the faculty of Trinity
College.[143]

Later life
Russell participated in many broadcasts over the BBC,
particularly The Brains Trust and the Third Programme, on
various topical and philosophical subjects. By this time Russell
was world-famous outside academic circles, frequently the
subject or author of magazine and newspaper articles, and was
called upon to offer opinions on a wide variety of subjects, even
mundane ones. En route to one of his lectures in Trondheim,
Russell was one of 24 survivors (among a total of 43 passengers)
of an aeroplane crash in Hommelvik in October 1948. He said he
owed his life to smoking since the people who drowned were in
the non-smoking part of the plane.[144][145] A History of Western
Philosophy (1945) became a best-seller and provided Russell
with a steady income for the remainder of his life.

In 1942 Russell argued in favour of a moderate socialism, Russell in 1954

capable of overcoming its metaphysical principles, in an inquiry
on dialectical materialism, launched by the Austrian artist and
philosopher Wolfgang Paalen in his journal DYN, saying "I think the metaphysics of both Hegel and
Marx plain nonsense – Marx's claim to be 'science' is no more justified than Mary Baker Eddy's. This
does not mean that I am opposed to socialism."[146]

In 1943, Russell expressed support for Zionism: "I have come gradually to see that, in a dangerous and
largely hostile world, it is essential to Jews to have some country which is theirs, some region where they
are not suspected aliens, some state which embodies what is distinctive in their culture".[147]

In a speech in 1948, Russell said that if the USSR's aggression continued, it would be morally worse to
go to war after the USSR possessed an atomic bomb than before it possessed one, because if the USSR
had no bomb the West's victory would come more swiftly and with fewer casualties than if there were
atom bombs on both sides.[148][149] At that time, only the United States possessed an atomic bomb, and
the USSR was pursuing an extremely aggressive policy towards the countries in Eastern Europe which
were being absorbed into the Soviet Union's sphere of influence. Many understood Russell's comments to
mean that Russell approved of a first strike in a war with the USSR, including Nigel Lawson, who was
present when Russell spoke of such matters. Others, including Griffin, who obtained a transcript of the
speech, have argued that he was merely explaining the usefulness of America's atomic arsenal in
deterring the USSR from continuing its domination of Eastern Europe.[144] However, just after the
atomic bombs exploded over Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Russell wrote letters, and published articles in
newspapers from 1945 to 1948, stating clearly that it was morally justified and better to go to war against
the USSR using atomic bombs while the United States possessed them and before the USSR did. In
September 1949, one week after the USSR tested its first A-bomb, but before this became known,
Russell wrote that USSR would be unable to develop nuclear weapons because following Stalin's purges
only science based on Marxist principles would be practiced in the Soviet Union.[150] After it became
known that the USSR carried out its nuclear bomb tests, Russell declared his position advocating for the
total abolition of atomic weapons.[151]

In 1948, Russell was invited by the BBC to deliver the inaugural Reith Lectures[152]—what was to
become an annual series of lectures, still broadcast by the BBC. His series of six broadcasts, titled
Authority and the Individual,[153] explored themes such as the role of individual initiative in the
development of a community and the role of state control in a progressive society. Russell continued to
write about philosophy. He wrote a foreword to Words and Things by Ernest Gellner, which was highly
critical of the later thought of Ludwig Wittgenstein and of ordinary language philosophy. Gilbert Ryle
refused to have the book reviewed in the philosophical journal Mind, which caused Russell to respond
via The Times. The result was a month-long correspondence in The Times between the supporters and
detractors of ordinary language philosophy, which was only ended when the paper published an editorial
critical of both sides but agreeing with the opponents of ordinary language philosophy.[154]

In the King's Birthday Honours of 9 June 1949, Russell was awarded the Order of Merit,[155] and the
following year he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature.[76][87] When he was given the Order of
Merit, George VI was affable but slightly embarrassed at decorating a former jailbird, saying, "You have
sometimes behaved in a manner that would not do if generally adopted".[156] Russell merely smiled, but
afterwards claimed that the reply "That's right, just like your brother" immediately came to mind.

In 1950, Russell attended the inaugural conference for the Congress for Cultural Freedom, a C.I.A.-
funded anti-communist organization committed to the deployment of culture as a weapon during the Cold
War.[157] Russell was one of the best known patrons of the Congress, until he resigned in 1956[158]

In 1952 Russell was divorced by Spence, with whom he had been very unhappy. Conrad, Russell's son by
Spence, did not see his father between the time of the divorce and 1968 (at which time his decision to
meet his father caused a permanent breach with his mother). Russell married his fourth wife, Edith Finch,
soon after the divorce, on 15 December 1952. They had known each other since 1925, and Edith had
taught English at Bryn Mawr College near Philadelphia, sharing a house for 20 years with Russell's old
friend Lucy Donnelly. Edith remained with him until his death, and, by all accounts, their marriage was a
happy, close, and loving one. Russell's eldest son John suffered from serious mental illness, which was
the source of ongoing disputes between Russell and his former wife Dora.

In September 1961, at the age of 89, Russell was jailed for seven days in Brixton Prison for "breach of
peace" after taking part in an anti-nuclear demonstration in London. The magistrate offered to exempt
him from jail if he pledged himself to "good behaviour", to which Russell replied: "No, I won't."[159][160]

In 1962 Russell played a public role in the Cuban Missile Crisis: in an exchange of telegrams with Soviet
leader Nikita Khrushchev, Khrushchev assured him that the Soviet government would not be
reckless.[161][162] Russell sent this telegram to President Kennedy:

YOUR ACTION DESPERATE. THREAT TO HUMAN SURVIVAL. NO CONCEIVABLE

JUSTIFICATION. CIVILIZED MAN CONDEMNS IT. WE WILL NOT HAVE MASS
MURDER. ULTIMATUM MEANS WAR... END THIS MADNESS.[163]
 According to historian Peter Knight, after JFK's assassination,
Russell, "prompted by the emerging work of the lawyer Mark
Lane in the US ... rallied support from other noteworthy and left-
leaning compatriots to form a Who Killed Kennedy Committee in
June 1964, members of which included Michael Foot MP,
Caroline Benn, the publisher Victor Gollancz, the writers John
Arden and J. B. Priestley, and the Oxford history professor Hugh
Trevor-Roper." Russell published a highly critical article weeks
before the Warren Commission Report was published, setting
forth 16 Questions on the Assassination and equating the Oswald
case with the Dreyfus affair of late 19th-century France, in which
the state wrongly convicted an innocent man. Russell also
criticised the American press for failing to heed any voices
critical of the official version.[164]
Russell in the 1950s

Political causes
Bertrand Russell was opposed to war from early on, his
opposition to World War I being used as grounds for his dismissal
from Trinity College at Cambridge. This incident fused two of his
most controversial causes, as he had failed to be granted Fellow
status, which would have protected him from firing, because he
was not willing to either pretend to be a devout Christian, or at
least avoid admitting he was agnostic.

Russell (centre) alongside his wife He later described the resolution of these issues as essential to
Edith, leading a CND anti-nuclear
freedom of thought and expression, citing the incident in Free
march in London, 18 February 1961
Thought and Official Propaganda, where he explained that the
expression of any idea, even the most obviously "bad", must be
protected not only from direct State intervention, but also economic leveraging and other means of being
silenced:

The opinions which are still persecuted strike the majority as so monstrous and immoral that
the general principle of toleration cannot be held to apply to them.

But this is exactly the same view as that which made possible the tortures of the
Inquisition.[165]

Russell spent the 1950s and 1960s engaged in political causes primarily related to nuclear disarmament
and opposing the Vietnam War. The 1955 Russell–Einstein Manifesto was a document calling for nuclear
disarmament and was signed by eleven of the most prominent nuclear physicists and intellectuals of the
time.[166] In 1966–1967, Russell worked with Jean-Paul Sartre and many other intellectual figures to
form the Russell Vietnam War Crimes Tribunal to investigate the conduct of the United States in
Vietnam. He wrote a great many letters to world leaders during this period.

