Week 2

Title:
o Elementary Logic
o Statements and their connectives
Objectives:

a. Define Logic
b. Describe a statement in Logic
c. Differentiate simple from compound statement
d. Give examples of statement in Logic

Discussion:

Mathematical Logic
- Methods of reasoning, provides rules and techniques to determine whether
an argument is valid.
A statement or proposition is a declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not
both .

A simple statement is a logical statement carrying one piece of information.

Compound statements are statements using two or more logic operations.

The logical connectives are defined by truth tables (but have English language
counterparts) .
Logic Math English
Conjunction ∧ and
Disjunction ∨ or (inclusive)
Negation ~ not
Conditional ⇒ if ... then ...
Biconditional ⇔ if and only if

Examples:

Mathematical Logic

If x is an integer , then x + 1 is an odd integer.

This statement is true under the condition that x is an integer is true.

Statement or Propositions

Uppercase letters denote propositions

P: 2 is an even number (true)
Q: 7 is an even number (false)
R: A is a vowel (true)

The following are not propositions:

P: My cat is beautiful
Q: My house is big
 Week 3
Title:
o Conjunction and Disjunctions
o Compound statements involving 3 distinct components
Objectives:

a. Define Conjunctions and Disjunctions

b. Use truth table to express validity between statements
c. Give examples of compound statements

Discussion:

In logic, a conjunction is a compound sentence formed by using the word and to join
two simple sentences. The symbol for this is Λ. (whenever you see Λ read 'and') When
two simple sentences, p and q, are joined in a conjunction statement, the conjunction is
expressed symbolically as p Λ q.

In logic, a disjunction is a compound sentence formed by using the word or to join two
simple sentences. The symbol for this is ν. (whenever you see ν read 'or') When two
simple sentences, p and q, are joined in a disjunction statement, the disjunction is
expressed symbolically as p ν q.
Pneumonic: the way to remember the symbol for disjunction is that, this symbol ν looks
like the 'r' in or, the keyword of disjunction statements.

Examples:

Simple Sentence Compound Sentence: Conjunction

p: Joe eats fries p^q: Joe eats fries, and Maria drinks soda
q: Maria drinks soda

Simple Sentence Compound Sentence: Disjunction

p: The clock is slow. p^q: The clock is slow or the time is
q: The time is correct. correct.

The only way for a disjunction to be a false statement is if BOTH halves are false. A
disjunction is true if either statement is true or if both statements are true! In other
words, the statement 'The clock is slow or the time is correct' is a false statement only if
both parts are false! Likewise, the statement 'Mr. G teaches Math or Mr. G teaches
Science' is true if Mr. G is teaches science classes as well as math classes!

Truth Table for Conjunction Truth Table for Disjunction

P Q P^Q P Q P^Q
F F F F F F
F T F F T T
T F F T F T
T T T T T T
 Week 4
Title:
o Tautology
o Implications, Equivalence
Objectives:

a. Describe Tautology, Implications and Equivalence

b. Use truth table to express validity between statements
c. Give examples of Tautology, implications, and equivalence

Discussion:

A tautology in math (and logic) is a compound statement (premise and conclusion) that
always produces truth. No matter what the individual parts are, the result is a true
statement; a tautology is always true. The opposite of a tautology is a contradiction or
a fallacy, which is "always false".

Logical implication is a type of relationship between two statements or sentences. The

relation translates verbally into "logically implies" or "if/then" and is symbolized by a
double-lined arrow pointing toward the right (⇒). If A and B represent statements, then
A⇒B means "A implies B" or "If A, then B." The word "implies" is used in the strongest
possible sense.

Logical equivalence is a type of relationship between two statements or sentences in

propositional logic or Boolean algebra. The relation translates verbally into "if and only
if" and is symbolized by a double-lined, double arrow pointing to the left and right (⇔). If
A and B represent statements, then A⇔B means "A if and only if B."

Examples:

Is (p q) p a tautology?

P Q P^Q (p q) p
T T T T
T F F T
F T F T
F F F T

The compound statement (p q) p consists of the individual statements p, q, and p

q. The truth table above shows that (p q) p is true regardless of the truth value of
the individual statements. Therefore, (p q) p is a tautology.

Implication
Let P: Today is Sunday and Q: I will wash the car.
P⇒Q: If today is Sunday, then I will wash the car.

P Q P⇒Q
F F T
F T F
 T F T
T T T

Equivalence

P Q P⇒Q
F F T
F T F
T F F
T T T
 Week 5
Title:
o De Morgan’s Law
o Law of Statements in Logic
Objectives:

a. Define De Morgan’s Law

b. Prove De Morgan’s Law

Discussion:

Definition of De Morgan’s law:

The complement of the union of two sets is equal to the intersection of their
complements and the complement of the intersection of two sets is equal to the union of
their complements. These are called De Morgan’s laws.

For any two finite sets A and B;

(i) (A U B)' = A' ∩ B' (which is a De Morgan's law of union).
(ii) (A ∩ B)' = A' U B' (which is a De Morgan's law of intersection).

