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CHAPTER 2
LEVEL MEASUREMENT

INTRODUCTION

The importance of liquid level has been recognised for centuries. In

engineering industries it was probably the first process variable to be
measured and controlled.

Unlike pressure and temperature, level has no absolute value and is

always relative to some reference point such as the bottom of a vessel.
It is the height or depth of a liquid above a reference point and is
specific to a particular vessel.

HOW HEIGHT, VOLUME AND MASS ARE RELATED

Take the example of the process vessel in the drawing below, the
height of the vessel is 6m and the cross-sectional area is 1m2, the
vessel is half filled with water and the density of water is 1000kg/m3.
cross sectional area 1 metre2
Vessel Cross
Vessel
sectional area
2
1m

Liquid
level in level in
Liquid
Vessel vessel
vessel 50%
Vessel
height 50%
(6m)
height
(6m)

Liquid
Level measuring system
measuring
system connected to
connected
vessle
to vessel

The level in the tank could be measured in height, volume or mass. If

the level was measured in height, then the scale for the instrument
would be graduated between 0 and 6 metres. If the level scale was in
the volume units

As Volume = height × area

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The maximum volume would be

Maximum volume =6×1

= 6m3

So the volume scale would be ranged 0 to 6m3.

Various types of level measurement are used in the chemical and

process industries and the methods used fall into two broad categories
– Direct and Indirect.

The direct methods, typified by the dipstick, are the oldest. These are
still used because of their simplicity and low cost.

There are many indirect methods, which consider certain physical

properties of liquids, which are then related to level. Indirect
measurement instruments which work on electrical or electronic
principles are accurate, compact and generally more adaptable for
control purposes in modern plants.
Selection of the proper method of level measurement is determined by
certain critical operating conditions, for example –

depth of liquid
surface turbulence
presence of entrained dirt of silt
viscosity of the liquid
relative density of the liquid
presence of dissolved gases
oils which deposit wax on cooling

METHODS OF LEVEL MEASUREMENT

Liquid level measuring instruments are designed to satisfy the following

rate of change and range requirements.

1. Small and slow change in level between a specified minimum and a

maximum limit. An example of this is the monitoring of the
lubricating oil level in an engine sump.
2. Relatively fast changes in level over a range from 300mm to 2
metres approximately. This occurs in most process vessels and
may either be by a change in an interface level between two
immiscible liquids or a change in total level.

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3. Relatively slow changes in level over a very wide range from
300mm to 25 metres. This occurs in liquid feedstock, product utility
liquid or chemical liquid storage tanks. Intermittent readings may
be required, for example, during the filling and emptying of road and
rail tankers or continuous monitoring during filling and emptying of
large tanks.
4. Instantaneous measurement of specified minimum and maximum
levels in process and storage vessels which actuates an alarm or a
trip action to prevent overfilling or damage to process equipment.
The level changes listed are measured either directly or indirectly
(inferential methods) which measure some physical or electrical
property of the liquid which can then be related to its level. Thus, the
two broad categories of level measurement methods are the direct and
indirect methods as described below.

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INDIRECT METHODS

1. Displacer cylinders have variable submergence, and change

position proportional to the liquid level change. A change is
apparent weight is usually measured by a torque tube and
converted to level change.
2. Pressure diaphragms, which sense the hydrostatic head of liquid in
a vented vessel above the point of measurement. The diaphragm
deflection is converted to level by the hydrostatic head formula,
P = ρh, where;

P = measured pressure in pascals (Pa)

ρ = relative density of liquid

h = liquid height above datum point in metres (m)
3. In atmospheric vessels a DP (differential pressure) diaphragm with
the high side connected to the bottom and the low side open to
atmosphere.
4. In non-atmospheric vessels a DP diaphragm with the low pressure
leg vapour filled or in the low pressure leg liquid filled (to
compensate for liquid condensation in the vapour line) depending
on whether or not the stored liquid has a condensable vapour).
5. A purged dip tube extending from top to bottom of the vessel. The
pressure in the tube required to bubble air or an inert gas, eg
nitrogen, out of the bottom end is equal to the hydrostatic head of
the liquid. Air must not be used in liquids containing traces of
hydrocarbons because an explosive vapour / air mixture could
result.
6. A capacitance probe partially submerged in liquid acts as one place
of capacitor, the other being the tank wall. When the liquid level
raises the capacitance increases because the liquid has a higher
dielectric constant than the vapour above it.
7. Nuclear radioactive materials, such as Cobalt 60 or Caesium 137,
measure liquid level by directing high-energy gamma rays through a
vessel to detectors on the opposite side. If liquid is present some of
the radiation is absorbed and the residual amount which is detected
changes in proportion to the change of liquid level.
8. Ultrasonic wave pulses from a rank top source travel down to the
liquid surface where some are reflected back to a detector and
some pass down to the bottom f the vessel before being reflected
back to the detector. The difference in time between the reception
of the pulse is a measure of the liquid depth.