In 1956, immediately before and during the Suez Crisis, Russell expressed his opposition to European
imperialism in the Middle East. He viewed the crisis as another reminder of the pressing need for a more
effective mechanism for international governance, and to restrict national sovereignty to places such as
the Suez Canal area "where general interest is involved". At the same time the Suez Crisis was taking
place, the world was also captivated by the Hungarian Revolution and the subsequent crushing of the
revolt by intervening Soviet forces. Russell attracted criticism for speaking out fervently against the Suez
war while ignoring Soviet repression in Hungary, to which he responded that he did not criticise the
Soviets "because there was no need. Most of the so-called Western World was fulminating". Although he
later feigned a lack of concern, at the time he was disgusted by the brutal Soviet response, and on 16
November 1956, he expressed approval for a declaration of support for Hungarian scholars which
Michael Polanyi had cabled to the Soviet embassy in London twelve days previously, shortly after Soviet
troops had already entered Budapest.[167]

In November 1957 Russell wrote an article addressing US President Dwight D. Eisenhower and Soviet
Premier Nikita Khrushchev, urging a summit to consider "the conditions of co-existence". Khrushchev
responded that peace could indeed be served by such a meeting. In January 1958 Russell elaborated his
views in The Observer, proposing a cessation of all nuclear-weapons production, with the UK taking the
first step by unilaterally suspending its own nuclear-weapons program if necessary, and with Germany
"freed from all alien armed forces and pledged to neutrality in any conflict between East and West". US
Secretary of State John Foster Dulles replied for Eisenhower. The exchange of letters was published as
The Vital Letters of Russell, Khrushchev, and Dulles.[168]

Russell was asked by The New Republic, a liberal American magazine, to elaborate his views on world
peace. He urged that all nuclear-weapons testing and constant flights by planes armed with nuclear
weapons be halted immediately, and negotiations be opened for the destruction of all hydrogen bombs,
with the number of conventional nuclear devices limited to ensure a balance of power. He proposed that
Germany be reunified and accept the Oder-Neisse line as its border, and that a neutral zone be established
in Central Europe, consisting at the minimum of Germany, Poland, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia, with
each of these countries being free of foreign troops and influence, and prohibited from forming alliances
with countries outside the zone. In the Middle East, Russell suggested that the West avoid opposing Arab
nationalism, and proposed the creation of a United Nations peacekeeping force to guard Israel's frontiers
to ensure that Israel was prevented from committing aggression and protected from it. He also suggested
Western recognition of the People's Republic of China, and that it be admitted to the UN with a
permanent seat on the UN Security Council.[168]

He was in contact with Lionel Rogosin while the latter was filming his anti-war film Good Times,
Wonderful Times in the 1960s. He became a hero to many of the youthful members of the New Left. In
early 1963, in particular, Russell became increasingly vocal in his disapproval of the Vietnam War, and
felt that the US government's policies there were near-genocidal. In 1963 he became the inaugural
recipient of the Jerusalem Prize, an award for writers concerned with the freedom of the individual in
society.[169] In 1964 he was one of eleven world figures who issued an appeal to Israel and the Arab
countries to accept an arms embargo and international supervision of nuclear plants and rocket
weaponry.[170] In October 1965 he tore up his Labour Party card because he suspected Harold Wilson's
Labour government was going to send troops to support the United States in Vietnam.[76]

Final years, death and legacy

In June 1955 Russell had leased Plas Penrhyn in Penrhyndeudraeth, Merionethshire, Wales and on 5 July
of the following year it became his and Edith's principal residence.[171]
Russell published his three-volume autobiography in 1967, 1968,
and 1969. Russell made a cameo appearance playing himself in
the anti-war Hindi film Aman, by Mohan Kumar, which was
released in India in 1967. This was Russell's only appearance in a
feature film.[172]

On 23 November 1969 he wrote to The Times newspaper saying

that the preparation for show trials in Czechoslovakia was
"highly alarming". The same month, he appealed to Secretary
General U Thant of the United Nations to support an international
war crimes commission to investigate alleged torture and
genocide by the United States in South Vietnam during the
Vietnam War. The following month, he protested to Alexei
Kosygin over the expulsion of Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn from the Russell on a 1972 stamp of India
Soviet Union of Writers.

On 31 January 1970 Russell issued a statement condemning

"Israel's aggression in the Middle East", and in particular, Israeli
bombing raids being carried out deep in Egyptian territory as part
of the War of Attrition. He called for an Israeli withdrawal to the
pre-Six-Day War borders. This was Russell's final political
statement or act. It was read out at the International Conference
of Parliamentarians in Cairo on 3 February 1970, the day after his
death.[173]

Russell died of influenza on 2 February 1970 at his home in

Penrhyndeudraeth. His body was cremated in Colwyn Bay on 5
Bust of Russell in Red Lion Square
February 1970. In accordance with his will, there was no
religious ceremony; his ashes were scattered over the Welsh
mountains later that year. He left an estate valued at £69,423 (£1.09 million or US$1.4 million in 2018
money).[174] In 1980 a memorial to Russell was commissioned by a committee including the philosopher
A. J. Ayer. It consists of a bust of Russell in Red Lion Square in London sculpted by Marcelle
Quinton.[175]

Lady Katharine Jane Tait, Russell's daughter, founded the Bertrand Russell Society in 1974 to preserve
and understand his work. It publishes a newsletter, holds meetings and awards prizes for scholarship.[176]
She also authored several essays about her father; as well as a book, My Father, Bertrand Russell, which
was published in 1975.[177]

Titles and honours from birth

Russell held throughout his life the following styles and honours:

from birth until 1908: The Honourable Bertrand Arthur William Russell
from 1908 until 1931: The Honourable Bertrand Arthur William Russell, FRS
from 1931 until 1949: The Right Honourable The Earl Russell, FRS
from 1949 until death: The Right Honourable The Earl Russell, OM, FRS
Views

Philosophy
Russell is generally credited with being one of the founders of analytic philosophy. He was deeply
impressed by Gottfried Leibniz (1646–1716), and wrote on every major area of philosophy except
aesthetics. He was particularly prolific in the field of metaphysics, logic and the philosophy of
mathematics, the philosophy of language, ethics and epistemology. When Brand Blanshard asked Russell
why he did not write on aesthetics, Russell replied that he did not know anything about it, though he
hastened to add "but that is not a very good excuse, for my friends tell me it has not deterred me from
writing on other subjects".[178]

On ethics, Russell considered himself a utilitarian.[179]

For the advancement of science and protection of the right to freedom of expression, Russell advocated
The Will to Doubt, the recognition that all human knowledge is at most a best guess, that one should
always remember:

None of our beliefs are quite true; all have at least a penumbra of vagueness and error. The
methods of increasing the degree of truth in our beliefs are well known; they consist in
hearing all sides, trying to ascertain all the relevant facts, controlling our own bias by
discussion with people who have the opposite bias, and cultivating a readiness to discard any
hypothesis which has proved inadequate. These methods are practised in science, and have
built up the body of scientific knowledge.

Every man of science whose outlook is truly scientific is ready to admit that what passes for
scientific knowledge at the moment is sure to require correction with the progress of
discovery; nevertheless, it is near enough to the truth to serve for most practical purposes,
though not for all. In science, where alone something approximating to genuine knowledge
is to be found, men’s attitude is tentative and full of doubt.

Religion
Russell described himself in 1947 as an agnostic, saying: "Therefore, in regard to the Olympic gods,
speaking to a purely philosophical audience, I would say that I am an Agnostic. But speaking popularly, I
think that all of us would say in regard to those gods that we were Atheists. In regard to the Christian
God, I should, I think, take exactly the same line."[180] For most of his adult life, Russell maintained
religion to be little more than superstition and, despite any positive effects, largely harmful to people. He
believed that religion and the religious outlook serve to impede knowledge and foster fear and
dependency, and to be responsible for much of our world's wars, oppression, and misery. He was a
member of the Advisory Council of the British Humanist Association and President of Cardiff Humanists
until his death.[181]

Society
Political and social activism occupied much of Russell's time for most of his life. Russell remained
politically active almost to the end of his life, writing to and exhorting world leaders and lending his
name to various causes.

Russell argued for a "scientific society", where war would be abolished, population growth would be
limited, and prosperity would be shared.[182] He suggested the establishment of a "single supreme world
government" able to enforce peace,[183] claiming that "the only thing that will redeem mankind is co-
operation".[184]

Russell was an active supporter of the Homosexual Law Reform Society, being one of the signatories of
A. E. Dyson's 1958 letter to The Times calling for a change in the law regarding male homosexual
practices, which were partly legalised in 1967, when Russell was still alive.[185]

In "Reflections on My Eightieth Birthday" ("Postscript" in his Autobiography), Russell wrote: "I have
lived in the pursuit of a vision, both personal and social. Personal: to care for what is noble, for what is
beautiful, for what is gentle; to allow moments of insight to give wisdom at more mundane times. Social:
to see in imagination the society that is to be created, where individuals grow freely, and where hate and
greed and envy die because there is nothing to nourish them. These things I believe, and the world, for all
its horrors, has left me unshaken".[186]

Selected bibliography
Below is a selected bibliography of Russell's books in English, sorted by year of first publication:

1896. German Social Democracy. London: Longmans, Green.

1897. An Essay on the Foundations of Geometry.[187] Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
1900. A Critical Exposition of the Philosophy of Leibniz. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
1903. The Principles of Mathematics.[188] Cambridge University Press.
1903. A Free man's worship, and other essays.[189]
1905. "On Denoting", Mind, Vol. 14. ISSN 0026-4423 (https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x
0:jrnl&q=n2:0026-4423). Basil Blackwell.
1910. Philosophical Essays. London: Longmans, Green.
1910–1913. Principia Mathematica[190] (with Alfred North Whitehead). 3 vols. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
1912. The Problems of Philosophy.[191] London: Williams and Norgate.
1914. Our Knowledge of the External World as a Field for Scientific Method in
Philosophy.[192] Chicago and London: Open Court Publishing.
1916. Principles of Social Reconstruction.[193] London, George Allen and Unwin.
1916. Why Men Fight. New York: The Century Co.
1916. The Policy of the Entente, 1904–1914 : a reply to Professor Gilbert Murray.[194]
Manchester: The National Labour Press
1916. Justice in War-time. Chicago: Open Court.
1917. Political Ideals.[195] New York: The Century Co.
1918. Mysticism and Logic and Other Essays. London: George Allen & Unwin.
1918. Proposed Roads to Freedom: Socialism, Anarchism, and Syndicalism.[196] London:
George Allen & Unwin.
1919. Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy.[197][198] London: George Allen & Unwin.
(ISBN 0-415-09604-9 for Routledge paperback)[199]
1920. The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism.[200] London: George Allen & Unwin.
1921. The Analysis of Mind.[201] London: George Allen & Unwin.
1922. The Problem of China.[202] London: George Allen & Unwin.
1922. Free Thought and Official Propaganda, delivered at South Place Institute[165]
1923. The Prospects of Industrial Civilization, in collaboration with Dora Russell. London:
George Allen & Unwin.
1923. The ABC of Atoms, London: Kegan Paul. Trench, Trubner.
1923. Human Knowledge: Its Scope and Limits. London: George Allen & Unwin.
1924. Icarus; or, The Future of Science. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.
1925. The ABC of Relativity. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.
1925. What I Believe. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.
1926. On Education, Especially in Early Childhood. London: George Allen & Unwin.
1927. The Analysis of Matter. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.
1927. An Outline of Philosophy. London: George Allen & Unwin.
1927. Why I Am Not a Christian.[203] London: Watts.
1927. Selected Papers of Bertrand Russell. New York: Modern Library.
1928. Sceptical Essays. London: George Allen & Unwin.
1929. Marriage and Morals. London: George Allen & Unwin.
1930. The Conquest of Happiness. London: George Allen & Unwin.
1931. The Scientific Outlook,[204] London: George Allen & Unwin.
1932. Education and the Social Order,[205] London: George Allen & Unwin.
1934. Freedom and Organization, 1814–1914. London: George Allen & Unwin.
1935. In Praise of Idleness and Other Essays.[206] London: George Allen & Unwin.
1935. Religion and Science. London: Thornton Butterworth.
1936. Which Way to Peace?. London: Jonathan Cape.
1937. The Amberley Papers: The Letters and Diaries of Lord and Lady Amberley, with
Patricia Russell, 2 vols., London: Leonard & Virginia Woolf at the Hogarth Press.
1938. Power: A New Social Analysis. London: George Allen & Unwin.
1940. An Inquiry into Meaning and Truth. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
1945. The Bomb and Civilisation. Published in the Glasgow Forward on August 18, 1945.
1945. A History of Western Philosophy and Its Connection with Political and Social
Circumstances from the Earliest Times to the Present Day[207] New York: Simon and
Schuster.
1949. Authority and the Individual.[208] London: George Allen & Unwin.
1950. Unpopular Essays.[209] London: George Allen & Unwin.
1951. New Hopes for a Changing World. London: George Allen & Unwin.
1952. The Impact of Science on Society. London: George Allen & Unwin.
1953. Satan in the Suburbs and Other Stories. London: George Allen & Unwin.
1954. Human Society in Ethics and Politics. London: George Allen & Unwin.
1954. Nightmares of Eminent Persons and Other Stories.[210] London: George Allen &
Unwin.
1956. Portraits from Memory and Other Essays.[211] London: George Allen & Unwin.
 1956. Logic and Knowledge: Essays 1901–1950, edited by Robert C. Marsh. London:
George Allen & Unwin.
1957. Why I Am Not A Christian and Other Essays on Religion and Related Subjects, edited
by Paul Edwards. London: George Allen & Unwin.
1958. Understanding History and Other Essays. New York: Philosophical Library.
1959. Common Sense and Nuclear Warfare.[212] London: George Allen & Unwin.
1959. My Philosophical Development.[213] London: George Allen & Unwin.
1959. Wisdom of the West: A Historical Survey of Western Philosophy in Its Social and
Political Setting, edited by Paul Foulkes. London: Macdonald.
1960. Bertrand Russell Speaks His Mind, Cleveland and New York: World Publishing
Company.
1961. The Basic Writings of Bertrand Russell, edited by R. E. Egner and L. E. Denonn.
London: George Allen & Unwin.
1961. Fact and Fiction. London: George Allen & Unwin.
1961. Has Man a Future? London: George Allen & Unwin.
1963. Essays in Skepticism. New York: Philosophical Library.
1963. Unarmed Victory. London: George Allen & Unwin.
1965. Legitimacy Versus Industrialism, 1814–1848. London: George Allen & Unwin (first
published as Parts I and II of Freedom and Organization, 1814–1914, 1934).
1965. On the Philosophy of Science, edited by Charles A. Fritz, Jr. Indianapolis: The
Bobbs–Merrill Company.
1966. The ABC of Relativity. London: George Allen & Unwin.
1967. Russell's Peace Appeals, edited by Tsutomu Makino and Kazuteru Hitaka. Japan:
Eichosha's New Current Books.
1967. War Crimes in Vietnam. London: George Allen & Unwin.
1951–1969. The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell,[214] 3 vols., London: George Allen &
Unwin. Vol. 2, 1956[214]
1969. Dear Bertrand Russell... A Selection of his Correspondence with the General Public
1950–1968, edited by Barry Feinberg and Ronald Kasrils. London: George Allen and
Unwin.
Russell was the author of more than sixty books and over two thousand articles.[215][216] Additionally, he
wrote many pamphlets, introductions, and letters to the editor. One pamphlet titled, 'I Appeal unto
Caesar': The Case of the Conscientious Objectors, ghostwritten for Margaret Hobhouse, the mother of
imprisoned peace activist Stephen Hobhouse, allegedly helped secure the release from prison of hundreds
of conscientious objectors.[217]

His works can be found in anthologies and collections, including The Collected Papers of Bertrand
Russell, which McMaster University began publishing in 1983. By March 2017 this collection of his
shorter and previously unpublished works included 18 volumes,[218] and several more are in progress. A
bibliography in three additional volumes catalogues his publications. The Russell Archives held by
McMaster's William Ready Division of Archives and Research Collections possess over 40,000 of his
letters.[219]

See also
Bertrand Russell Peace Foundation
Cambridge University Moral Sciences Club
Criticism of Jesus
 List of peace activists
List of pioneers in computer science

Notes
1. Monmouthshire's Welsh status was ambiguous at this time, and was considered by some to
be part of England. See Monmouthshire (historic)#Ambiguity over status.

References

Citations
1. Irvine, Andrew David (1 January 2015). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Bertrand Russell – The
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2015/entries/ru
ssell/). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University – via Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy.
2. Carlo Cellucci, Rethinking Knowledge: The Heuristic View, Springer, 2017, p. 32.
3. The Problem of Perception (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) (https://plato.stanford.ed
u/entries/perception-episprob/): "Paraphrasing David Hume (1739...; see also Locke 1690,
Berkeley 1710, Russell 1912): nothing is ever directly present to the mind in perception
except perceptual appearances."
4. David, Marian (28 May 2015). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Correspondence theory of truth – The
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth-correspondenc
e/). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 14 May 2019 – via Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
5. Howard Wettstein, "Frege-Russell Semantics?", Dialectica 44(1–2), 1990, pp. 113–135,
esp. 115: "Russell maintains that when one is acquainted with something, say, a present
sense datum or oneself, one can refer to it without the mediation of anything like a Fregean
sense. One can refer to it, as we might say, directly."
6. "Structural Realism" (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/structural-realism/#Rel): entry by
James Ladyman in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
7. Dowe, Phil (10 September 2007). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Causal Processes – The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/causation-process/).
Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University – via Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
8. Ronald Jager (2002). The Development of Bertrand Russell's Philosophy, Volume 11.
Psychology Press. pp. 113–114. ISBN 978-0-415-29545-1.
9. Nicholas Griffin, ed. (2003). The Cambridge Companion to Bertrand Russell. Cambridge
University Press. p. 85. ISBN 978-0-521-63634-6.
10. Russell, pp. 352–353.
11. Roberts, George W. (2013). Bertrand Russell Memorial Volume. Routledge. p. 311.
ISBN 978-1-317-83302-4.
12. Rosalind Carey; John Ongley (2009). Historical Dictionary of Bertrand Russell's Philosophy.
Scarecrow Press. p. 94. ISBN 978-0-8108-6292-0.
13. Basile, Pierfrancesco (14 May 2019). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy (https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2017/entries/james-ward/). Metaphysics
Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 14 May 2019 – via Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy.
14. Schultz, Bart. "Henry Sidgwick" (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/sidgwick/). Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2015.
15. Ilkka Niiniluoto (2003). Thomas Bonk (ed.). Language, Truth and Knowledge: Contributions
to the Philosophy of Rudolf Carnap. Springer. p. 2 (https://archive.org/details/languagetruthk
no0000unse/page/2). ISBN 978-1-4020-1206-8.
16. Wolfgang Händler; Dieter Haupt; Rolf Jelitsch; Wilfried Juling; Otto Lange (1986). CONPAR
1986. Springer. p. 15. ISBN 978-3-540-16811-9.
17. Hao Wang (1990). Reflections on Kurt Gödel. MIT Press. p. 305. ISBN 9780262730877.
18. Phil Parvin (2013). Karl Popper. C. Black. ISBN 978-1-62356-733-0.
19. Roger F. Gibson, ed. (2004). The Cambridge Companion to Quine. Cambridge University
Press. p. 2. ISBN 9780521639491.
20. Robert F. Barsky (1998). Noam Chomsky: A Life of Dissent. MIT Press. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-
262-52255-7.
21. François Cusset (2008). French Theory: How Foucault, Derrida, Deleuze, & Co.
Transformed the Intellectual Life of the United States. University of Minnesota Press. p. 97.
ISBN 978-0-8166-4732-3.
22. Alan Berger, ed. (2011). Saul Kripke. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-50066-
1.
23. Dov M. Gabbay; Paul Thagard; John Woods; Theo A. F. Kuipers (2007). "The Logical
Approach of the Vienna Circle and their Followers from the 1920s to the 1950s". General
Philosophy of Science: Focal Issues: Focal Issues. Elsevier. p. 432. ISBN 978-0-08-
054854-8.
24. Dermot Moran (2012). Husserl's Crisis of the European Sciences and Transcendental
Phenomenology: An Introduction. Cambridge University Press. p. 204.
ISBN 9780521895361.
25. Grattan-Guinness. "Russell and G.H. Hardy: A study of their Relationship" (http://digitalcom
mons.mcmaster.ca/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1352&context=russelljournal). McMaster
University Library Press. Retrieved 3 January 2014.
26. Douglas Patterson (2012). Alfred Tarski: Philosophy of Language and Logic. Palgrave
Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-36722-7.
27. Rosalind Carey; John Ongley (2009). Historical Dictionary of Bertrand Russell's Philosophy.
Scarecrow Press. pp. 15–16. ISBN 978-0-8108-6292-0.
28. Ray Monk (2013). Robert Oppenheimer: A Life Inside the Center. Random House.
ISBN 978-0-385-50413-3.
29. Anita Burdman Feferman; Solomon Feferman (2004). Alfred Tarski: Life and Logic (https://a
rchive.org/details/alfredtarskilife0000fefe). Cambridge University Press. p. 67 (https://archiv
e.org/details/alfredtarskilife0000fefe/page/67). ISBN 978-0-521-80240-6.
30. Andrew Hodges (2012). Alan Turing: The Enigma. Princeton University Press. p. 81.
ISBN 978-0-691-15564-7.
31. Jacob Bronowski (2008). The Origins of Knowledge and Imagination. Yale University Press.
ISBN 978-0-300-15718-5.
32. Nicholas Griffin; Dale Jacquette, eds. (2008). Russell vs. Meinong: The Legacy of "On
Denoting". Taylor & Francis. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-203-88802-5.
33. Sankar Ghose (1993). "V: Europe Revisited". Jawaharlal Nehru, a Biography. Allied
Publishers. p. 46. ISBN 978-81-7023-369-5.
34. "Street-Fighting Years: An Autobiography of the Sixties" (https://web.archive.org/web/20131
209103648/http://tariqali.org/archives/250). Verso. p. 2005. Archived from the original (htt
p://tariqali.org/archives/250) on 9 December 2013. Retrieved 5 January 2014.
35. Michael Albert (2011). Remembering Tomorrow: From SDS to Life After Capitalism: A
Memoir. Seven Stories Press. ISBN 978-1-60980-001-7.
36. Jon Lee Anderson (1997). Che Guevara: A Revolutionary Life (https://archive.org/details/ch
eguevara00jonl). Grove Press. p. 38 (https://archive.org/details/cheguevara00jonl/page/38).
ISBN 978-0-8021-9725-2.
37. Marc Joseph (2004). "1: Introduction: Davidson's Philosophical Project". Donald Davidson.
McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-7735-2781-2.
38. James A. Marcum (2005). "1: Who is Thomas Kuhn?". Thomas Kuhn's Revolution: An
Historical Philosophy of Science. Continuum. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-84714-194-1.
39. Nathan Salmon (2007). "Introduction to Volume II". Content, Cognition, and
Communication : Philosophical Papers II: Philosophical Papers II. Oxford University Press.
p. xi. ISBN 978-0-19-153610-6.
40. Christopher Hitchens, ed. (2007). The Portable Atheist: Essential Readings for the
Nonbeliever. Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0-306-81608-6.
41. Gregory Landini (2010). Russell. Routledge. p. 444. ISBN 978-0-203-84649-0.
42. Carl Sagan (2006). Ann Druyan (ed.). The Varieties of Scientific Experience: A Personal
View of the Search for God. Penguin. ISBN 978-1-59420-107-3.
43. George Crowder (2004). Isaiah Berlin: Liberty, Pluralism and Liberalism. Polity. p. 15.
ISBN 978-0-7456-2477-8.
44. Elsie Jones-Smith (2011). Theories of Counseling and Psychotherapy: An Integrative
Approach: An Integrative Approach. SAGE. p. 142. ISBN 978-1-4129-1004-0.
45. "Interview with Martin Gardner" (http://www.ams.org/notices/200506/fea-gardner.pdf) (PDF).
American Mathematical Society. June–July 2005. p. 603. Retrieved 5 January 2014.
46. Peter S. Williams (2013). C S Lewis Vs The New Atheists. Authentic Media. ISBN 978-1-
78078-093-1.
47. Loretta Lorance; Richard Buckminster Fuller (2009). Becoming Bucky Fuller. MIT Press.
p. 72. ISBN 978-0-262-12302-0.
48. K. Sohail (February 2000). "How Difficult it is to Help People Change their Thinking –
Interview with Dr. Pervez Hoodbhoy" (https://archive.is/20120716211940/http://old.drsohail.
com/Articals/Pervezhoodbhoy.htm). Archived from the original (http://old.drsohail.com/Artica
ls/Pervezhoodbhoy.htm) on 16 July 2012. Retrieved 31 December 2013.
49. Bradley W. Bateman; Toshiaki Hirai; Maria Cristina Marcuzzo, eds. (2010). The Return to
Keynes. Harvard University Press. p. 146. ISBN 978-0-674-05354-0.
50. Isaac Asimov (2009). I. Asimov: A Memoir. Random House. ISBN 978-0-307-57353-7.
51. Paul Kurtz (1994). Vern L. Bullough; Tim Madigan (eds.). Toward a New Enlightenment: The
Philosophy of Paul Kurtz. Transaction Publishers. p. 233. ISBN 978-1-4128-4017-0.
52. John P. Anderson (2000). Finding Joy in Joyce: A Readers Guide to Ulysses. Universal-
Publishers. p. 580. ISBN 978-1-58112-762-1.
53. Paul Lee Thomas (2006). Reading, Learning, Teaching Kurt Vonnegut. Peter Lang. p. 46.
ISBN 978-0-8204-6337-7.
54. Gregory L. Ulmer (2005). Electronic Monuments. U of Minnesota Press. p. 180. ISBN 978-
0-8166-4583-1.
55. Paul J. Nahin (2011). "9". Number-Crunching: Taming Unruly Computational Problems from
Mathematical Physics to Science Fiction. Princeton University Press. p. 332. ISBN 978-1-
4008-3958-2.
56. Mie Augier; Herbert Alex; er Simon; James G. March, eds. (2004). Models of a Man: Essays
in Memory of Herbert A. Simon. MIT Press. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-262-01208-9.
57. William O'Donohue; Kyle E. Ferguson (2001). The Psychology of B F Skinner. SAGE. p. 19.
ISBN 978-0-7619-1759-5.
58. Gustavo Faigenbaum (2001). Conversations with John Searle. LibrosEnRed.com. p. 28.
ISBN 978-987-1022-11-3.
59. William M. Brinton; Alan Rinzler, eds. (1990). Without Force Or Lies: Voices from the
Revolution of Central Europe in 1989–90 (https://archive.org/details/withoutforceorli00will).
Mercury House. p. 37 (https://archive.org/details/withoutforceorli00will/page/37). ISBN 978-
0-916515-92-8.
60. David Wilkinson (2001). God, Time and Stephen Hawking. Kregel Publications. p. 18.
ISBN 978-0-8254-6029-6.
61. Reiner Braun; Robert Hinde; David Krieger; Harold Kroto; Sally Milne, eds. (2007). Joseph
Rotblat: Visionary for Peace. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-3-527-61127-0.
62. Ned Curthoys; Debjani Ganguly, eds. (2007). Edward Said: The Legacy of a Public
Intellectual. Academic Monographs. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-522-85357-5.