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DIRECT METHODS

The following devices, which utilise the direct method of level

measurement, will be described:

1. Dipsticks, diprods and ullage bars

2. Sight glasses

3. Float gauges

4. Float switches

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DIPSTICKS, DIPRODS AND DIP TAPES

The drawing on page 5 illustrates a gauge tape, diprod and dipsticks.

A calibrated dipstick has a scale engraved on the flattened lower end

showing the depth of liquid in mm or more simply as a wetted length
with an interface between maximum and minimum marks. More
modern dipsticks take the form of a capacitance probe, which actuates
a red warning light when the level reaches the minimum mark. The
cleanliness and viscosity of the oil can also be assessed when the
dipstick is withdrawn for a level check.

A diprod installation is used for gauging the depth of fluid in a road or

rail tanker. The rod may take the form of a solid round rof or a flat bar
with graduations over a length of 2.5m approximately. The rod is made
form non-spark metal and is inserted through a vertical guide tube until
it touches the bottom of the tank. Certain hydrocarbon liquids may
contain water, which accumulates at the bottom of the tank. The depth
of water may be measured by coating the end of the rod with a water
detecting chalk, which changes from white to blue, or a water detecting
paste which changes from green to red, if water is present.

Horizontal ullage bars are fitted about 150mm below the top of the tank
and the hydrocarbon liquid is loaded until its level reaches the bar.
This provides room for expansion during transit and prevents spilling
over through the top vent during shunting. Ullages is the vertical
distance from a reference mark at the top of a tank to the liquid
surface.

The gauging tape has replaced the diprod as a method of measuring

liquid levels in large storage tanks. Obviously, diprods over 10m long
are too heavy and clumsy to carry up to the tops of large tanks and are
also too messy to operate due to the amount of oil left sticking to the
surface during withdrawal.

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Figure 1 – Gauge, Tape, Diprod and Dipsticks

The gauging tape is normally used to measure tank ullage height and
the actual depth of liquid is the difference between the height of the
tank and the ullage measurement.

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It consists of a steel or glass fibre tape wound on a reel. A brass
weight, shaped like a plumb bob is clipped on the free end. The bob
weight keeps the tape taut and suspended vertically inside the average
temperature of the liquid is also measured in order to correct the
measured volume to standard conditions required for fiscal and
accounting purposes.

SIGHT GLASSES

Sight glasses, sometimes called gauge glasses, provide a continuous

visual indication of liquid level in a process vessel or a small tank and
are, therefore, more convenient than dipsticks, diprods and manual
gauging tapes. However, glass elements can get dirty and are
susceptible to breakage thus presenting a safety hazard especially
when hot, corrosive or flammable liquids are being handled.

TUBULAR TYPE SIGHT GLASSES

The drawing below illustrates a sight tube sight glass located outside a
process vessel and connected at both ends by small bore piping
unions and special isolation valves containing safety shut-off ball
checks.

In the event of tube breakage, the sudden loss of pressure in the tube
causes the pressure in the vessel to move the balls and reseal the
lines thus preventing liquid or vapour escaping from the process
vessel.

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Figure 2 – Tubular Type Sight Glass

It is essential to connect the top of the sight glass to the vapour space
of the vessel when it is operated under pressure. Otherwise, the liquid
in the glass would be blown out to atmosphere.

The externally mounted sight glass does not always indicate the true
level of the liquid inside the vessel. If the liquid in the vessel is at high
temperature and the sight glass is not thermally insulated, the specific
mass (density) of the liquid in the glass will increase and support a
higher column of lower specific mass liquid inside the vessel. Likewise,
when the liquid in the vessel is refrigerated and the sight glass is not
adequately cold insulated, the level in the sight glass will be higher
than the true level in the vessel.

The contents of the sight glass should be purged to a closed drain at

regular intervals to ensure that the lower connection is not blocked and
to ensure that the sight glass liquid is the same as that inside the
vessel.

Tubular sight glasses are no longer used in high pressure, high

temperature hydrocarbon service because they are too easily broken.
However, they are still used in utility services such as water treatment
where pressures do not exceed 10 bar g.