63. "Frank Wilczek - Biographical" (https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/2
004/wilczek-bio.html). Nobel Media AB 2017. "Another thing that shaped my thinking was
religious training. I was brought up as a Roman Catholic. I loved the idea that there was a
great drama and a grand plan behind existence. Later, under the influence of Bertrand
Russell's writings and my increasing awareness of scientific knowledge, I lost faith in
conventional religion."
64. Azurmendi, Joxe (1999): Txillardegiren saioa: hastapenen bila, Jakin, 114: pp. 17–45.
ISSN 0211-495X (https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0211-495X)
65. Kreisel, G. (1973). "Bertrand Arthur William Russell, Earl Russell. 1872–1970". Biographical
Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society. 19: 583–620. doi:10.1098/rsbm.1973.0021 (http
s://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsbm.1973.0021). JSTOR 769574 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/7695
74).
66. The Life of Bertrand Russell (https://archive.org/details/lifeofbertrandru00clar/page/119).
Knopf. 1976. p. 119 (https://archive.org/details/lifeofbertrandru00clar/page/119).
ISBN 9780394490595. "He became a relentless political activist during World War I, and
throughout his life was an ardent advocate of parliamentary democracy through his support
first of the Liberal Party and then of Labour."
67. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, "Bertrand Russell" (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ru
ssell/), 1 May 2003
68. Bertrand Russell (1998). Autobiography (https://books.google.com/books?id=SlMrmmrNuE
oC&pg=PA260). p. 260. ISBN 9780415189859. "I have imagined myself in turn a Liberal, a
Socialist, or a Pacifist, but I have never been any of these things, in any profound sense."
69. Hestler, Anna (2001). Wales (https://archive.org/details/wales00hest/page/53). Marshall
Cavendish. p. 53 (https://archive.org/details/wales00hest/page/53). ISBN 978-0-7614-1195-
6.
70. Russell and G. E. Moore broke themselves free from British Idealism which, for nearly 90
years, had dominated British philosophy. Russell would later recall in "My Mental
Development" that "with a sense of escaping from prison, we allowed ourselves to think that
grass is green, that the sun and stars would exist if no one was aware of them ..."—Russell
B, (1944) "My Mental Development", in Schilpp, Paul Arthur: The Philosophy of Bertrand
Russell, New York: Tudor, 1951, pp. 3–20.
71. Ludlow, Peter. "Descriptions, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2008 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.)" (http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2008/entries/descriptions/).
72. Richard Rempel (1979). "From Imperialism to Free Trade: Couturat, Halevy and Russell's
First Crusade". Journal of the History of Ideas. University of Pennsylvania Press. 40 (3):
423–443. doi:10.2307/2709246 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2709246). JSTOR 2709246 (htt
ps://www.jstor.org/stable/2709246).
73. Russell, Bertrand (1988) [1917]. Political Ideals. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10907-8.
74. Russell, Bertrand (October 1946). "Atomic Weapon and the Prevention of War" (https://book
s.google.com/?id=WwwAAAAAMBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false). Bulletin
of the Atomic Scientists, 2/7-8, (October 1, 1946). p. 20.
75. Samoiloff, Louise Cripps. C .L. R. James: Memories and Commentaries, p. 19. Associated
University Presses, 1997. ISBN 0-8453-4865-5
76. "The Bertrand Russell oGallery" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110928232717/http://russel
l.mcmaster.ca/~bertrand/). Russell.mcmaster.ca. 6 June 2011. Archived from the original (ht
tp://russell.mcmaster.ca/~bertrand/) on 28 September 2011. Retrieved 1 October 2011.
77. The Nobel Prize in Literature 1950 — Bertrand Russell (https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_pr
izes/literature/laureates/1950/index.html): The Nobel Prize in Literature 1950 was awarded
to Bertrand Russell "in recognition of his varied and significant writings in which he
champions humanitarian ideals and freedom of thought". Retrieved on 22 March 2013.
78. "British Nobel Prize Winners (1950)" (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9to64vR8RvQ). 13
April 2014 – via YouTube.
79. Sidney Hook, "Lord Russell and the War Crimes Trial", Bertrand Russell: critical
assessments, Vol. 1, edited by A. D. Irvine, New York 1999, p. 178
80. Paul, Ashley. "Bertrand Russell: The Man and His Ideas" (https://web.archive.org/web/2006
0501064331/http://www.geocities.com/vu3ash/index.html). Archived from the original (http://
www.geocities.com/vu3ash/index.html) on 1 May 2006. Retrieved 28 October 2007.
81. Russell, Bertrand and Perkins, Ray (ed.) Yours faithfully, Bertrand Russell. Open Court
Publishing, 2001, p. 4.
82. Bloy, Marjie, PhD. "Lord John Russell (1792–1878)" (http://www.victorianweb.org/history/pm
s/russell.html). Retrieved 28 October 2007.
83. Cokayne, G. E.; Vicary Gibbs, H. A. Doubleday, Geoffrey H. White, Duncan Warrand and
Lord Howard de Walden, eds. The Complete Peerage of England, Scotland, Ireland, Great
Britain and the United Kingdom, Extant, Extinct or Dormant, new ed. 13 volumes in 14.
1910–1959. Reprint in 6 volumes, Gloucester, UK: Alan Sutton Publishing, 2000.
84. Booth, Wayne C. (1974). Modern Dogma and the Rhetoric of Assent (https://archive.org/det
ails/moderndogmarhet00boot). University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226065723.
85. The Women's Suffrage Movement: A Reference Guide, 1866–1928 By Elizabeth Crawford
86. Bertrand Russell (1998). Autobiography (https://books.google.com/books?id=SlMrmmrNuE
oC). Psychology Press. p. 38. ISBN 9780415189859.
87. The Nobel Foundation (1950). Bertrand Russell: The Nobel Prize in Literature 1950 (http://n
obelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1950/russell-bio.html). Retrieved 11 June
2007.
88. Russell, Bertrand (2000) [1967]. The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell: 1872–1914 (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=dVBpAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA30). New York: Routledge. p. 30.
89. Paul, Ashley. "Bertrand Russell: The Man and His Ideas - Chapter 2" (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20090101073812/http://www.geocities.com/vu3ash/index.htm2.htm). Archived from
the original (http://www.geocities.com:80/vu3ash/index.htm2.htm) on 1 January 2009.
Retrieved 6 December 2018.
90. Bertrand Russell (1998). Autobiography (https://books.google.com/books?id=SlMrmmrNuE
oC). Psychology Press. p. 35. ISBN 9780415189859.
91. "1959 Bertrand Russell CBC interview" (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tP4FDLegX9s).
1959.
92. Bertrand Russell (1998). "2: Adolescence". Autobiography (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=SlMrmmrNuEoC). Psychology Press. ISBN 9780415189859.
93. "Bertrand Russell on God" (https://web.archive.org/web/20100126090302/http://richarddawk
ins.net/articles/4833). Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. 1959. Archived from the original
(http://richarddawkins.net/articles/4833) on 26 January 2010. Retrieved 8 March 2010.
94. Russell, Bertrand (2000) [1967]. The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell: 1872–1914 (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=dVBpAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA39). New York: Routledge. p. 39.
 95. "Russell, the Hon. Bertrand Arthur William (RSL890BA)" (http://venn.lib.cam.ac.uk/cgi-bin/s
earch-2018.pl?sur=&suro=w&fir=&firo=c&cit=&cito=c&c=all&z=all&tex=RSL890BA&sye=&e
ye=&col=all&maxcount=50). A Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge.
96. O'Connor, J. J.; Robertson, E. F. (October 2003). "Alfred North Whitehead" (http://www-histo
ry.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Whitehead.html). School of Mathematics and
Statistics, University of St Andrews, Scotland. Retrieved 8 November 2007.
97. Griffin, Nicholas; Lewis, Albert C. (1990). "Russell's Mathematical Education". Notes and
Records of the Royal Society of London. 44 (1): 51–71. doi:10.1098/rsnr.1990.0004 (https://
doi.org/10.1098%2Frsnr.1990.0004). JSTOR 531585 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/531585).
98. Russell, Bertrand (2000) [1967]. The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell: 1872–1914 (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=dVBpAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA72). New York: Routledge. p. 72.
99. Monk, Ray (1996). Bertrand Russell: The Spirit of Solitude, 1872–1921 (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=AzssomBIDRIC&pg=PA37). Simon and Schuster. p. 37. ISBN 978-0-684-
82802-2.
100. Monk, Ray (1996). Bertrand Russell: The Spirit of Solitude, 1872–1921 (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=AzssomBIDRIC&pg=PA37). Simon and Schuster. p. 48. ISBN 978-0-684-
82802-2.
101. Bertrand Russell (1998). Autobiography (https://books.google.com/books?id=SlMrmmrNuE
oC). p. 150. ISBN 9780415189859. "I went out bicycling one afternoon, and suddenly, as I
was riding along a country road, I realised that I no longer loved Alys"
102. Moran, Margaret (1991). "Bertrand Russell Meets His Muse: The Impact of Lady Ottoline
Morrell (1911–12)" (http://digitalcommons.mcmaster.ca/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1353&co
ntext=russelljournal&sei-redir=1). McMaster University Library Press. Retrieved 1 March
2012.
103. Russell, Bertrand (2002). Griffin, Nicholas (ed.). The Selected Letters of Bertrand Russell:
The Public Years, 1914-1970 (https://books.google.com/books?id=97PesXqhNdAC&pg=PA
230). Psychology Press. p. 230. ISBN 978-0-415-26012-1.
104. Kimball, Roger (September 1992). "Love, logic & unbearable pity: The private Bertrand
Russell" (https://web.archive.org/web/20061205032455/http://newcriterion.com/archive/11/s
ept92/brussell.htm). The New Criterion. Archived from the original (http://newcriterion.com:8
1/archive/11/sept92/brussell.htm) on 5 December 2006. Retrieved 15 November 2007.
105. Monk, Ray (September 2004). "Russell, Bertrand Arthur William, third Earl Russell (1872–
1970)" (http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/35875). Oxford Dictionary of National
Biography. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/35875 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2
Fref%3Aodnb%2F35875). Retrieved 14 March 2008.(subscription required)
106. "London School of Economics" (http://www.lse.ac.uk/aboutLSE/keyFacts/nobelPrizeWinner
s/russell.aspx). Lse.ac.uk. 26 August 2015.
107. Russell, Bertrand (2001). Ray Perkins (ed.). Yours Faithfully, Bertrand Russell: Letters to
the Editor 1904–1969 (https://books.google.com/?id=EayyTTpXL-
QC&pg=PA16&lpg=PA16). Chicago: Open Court Publishing. p. 16. ISBN 0-8126-9449-X.
Retrieved 16 November 2007.
108. Russell, Bertrand (1898) An Essay on the Foundations of Geometry, p. 32, re-issued 1956
by Dover Books
109. "Bertrand Russell, biography" (http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1950/ru
ssell-bio.html). Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 23 June 2010.
110. Bertrand Russell (1998). "6: Principia Mathematica". Autobiography (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=SlMrmmrNuEoC). Psychology Press. ISBN 9780415189859.
111. "Russell on Wittgenstein" (http://www.rbjones.com/rbjpub/philos/history/rvw001.htm).
Rbjones.com. Retrieved 1 October 2011.
112. Hochschild, Adam (2011). "I Tried to Stop the Bloody Thing" (http://www.theamericanschola
r.org/i-tried-to-stop-the-bloody-thing/). The American Scholar. Retrieved 10 May 2011.
113. Scharfenburger, Paul (17 October 2012). "1917" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120117062
625/http://musicandhistory.com/music-and-history-by-the-year/178-1917.html).
MusicandHistory.com. Archived from the original (http://musicandhistory.com/music-and-hist
ory-by-the-year/178-1917.html) on 17 January 2012. Retrieved 7 January 2014.
114. Russell, Bertrand (1995). "A Summer of Hope". Pacifism and Revolution. Routledge.
p. xxxiv.
115. "British Socialists – Peace Terms Discussed" (http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article15731745).
The Sydney Morning Herald. 5 June 1917. Retrieved 7 January 2014.
116. Vellacott, Jo (1980). Bertrand Russell and the Pacifists in the First World War. Brighton:
Harvester Press. ISBN 0-85527-454-9.
117. Bertrand Russell (1998). "8: The First War". Autobiography (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=SlMrmmrNuEoC). Psychology Press. ISBN 9780415189859.
118. "Trinity in Literature" (https://www.trin.cam.ac.uk/about/historical-overview/trinity-in-literatur
e/). Trinity College. Retrieved 3 August 2017.
119. "M. P.'s Who Have Been in Jail To Hold Banquet" (https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid
=1955&dat=19240108&id=G28rAAAAIBAJ&sjid=FZoFAAAAIBAJ&pg=3245,1355607). The
Reading Eagle. 8 January 1924. Retrieved 18 May 2014.
120. G. H. Hardy (1970). Bertrand Russell and Trinity. pp. 57–8.
121. "Bertrand Russell (1872–1970)" (http://russell.thefreelibrary.com/). Farlex, Inc. Retrieved
11 December 2007.
122. Russell, Bertrand (31 July 1920). "Soviet Russia—1920" (http://www.unz.org/Pub/Nation-19
20jul31-00121). The Nation. pp. 121–125. Retrieved 20 August 2016.
123. Russell, Bertrand (20 February 2008) [First published 1920]. "Lenin, Trotzky and Gorky" (htt
ps://www.thenation.com/article/lenin-trotzky-and-gorky/). The Nation. Retrieved 20 August
2016.
124. Russell, Bertrand The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism by Bertrand Russell (http://www.g
utenberg.org/ebooks/17350), 1920
125. Russell, Bertrand (1972). The Problem of China. London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd. p. 252.
126. "Bertrand Russell Reported Dead" (https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1921/0
4/21/107014047.pdf) (PDF). The New York Times. 21 April 1921. Retrieved 11 December
2007.
127. Russell, Bertrand (2000). Richard A. Rempel (ed.). Uncertain Paths to Freedom: Russia
and China, 1919–22 (https://books.google.com/?id=qnaqY4gUyrAC&dq=mr+bertrand+russ
ell+having+died+according+to+the+japanese+press). The Collected Papers of Bertrand
Russell. 15. Routledge. lxviii. ISBN 0-415-09411-9.
128. Bertrand Russell (1998). "10: China". Autobiography (https://books.google.com/books?id=Sl
MrmmrNuEoC). Psychology Press. ISBN 9780415189859. "It provided me with the pleasure
of reading my obituary notices, which I had always desired without expecting my wishes to
be fulfilled... As the Japanese papers had refused to contradict the news of my death, Dora
gave each of them a type-written slip saying that as I was dead I could not be interviewed"
129. Bertrand Russell (1998). Autobiography (https://books.google.com/books?id=SlMrmmrNuE
oC). Psychology Press. p. 386. ISBN 9780415189859.
130. Inside Beacon Hill: Bertrand Russell as Schoolmaster. Jespersen, Shirley ERIC# EJ360344,
published 1987
131. "Dora Russell" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080119030738/http://www.spartacus.schooln
et.co.uk/TUrussellD.htm). 12 May 2007. Archived from the original (http://www.spartacus.sc
hoolnet.co.uk/TUrussellD.htm) on 19 January 2008. Retrieved 17 February 2008.
132. Kranz, D. (2011): Barry Stevens: Leben Gestalten (http://www.gestalt.de/kranz_stevens_leb
en.html). In: Gestaltkritik, 2/2011, p. 4-11.
133. Stevens, B. (1970): Don't Push the River. Lafayette, Cal. (Real People Press), p. 26.
134. Gorham, D. (2005): Dora and Bertrand Russell and Beacon Hill School, in: Russell: the
Journal of Bertrand Russell Studies, n.s. 25, (summer 2005), p. 39 – 76, p. 57.
135. Spadoni, C. (1981): Recent Acquisitions: Correspondence, in: Russell: the Journal of
Bertrand Russell Studies, Vol 1, Iss. 1, Article 6, 43–67.
136. "Museum Of Tolerance Acquires Bertrand Russell's Nazi Appeasement Letter" (http://losang
eles.cbslocal.com/2014/02/19/museum-of-tolerance-acquires-bertrand-russells-nazi-appeas
ement-letter/). Losangeles.cbslocal.com. 19 February 2014. Retrieved 29 March 2017.
137. Russell, Bertrand, "The Future of Pacifism", The American Scholar, (1943) 13: 7–13.
138. Bertrand Russell (1998). "12: Later Years of Telegraph House". Autobiography (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=SlMrmmrNuEoC). Psychology Press. ISBN 9780415189859. "I
found the Nazis utterly revolting – cruel, bigoted, and stupid. Morally and intellectually they
were alike odious to me. Although I clung to my pacifist convictions, I did so with increasing
difficulty. When, in 1940, England was threatened with invasion, I realised that, throughout
the First War, I had never seriously envisaged the possibility of utter defeat. I found this
possibility unbearable, and at last consciously and definitely decided that I must support
what was necessary for victory in the Second War, however difficult victory might be to
achieve, and however painful in its consequences"
139. Bertrand Russell Rides Out Collegiate Cyclone (https://books.google.ca/books?id=xj8EAAA
AMBAJ&lpg=PA23&dq=bertrand%20russell&pg=PA23#v=onepage&q&f=false) LIFE, Vol. 8,
No. 14, 1 Apr 1940
140. McCarthy, Joseph M. (May 1993). The Russell Case: Academic Freedom vs. Public
Hysteria (http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED363185.pdf) (PDF). Educational Resources
Information Center. p. 9.
141. Leberstein, Stephen (November–December 2001). "Appointment Denied: The Inquisition of
Bertrand Russell" (https://web.archive.org/web/20150123221826/http://www.omnilogos.co
m/2015/01/appointment-denied-inquisition-of.html). Academe. Archived from the original (htt
p://www.omnilogos.com/2015/01/appointment-denied-inquisition-of.html) on 23 January
2015. Retrieved 17 February 2008.
142. Einstein quotations and sources. (http://www.asl-associates.com/einsteinquotes.htm).
Retrieved 9 July 2009.
143. "Bertrand Russell" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080212100048/http://www.philosophyprof
essor.com/philosophers/bertrand-russell.php). 2006. Archived from the original (http://www.
philosophyprofessor.com/philosophers/bertrand-russell.php) on 12 February 2008.
Retrieved 17 February 2008.
144. Griffin, Nicholas (ed.) (2002). The Selected Letters of Bertrand Russell. Routledge. p. 660.
ISBN 0-415-26012-4.
145. Bertrand Russell (1998). Autobiography (https://books.google.com/books?id=SlMrmmrNuE
oC). Psychology Press. p. 512. ISBN 9780415189859.
146. Russell to Edward Renouf, assistant of Wolfgang Paalen, 23 March 1942 (Succession
Wolfgang Paalen, Berlin); this letter is cited in DYN, No. 2, Mexico, July–August 1942,
p. 52.
147. "Archived copy" (https://web.archive.org/web/20160304040128/https://www.jewishvirtuallibr
ary.org/jsource/Quote/Russell_On_Zionism.html). Archived from the original (https://www.je
wishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Quote/Russell_On_Zionism.html) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved
13 September 2014.
148. "Bertrand Russell and Preventive War" (https://web.archive.org/web/20170305003733/htt
p://www.plymouth.edu/department/history-philosophy/files/2012/10/Bertrand-Russell-and-Pr
eventive-War.pdf) (PDF). Plymouth.edu. Archived from the original (http://www.plymouth.ed
u/department/history-philosophy/files/2012/10/Bertrand-Russell-and-Preventive-War.pdf)
(PDF) on 5 March 2017. Retrieved 29 March 2017.
149. "A philosopher's letters – Love, Bertie" (http://www.economist.com/books/PrinterFriendly.cf
m?Story_ID=699582). The Economist. 21 July 2001.
150. He wrote: "There is reason to think Stalin will insist on a new orthodoxy in atomic physics,
since there is much in quantum theory that runs contrary to Communist dogma. An atomic
bomb' made on Marxist principles would probably not explode because, after all, Marxist
science was that of a hundred years ago. For those who fear the military power of Russia
there is, therefore, some reason to rejoice in the muzzling of Russian science." Russell,
Bertrand "Stalin Declares War on Science" Review of Langdon-Davies, Russia Puts Back
the Clock, Evening Standard (London), 7 September 1949, p. 9.
151. Clark, Ronald William (1976). The life of Bertrand Russell: Ronald William Clark:
9780394490595: Amazon.com: Books (https://archive.org/details/lifeofbertrandru00clar).
ISBN 0394490592.
152. –06:04. "Radio 4 Programmes – The Reith Lectures" (http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b0
0729d9). BBC. Retrieved 1 October 2011.
153. –06:04. "Radio 4 Programmes – The Reith Lectures: Bertrand Russell: Authority and the
Individual: 1948" (http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00h9lz3). BBC. Retrieved 1 October
2011.
154. T. P. Uschanov, The Strange Death of Ordinary Language Philosophy (http://www.helsinki.fi/
~tuschano/writings/strange/). The controversy has been described by the writer Ved Mehta
in Fly and the Fly Bottle (1963).
155. "No. 38628" (https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/38628/supplement/2796). The
London Gazette (Supplement). 3 June 1949. p. 2796.
156. Ronald W. Clark, Bertrand Russell and His World, p. 94. (1981) ISBN 0-500-13070-1