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FLOAT GAUGES

Devices incorporating floats have been used for a very long time for
liquid level indication, measurement and control. The device used for
liquid level measurement in fixed roof tanks is known as a float gauge
or tape gauge and many different types are used. All types employ
measuring wires or tapes, which are either moved by gravity
counterweights, spring powered servomotors or electric servomotors.

A float operates on the Archimedes Principle, which states that when a

body is immersed in a liquid it is buoyed by an upward force equal to
the weight of liquid displaced. When the weight of the float is equal to
the weight of the liquid displaced, it will remain on the liquid surface at
a constant submergence at constant density and its motion upwards or
downwards can be used to measure the changing level in a process
vessel or a storage tank.

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TANK FLOAT GAUGE

The drawing below shows a simple float gauge installed in a fixed roof
atmospheric pressure tank. The system consists of a hollow metal or
plastic float about 300mm in diameter attached to a stainless steel tape
or flexible wire which transmits the motion to a pointer moving up or
down a vertical gauge board fixed to the outside wall of the tank. The
pointer is weighted to keep the tape taut and to overcome the friction of
the pulleys or sheaves in the tape conduit. The tape and the pointer
move between two stainless steel, spring tensioned guide wires.

Figure 3 – Weighted Tank Tape Gauge

The gauge board is calibrated in metres and centimetres with the zero
reference mark at the top. Thus, when the tank liquid level is high, the
pointer is near the bottom of the gauge board and vice versa for a low
level.

The accuracy of this float gauge system is approximately ± 10mm and

the main errors are caused by tape friction, specific mass variations,
temperature variations and turbulence at the surface of the liquid.
Friction errors are caused by corrosion of the tape pulley spindles,
turbulence by splashing when top inlets are used and by vortices when
liquid is being pumped out at low levels. The float should be located as
far away as possible from the inlet and outlet connections.

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SERVO-POWERED TANK LEVEL GAUGE

A servo-powered gauge eliminates the effects of friction in the motion

transmission and measurement sections of a tank level gauge.

The following drawing shows the major components of a servo-

powered tank gauge and a simplified diagram of the operating
principle. A float or a solid displacer disc is suspended from a flexible
wire, which is wound on a grooved winding drum connected to a spring
operated weighing device. A reversible servomotor winds or unwinds
the wire until the spring tension balances the apparent weight of the
displacer immersed in the liquid. The point of balance is indicated by a
contact pointer A which rests midway between two servomotor starting
contacts B and C. if the level drops, the pointer moves to contact B
and starts the servomotor, which rotates the drum and lowers the
displacer or float into the liquid until the contacts are broken when the
point of balance is again reached.

Figure 4 – Servo Gauge Operating Principle

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Figure 5 – Servo Powered Tank Gauge

The servomotor also drives a local digital indicator and a cam operated
micro switch transmitter, which operates a remote measuring
instrument.

FLOAT SWITCHES

The purpose of a float switch is to sense liquid level at a specified high

or low elevation in a process vessel or tank. The float may be used to
actuate an alarm or trip switch as shown on page 11, which illustrates
two types of float switches.

The floats used vary in diameter but have a relatively small travel and
are normally round, oblong or cylindrical in shape. A high-level switch
float hangs freely in the vapour space and a low-level float is
submerged when the vessel liquid is normal. The floats may be
internally or externally mounted. The latter method is favoured,
because they can be easily removed for repair.

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The drawing on page 11 illustrates two types of level switches in which
the floats actuate the switches either by bending a flexible tube or by
magnetic movement of switch contacts. The flexible tube switch has a
ball float, which transmits buoyancy power to a thin-walled tube with a
flattened bending section. When the float moves, the tube bends a
thick tongue rod inside the tube moves up and down until it actuates a
micro switch.

The micro switch opens or closes an electrical output circuit with a

rapid snap action, which initiates an alarm or a trip device.

The opposed magnet switch has a pivoted oblong float, which tilts a
magnet rod adjacent to another pivoted magnet rod used to operate an
electric switch. The adjacent poles of the magnets are the same
polarity with the result that, when the float magnet moves above or
below its mid position, the second magnet is repelled rapidly and opens
or closes the electric switch with a snap action.

Figure 6 – Level / Float Switches

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INDIRECT METHODS

The following typical devices and installation arrangements utilise the

indirect method of level management:

1. displacer gauge

2. hydrostatic head gauge

3. purged dip pipe system

DISPLACER GAUGE

The displacer gauge is one of the most reliable devices for the
measurement or control of liquid level and has been widely used for
over fifty years.