157. Frances Stonor Saunders, "The Cultural Cold War: The CIA and the World of Arts and
Letters." New York Press, 1999. Print.
158. Frances Stonor Saunder, ""The Cultural Cold War: The CIA And the World of Arts and
Letters." New York Press, 1999. Print.
159. Bertrand Russell Peace Foundation, Bertrand Russell, 1872–1970 [1970], p. 12
160. Russell, Bertrand (1967). The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell, Vol. 3. Little, Brown.
p. 157.
161. Russell and the Cuban missile crisis (https://mulpress.mcmaster.ca/russelljournal/article/vie
w/1632/1658), by Al Seckel, California Institute of Technology // Russell: the Journal of
Bertrand Russell Studies (https://russell.humanities.mcmaster.ca/journal.htm), McMaster
University, Vol 4 (1984), Issue 2, Winter 1984-85, pages 253-261 (https://mulpress.mcmast
er.ca/russelljournal/article/view/1632)
162. Sanderson Beck (2003–2005). "Pacifism of Bertrand Russell and A. J. Muste" (http://www.s
an.beck.org/GPJ24-Russell,Muste.html). World Peace Efforts Since Gandhi. Sanderson
Beck. Retrieved 24 June 2012.
163. John H. Davis. The Kennedys: Dynasty and Disaster. S. P. Books. p. 437.
164. Peter Knight, The Kennedy Assassination, Edinburgh University Press Ltd., 2007, p. 77.
165. Russell, Bertrand. "Free Thought and Official Propaganda" (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/4
4932/44932-h/44932-h.htm). www.gutenberg.org. Retrieved 14 May 2019.
166. Russell, Bertrand; Albert Einstein (9 July 1955). "Russell Einstein Manifesto" (http://www.pp
u.org.uk/learn/texts/doc_russelleinstein_manif.html). Retrieved 17 February 2008.
167. Collected Papers of Bertrand Russell (Psychology Press, 2005)
168. Yours Faithfully, Bertrand Russell (pp. 212–213)
169. "Jerusalem International Book Fair" (http://www.jerusalembookfair.com/main.html).
Jerusalembookfair.com. Retrieved 1 October 2011.
170. "Bertrand Russell Appeals to Arabs and Israel on Rocket Weapons" (http://www.jta.org/196
4/02/26/archive/bertrand-russell-appeals-to-arabs-and-israel-on-rocket-weapons). Jewish
Telegraphic Agency. 26 February 1964.
171. Russell, Bertrand (12 October 2012). Andrew G. Bone (ed.). The Collected Papers of
Bertrand Russell Volume 29: Détente Or Destruction, 1955–57 (https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=eogqBgAAQBAJ&pg=iii). Abingdon: Routledge. p. iii. ISBN 978-0415-3583-78.
172. "Aman (1967)" (https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0233193/). Internet Movie Database.
173. "Bertrand Russell's Last Message" (http://www.connexions.org/CxLibrary/Docs/CX5576-Rus
sellMidEast.htm). Connexions.org. 31 January 1970. Retrieved 29 March 2017.
174. Russell, 1970, p. 3 (https://probatesearch.service.gov.uk/Calendar?surname=Russell&year
OfDeath=1970&page=3#calendar) at probatesearch.service.gov.uk. Retrieved 29 August
2015
175. "Bertrand Russell Memorial". Mind. 353: 320. 1980.
176. "The Bertrand Russell Society" (https://bertrandrussellsociety.org/). The Bertrand Russell
Society. Retrieved 14 May 2019.
177. My Father, Bertrand Russell (https://archive.org/details/myfatherbertrand00tait). National
Library of Australia. 1975. ISBN 9780151304325. Retrieved 28 May 2010.
178. Blanshard, in Paul Arthur Schilpp, ed., The Philosophy of Brand Blanshard, Open Court,
1980, p. 88, quoting a private letter from Russell.
179. The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell, London: Routledge, 2000 [London: Allen and
Unwin, 1969, Vol. 1], p. 39 ("It appeared to me obvious that the happiness of mankind
should be the aim of all action, and I discovered to my surprise that there were those who
thought otherwise. Belief in happiness, I found, was called Utilitarianism, and was merely
one among a number of ethical theories. I adhered to it after this discovery.").
180. Russell, Bertrand (1947). "Am I An Atheist or an Agnostic?" (https://web.archive.org/web/20
050622001026/http://www.positiveatheism.org/hist/russell8.htm). Encyclopedia of Things.
Archived from the original (http://www.positiveatheism.org/hist/russell8.htm) on 22 June
2005. Retrieved 6 July 2005.: "I never know whether I should say "Agnostic" or whether I
should say "Atheist"... As a philosopher, if I were speaking to a purely philosophic audience
I should say that I ought to describe myself as an Agnostic, because I do not think that there
is a conclusive argument by which one prove (sic) that there is not a God. On the other
hand, if I am to convey the right impression to the ordinary man in the street I think I ought
to say that I am an Atheist..."
181. 'Humanist News', March 1970
182. Russell, Bertrand (1952). "Conclusions" (https://archive.org/details/impactofscienceo0000ru
ss). The Impact of Science on Society. New York, Columbia University Press.
183. Russell, Bertrand (1936). Which Way to Peace? (Part 12). M. Joseph Ltd. p. 173.
184. Russell, Bertrand (1954). Human Society in Ethics and Politics (https://archive.org/details/h
umansocietyinet0000russ). London: G. Allen & Unwin. p. 212 (https://archive.org/details/hu
mansocietyinet0000russ/page/212).
185. Gay and Lesbian Humanist Association (2 November 1997). "Lesbian and Gay Rights: The
Humanist and Religious Stances" (http://www.galha.org/briefing/lgb_rights.html). Retrieved
17 February 2008.
186. Russell, Bertrand (1968). The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell: 1944–1969. Little, Brown.
p. 330. Published separately as 'Reflections on My Eightieth Birthday' in Portraits from
Memory.
187. "An essay on the foundations of geometry" (https://archive.org/details/essayfoundations00ru
ssrich). Internet Archive. Cambridge, University press. 1897.
188. "The Principles of Mathematics" (http://fair-use.org/bertrand-russell/the-principles-of-mathe
matics/). fair-use.org.
189. Free man's worship, and other essays, London : Unwin Books, 1976, ISBN 0048240214
190. Principia mathematica, by Alfred North Whitehead ... and Bertrand Russell (http://quod.lib.u
mich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=umhistmath;cc=umhistmath;view=toc;idno=AAT3201.0001.00
1). umich.edu. 2005.
191. "The Problems of Philosophy" (http://www.ditext.com/russell/russell.html). ditext.com.
192. "OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE EXTERNAL WORLD" (https://archive.org/details/ourknowled
geofth005200mbp). Internet Archive. GEORGE ALLEN & UNWIN.
193. "Principles of social reconstruction" (https://archive.org/details/cu31924032577532). Internet
Archive. 1916.
194. Russell, Bertrand (14 May 2019). "The Policy of the Entente 1904-1914: A Reply to
Professor Gilbert Murray" (https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=U45rtgAACAAJ). National
Labour Press. Retrieved 14 May 2019 – via Google Books.
195. Political Ideals (http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/4776). Project Gutenberg.
196. Proposed Roads to Freedom (http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/690). Project Gutenberg.
197. Kevin C. Klement. "Russell's Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy" (http://people.umass.
edu/klement/russell-imp.html). umass.edu.
198. Pfeiffer, G. A. (1920). "Review: Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy by Bertrand
Russell" (http://www.ams.org/journals/bull/1920-27-02/S0002-9904-1920-03365-3/S0002-99
04-1920-03365-3.pdf) (PDF). Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 27 (2): 81–90. doi:10.1090/s0002-
9904-1920-03365-3 (https://doi.org/10.1090%2Fs0002-9904-1920-03365-3).
199. "Introduction to mathematical philosophy" (https://archive.org/details/introductiontoma00rus
suoft). Internet Archive. 1920.
200. The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism (http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/17350). Project
Gutenberg.
201. The Analysis of Mind (http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/2529). Project Gutenberg.
202. The Problem of China (http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/13940). Project Gutenberg.
203. "Why I Am Not A Christian" (https://web.archive.org/web/20061119081311/http://www.positi
veatheism.org/hist/russell0.htm). positiveatheism.org. Archived from the original (http://www.
positiveatheism.org/hist/russell0.htm) on 19 November 2006.
204. "The Scientific Outlook" (https://archive.org/details/scientificoutloo030217mbp). Internet
Archive. George Allen And Unwin Limited. 1954.
205. "Education and the Social Order" (https://archive.org/details/EducationAndTheSocialOrder).
Internet Archive.
206. "In Praise of Idleness By Bertrand Russell" (http://www.zpub.com/notes/idle.html).
zpub.com.
207. "Western Philosophy" (https://archive.org/details/westernphilosoph035502mbp). Internet
Archive.
208. "Authority and the individual" (https://archive.org/details/AuthorityAndTheIndividual). Internet
Archive.
209. "Unpopular Essays" (https://archive.org/details/unpopularessays027477mbp). Internet
Archive. Simon And Schuster. 1950.
210. "Nightmares of Eminent Persons And Other Stories" (https://archive.org/details/nightmareso
femin032011mbp). Internet Archive. The Bodley Head. 1954.
211. "Portraits From Memory And Other Essays" (https://archive.org/details/portraitsfrommem01
3629mbp). Internet Archive. Simon And Schuster. 1956.
212. "Common Sense And Nuclear Warfare" (https://archive.org/details/commonsenseandnu009
377mbp). Internet Archive. Simon And Schuster. 1959.
213. "MY PHILOSOPHICAL DEVELOPMENT" (https://archive.org/details/myphilosophicald0015
21mbp). Internet Archive. SIMON AND SCHUSTER. 1959.
214. "The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell 1872 1914" (https://archive.org/details/autobiograp
hyofb017701mbp). Internet Archive. Little, Brown and company. 1951.
215. Charles Pigden in Bertrand Russell, Russell on Ethics: Selections from the Writings of
Bertrand Russell, Routledge (2013), p. 14
216. James C. Klagge, Wittgenstein: Biography and Philosophy, Cambridge University Press
(2001), p. 12
217. Hochschild, Adam (2011). To end all wars: a story of loyalty and rebellion, 1914–1918 (http
s://archive.org/details/isbn_9780618758289/page/270). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
pp. 270–272 (https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780618758289/page/270). ISBN 978-0-618-
75828-9.
218. "McMaster University: The Bertrand Russell Research Centre" (https://russell.humanities.m
cmaster.ca/brworks.htm). Russell.humanities.mcmaster.ca. 6 March 2017. Retrieved
11 October 2019.
219. "Bertrand Russell Archives Catalogue Entry and Research System" (https://bracers.mcmast
er.ca/). McMaster University Library. The William Ready Division of Archives and Research
Collections. Retrieved 5 February 2016.

Sources
Primary sources

1900, Sur la logique des relations avec des applications à la théorie des séries, Rivista di
matematica 7: 115–148.
1901, On the Notion of Order, Mind (n.s.) 10: 35–51.
1902, (with Alfred North Whitehead), On Cardinal Numbers, American Journal of
Mathematics 24: 367–384.
1948, BBC Reith Lectures: Authority and the Individual A series of six radio lectures
broadcast on the BBC Home Service in December 1948.

Secondary sources

John Newsome Crossley. A Note on Cantor's Theorem and Russell's Paradox, Australian
Journal of Philosophy 51, 1973, 70–71.
Ivor Grattan-Guinness. The Search for Mathematical Roots 1870–1940. Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 2000.
Alan Ryan. Bertrand Russell: A Political Life, New York: Oxford University Press, 1981.

Further reading
Books about Russell's philosophy

Alfred Julius Ayer. Russell, London: Fontana, 1972. ISBN 0-00-632965-9. A lucid summary
exposition of Russell's thought.
Celia Green. The Lost Cause: Causation and the Mind-Body Problem, Oxford: Oxford
Forum, 2003. ISBN 0-9536772-1-4 Contains a sympathetic analysis of Russell's views on
causality.
A. C. Grayling. Russell: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, 2002.
Nicholas Griffin. Russell's Idealist Apprenticeship, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991.
A. D. Irvine (ed.). Bertrand Russell: Critical Assessments, 4 volumes, London: Routledge,
1999. Consists of essays on Russell's work by many distinguished philosophers.
Michael K. Potter. Bertrand Russell's Ethics, Bristol: Thoemmes Continuum, 2006. A clear
and accessible explanation of Russell's moral philosophy.
Elizabeth Ramsden Eames. Bertrand Russell's Theory of Knowledge, London: George Allen
and Unwin, 1969. A clear description of Russell's philosophical development.
 P. A. Schilpp (ed.). The Philosophy of Bertrand Russell, Evanston and Chicago:
Northwestern University, 1944.
John Slater. Bertrand Russell, Bristol: Thoemmes Press, 1994.

Biographical books

A. J. Ayer. Bertrand Russell, New York: Viking Press, 1972, reprint ed. London: University of
Chicago Press, 1988: ISBN 0-226-03343-0
Ronald W. Clark. The Life of Bertrand Russell, London: Jonathan Cape, 1975 ISBN 0-394-
49059-2
Ronald W. Clark. Bertrand Russell and His World, London: Thames & Hudson, 1981
ISBN 0-500-13070-1
Rupert Crawshay-Williams. Russell Remembered, London: Oxford University Press, 1970.
Written by a close friend of Russell's
John Lewis. Bertrand Russell: Philosopher and Humanist, London: Lawerence & Wishart,
1968
Ray Monk. Bertrand Russell: Mathematics: Dreams and Nightmares London: Phoenix, 1997
ISBN 0-7538-0190-6
Ray Monk. Bertrand Russell: 1872–1920 The Spirit of Solitude Vol. I, New York: Routledge,
1997 ISBN 0-09-973131-2
Ray Monk. Bertrand Russell: 1921–1970 The Ghost of Madness Vol. II, New York:
Routledge, 2001 ISBN 0-09-927275-X
Caroline Moorehead. Bertrand Russell: A Life New York: Viking, 1993 ISBN 0-670-85008-X
George Santayana. 'Bertrand Russell', in Selected Writings of George Santayana, ed.
Norman Henfrey, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, I, 1968, pp. 326–329
Katharine Tait. My father Bertrand Russell, New York: Thoemmes Press, 1975
Alan Wood. Bertrand Russell The Passionate Sceptic London: George Allen & Unwin, 1957.
Peter Stone et al. Bertrand Russell´s Life and Legacy (https://vernonpress.com/title?
id=219). Wilmington: Vernon Press, 2017.

External links
"Bertrand Russell's Ethics" (http://www.iep.utm.edu/russ-eth). Internet Encyclopedia of
Philosophy.
"Bertrand Russell's Logic" (http://www.iep.utm.edu/russ-log). Internet Encyclopedia of
Philosophy.
"Bertrand Russell's Metaphysics" (http://www.iep.utm.edu/russ-met). Internet Encyclopedia
of Philosophy.
The Bertrand Russell Archives (http://www.mcmaster.ca/russdocs/russell.htm) at McMaster
University
The Bertrand Russell Society (https://bertrandrussellsociety.org/) at Bertrand Russell
Society
The Bertrand Russell Peace Foundation (http://www.russfound.org/)
O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Bertrand Russell" (http://www-history.mcs.st-an
drews.ac.uk/Biographies/Russell.html), MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University
of St Andrews.
Works by Bertrand Russell (https://www.gutenberg.org/author/Russell,+Bertrand) at Project
Gutenberg
Works by or about Bertrand Russell (https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subjec
t%3A%22Russell%2C%20Bertrand%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Bertrand%20Russell%
 22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Russell%2C%20Bertrand%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22B
ertrand%20Russell%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Bertrand%20Russell%22%20OR%20descr
iption%3A%22Russell%2C%20Bertrand%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Bertrand%20
Russell%22%29%20OR%20%28%221872-1970%22%20AND%20Russell%29%29%20AN
D%20%28-mediatype:software%29) at Internet Archive
Works by Bertrand Russell (https://openlibrary.org/authors/OL112912A) at Open Library
Works by Bertrand Russell (https://librivox.org/author/1508) at LibriVox (public domain
audiobooks)

Peerage of the United Kingdom

Preceded by Earl Russell Succeeded by
Frank Russell 1931–1970 John Russell

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bertrand_Russell&oldid=931300541"

This page was last edited on 18 December 2019, at 04:10 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using
this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia
Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.