A displacer tube is a long narrow closed cylinder, which is half

submerged in the liquid at normal level. Although it measures level by
the Archimedes Principle of buoyancy, it is heavier than the liquid and
does not float. It is suspended from a torque tube, which measures
the buoyancy force acting upwards on the cylinder at varying depths of
submergence caused by movement of the liquid level.

The consequent variations in torsional stress rotate a rod, which can be

connected to either a pointer moving round a scale or to a level
transmitter and controller.
The drawing on page 15 illustrates the operating principles of a
displacer gauge installed in a chamber outside a process vessel.

When the displacer chamber is empty, the whole weight of the

displacer tube is transmitted to the free end of the torque tube through
the displacer rod, which pivots on a knife edge bearing to minimise
friction losses. The turning moment applied to the torque tube is equal
to the displacer tube weight multiplied by the length of the displacer
rod. The torsional stress at the free end of the torque tube causes a
small transmission rod, welded to the torque tube hub, to rotate. This
motion is transferred to the measuring instrument. As the liquid rises
round the displacer tube, its apparent weight decreases, due to the
buoyancy upthrust, by an amount equal to the weight of the displaced
liquid. The upthrust also depends on the specific mass of the liquid.
Hence, errors will occur in level measurement if the specific mass of
the liquid changes.

The cylindrical shape of a displacer tube ensures that the relationship

between buoyancy change and submersion depth change will be
linear. Its length is varied according to the level range required.

The displacer gauge is used mainly in the range 350mm to 1.5m and in
clean liquid service.

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Typical problems experienced with displacer gauge installations
include:

1. hole(s) in the displacer

2. cracked or fractured torque tube

3. accumulation of scale or sediment in the displacer chamber

4. wear in the transmission mechanism

Figure 7 – Displacer Gauge Operating Principle

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HYDROSTATIC HEAD GAUGE

Hydrostatic head gauge measurements can be made indirectly with

simple pressure gauges or diaphragms over a wide range of both
viscous and dirty liquid.
The level of liquid in a storage tank vented to atmosphere can be
measured by a pressure gauge located at a selected reference point
near the bottom of the tank.

The level is computed from the formula P = ρh.

Where P = measured pressure

ρ = relative density (specific gravity)

h = liquid height above datum point in metres (m)
In a pressurised tank, a simple pressure gauge can not be used
because it would measure the hydrostatic pressure plus the pressure in
the vapour space. It is necessary to use a differential pressure cell (DP
cell), one side of which is connected to the bottom of the tank and the
other to the vapour space.

The drawing on page 18 shows how DP cell is used to measure the

hydrostatic pressure in atmospheric and pressurised tanks.

A typical pad type DP cell is shown on page 18.

If the vapour in the pressurised tank condenses at ambient

temperature, condensate will accumulate in the vapour leg during cold
weather and cause an error in the DP cell measurement of hydrostatic
pressure. This problem is overcome by completely filling a section of
the vapour leg with condensate thus converting it from a “dry” to a “wet”
leg.

If a pneumatic DP cell is used with a wet leg installation it must be

equipped with a zero suppression kit in which the tension of a spring
can be adjusted to cancel out any initial force or pressure exerted by
the wet leg liquid on the low pressure side of the DP cell. This will
ensure that the measuring instrument indicates zero level when the
tank is empty.

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Figure 8 - Hydrostatic Pressure Measurement

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Figure 9 – Pad Type DP Cell

Some installations make it necessary to install the DP cell below the

level of the tank. In such installations the high pressure leg of the DP
cell will be full of tank liquid and a zero elevation kit will be fitted in
which the tension of a spring can be adjusted to cancel out the
pressure exerted by the additional leg of liquid on the high pressure
side. The DP cell used for hydrostatic head measurement can either
by the pneumatic type or the electronic type.

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PURGED GAS DIP PIPE SYSTEM

This system is suitable for open or closed tanks and corrosive or non-
corrosive liquids. The principle of operation is illustrated on Page 18,
Item A. A supply of purging gas, usually air, is bubbled through the
liquid. Pressure in the line is then equal to the back pressure exerted
by the head of liquid and is indicated on the gauge.

The back pressure gauge can be calibrated to directly indicate liquid

level.

The dip tube is arranged as shown on Page 18, Item B, with a

clearance at the bottom to prevent any sediment from blocking the
tube. To set up the system a small flow of air is admitted to the
system, at maximum level, by means of the needle valve and indicated
by bubbles in the sight glass. The needle valve is adjusted to obtain
about one bubble per second. The actual bubble rate is unimportant
but too high a rate consumes more air than necessary. As the level
falls more air will escape and the bubble rate will increase.

Page 18, Item C illustrates an installation for use on a closed tank

where the liquid level is indicated by a differential pressure gauge or
can be measured by installation of a differential pressure cell in place
of the gauge.

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Figure 10 – Purged Dip Pipe Systems

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Gas purging is not suitable for all applications, for example gas is
unsatisfactory for very viscous or volatile liquids. A liquid purge can be
used in such cases with similar application. In many cases the liquid
used may a distillate of the vessel contents or it may be water or any
liquid that will not adversely affect the contents of the vessel.

The sight feed bubbler unit, Page 18, figure B, used to give visual
indication of the bubbler rate, uses a light oil or glycerol as the medium
through which the purge gas is passed.

ULTRASONIC

The surface of a liquid can be located by ultrasonic means (drawing

below). The transmitter and receiver are generally mounted in the top
of the vessel. The length of time that a pulse of ultrasound takes to be
reflected back from the surface of the liquid is a measure of the
distance travelled and therefore of the “emptiness” of the vessel.

This type of installation is satisfactory for selected applications. The

problems of providing an adequate level of power to the pulse, and
avoiding the effects of spurious echoes can be overcome by careful
design. Any build-up of dust or grease on the transmitting or receiving
transducer can cause a mis-match and loss of power transfer.

Generator or
Receiver
Transmitter

Figure 11 – Ultrasonic

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RADIATION

A radiation level measurement (drawing below) generally consists of a

radioactive source on one side of the tank and a suitable detector on
the other. As the radiation passes through the tank, its density varies
with the amount of material in the tank and can be related to level.
One advantage is that nothing comes in contact with the liquid. Among
the disadvantages are the high cost and the difficulties associated with
radioactive materials. Radioactive techniques do have the ability to
solve difficult level-measuring problems.

Figure 12 – Nucleonic (Radiation)

CAPACITANCE

If a probe is inserted into a tank (drawing below), and the capacitance

measured between it and the tank, a sizeable change in capacitance
will occur with liquid level. this phenomenon is due to primarily to the
substantial difference between the dielectric constant of air and that of
the liquid in the tank. This technique is best applied to non-conductive
liquids, since it is best to avoid the problems generated by conducting
materials like acids.

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Indicator, recorder or transmitter

Capacitance

Probe

Figure 13 – Capacitance

Occasionally the measurement of the contents of a tank is so difficult

that none of the usual schemes will work. When this occurs it may be
advantageous to consider a weighing system (drawing below). Weight
cells, either hydraulic or strain gauge, are used to weigh the vessel and
its contents. The tare weight of the tank is the tank weight adjusted out
of the reading, which will result in a signal proportional to tank contents.

One advantage of the weight system is that there is no direct contact

with the contents of the tank and the sensor. However, the system is
not economical, and varying densities may confuse the relationship
between signal and true level.

Indicator, recorder
or transmitter

Weight Cells

Figure 13 – Weight Level System

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ELECTRONIC SWITCH

A horizontal probe, insulated from the vessel, will detect the change in
capacitance (or conductance) as the liquid (or in some cases power or
plastic granules) covers the probe, changing the dielectric constant
resistance around the probe.

VIBRATING PROBE

The tuning fork type of probe is gaining favour in solids handling

applications where floats are not practical and where dielectric effects
are not consistent.

A cast metal probe in the shape of a tuning fork is caused to vibrate by

a piezo electric crystal in the base of the probe. When the probe is
constrained by the solid material on the tines, this changes the
electrical characteristics of the crystal. This change is detected
electronically operating a relay.

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MAINTENANCE

The problem with these level switches is that, although their calibration
will not drift, it is not easy to check that they are functioning correctly.
For information applications, an external chamber is provided which
can be isolated, drained and filled to check the function of the level
switch.

Changing the point of operation of a level switch is likely to involve a

new branch in the side of the vessel. To overcome this, some
conductivity or capacitance probes are let down from the top of the
vessel. Changing the switching point is then a matter of altering the
length of the chain or cable by which the probe is suspended.
However, the internal switch is more difficult to check, both for position
and for operation. The electronics outside can be checked, but has the
probe fallen off?? Even filling the vessel to the point at which the
switch operates, requires a cross-reference to an alternative level
measurement to confirm that it is the correct point.

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