Proof of De Morgan’s law: (A U B)' = A' ∩ B'

Let P = (A U B)' and Q = A' ∩ B'

Let x be an arbitrary element of P then x ∈ P ⇒ x ∈ (A U B)'
⇒ x ∉ (A U B)
⇒ x ∉ A and x ∉ B
⇒ x ∈ A' and x ∈ B'
⇒ x ∈ A' ∩ B'
⇒x∈Q
Therefore, P ⊂ Q .. (i)

Again, let y be an arbitrary element of Q then y ∈ Q ⇒ y ∈ A' ∩ B'

⇒ y ∈ A' and y ∈ B'
⇒ y ∉ A and y ∉ B
⇒ y ∉ (A U B)
⇒ y ∈ (A U B)'
⇒y∈P
Therefore, Q ⊂ P …………….. (ii)
Now combine (i) and (ii) we get; P = Q i.e. (A U B)' = A' ∩ B'

Proof of De Morgan’s law: (A ∩ B)' = A' U B'

Let M = (A ∩ B)' and N = A' U B'

Let x be an arbitrary element of M then x ∈ M ⇒ x ∈ (A ∩ B)'
⇒ x ∉ (A ∩ B)
⇒ x ∉ A or x ∉ B
⇒ x ∈ A' or x ∈ B'
⇒ x ∈ A' U B'
⇒x∈N
Therefore, M ⊂ N …………….. (i)
Again, let y be an arbitrary element of N then y ∈ N ⇒ y ∈ A' U B'
⇒ y ∈ A' or y ∈ B'
⇒ y ∉ A or y ∉ B
⇒ y ∉ (A ∩ B)
⇒ y ∈ (A ∩ B)'
⇒y∈M
Therefore, N ⊂ M …………….. (ii)
Now combine (i) and (ii) we get; M = N i.e. (A ∩ B)' = A' U B'

Examples:

1. If U = {j, k, l, m, n}, X = {j, k, m} and Y = {k, m, n}.

Proof of De Morgan's law: (X ∩ Y)' = X' U Y'.

Solution:
We know, U = {j, k, l, m, n}
X = {j, k, m}
Y = {k, m, n}
(X ∩ Y) = {j, k, m} ∩ {k, m, n}
= {k, m}
Therefore, (X ∩ Y)' = {j, l, n} ……………….. (i)
Again, X = {j, k, m} so, X' = {l, n}
and Y = {k, m, n} so, Y' = {j, l}

X' ∪ Y' = {l, n} ∪ {j, l}

Therefore, X' ∪ Y' = {j, l, n} ……………….. (ii)

Combining (i)and (ii) we get;

(X ∩ Y)' = X' U Y'. Proved

2. Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}, P = {4, 5, 6} and Q = {5, 6, 8}.

Show that (P ∪ Q)' = P' ∩ Q'.

Solution:
We know, U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}

P = {4, 5, 6}
Q = {5, 6, 8}

P ∪ Q = {4, 5, 6} ∪ {5, 6, 8}

= {4, 5, 6, 8}

Therefore, (P ∪ Q)' = {1, 2, 3, 7} ……………….. (i)

Now P = {4, 5, 6} so, P' = {1, 2, 3, 7, 8}

and Q = {5, 6, 8} so, Q' = {1, 2, 3, 4, 7}

P' ∩ Q' = {1, 2, 3, 7, 8} ∩ {1, 2, 3, 4, 7}

Therefore, P' ∩ Q' = {1, 2, 3, 7} ……………….. (ii)

Combining (i)and (ii) we get;

(P ∪ Q)' = P' ∩ Q'. Proved
 Week 6
Title:
o Contradiction
o Quantification Rules
Objectives:

a. Define Contradiction
b. Describe the Quantification Rules
c. Give examples of proof by contradiction

Discussion:

Proof by contradiction in logic and mathematics is a proof that determines the truth of
a statement by assuming the proposition is false, then working to show its falsity until
the result of that assumption is a contradiction.

Proof by Contradiction: Steps

1. Assume your statement to be false.

2. Proceed as you would with a direct proof.
3. Come across a contradiction.
4. State that because of the contradiction, it can't be the case that the statement is
false, so it must be true.

Examples:

For all real numbers x and y, if x is rational and x≠0 and y is irrational, then x⋅y is
irrational.

Proof
We will use a proof by contradiction. So we assume that there exist real
numbers x and y such that x is rational, y is irrational, and x⋅y is rational.
Since x≠0, we can divide by x, and since the rational numbers are closed under
division by nonzero rational numbers, we know that 1x∈Q.
We now know that x⋅y and 1x are rational numbers and since the rational
numbers are closed under multiplication,
we conclude that
1x⋅(xy)∈Q

However, 1x⋅(xy)=y and hence, y must be a rational number.

Since a real number cannot be both rational and irrational, this is a contradiction to the
assumption that y is irrational.
We have therefore proved that for all real numbers x and y, if x is rational
and x≠0 and y is irrational, then x⋅y is irrational.
 Week 7&8
Title:
o Sets, Subsets and Empty Sets
o Specializations of Sets
o Elements of Sets
o Power Sets and Super Subsets
Objectives:

a. Define Sets, Subsets and Empty Sets

b. Give examples of different types of Sets

Discussion:

A set in mathematics is a collection of well defined and distinct objects, considered as

an object in its own right.

The elements or members of a set can be anything: numbers, people, letters of the
alphabet, other sets, and so on. Sets are conventionally denoted with capital letters.
Sets A and B are equal if and only if they have precisely the same elements.

There are two ways of describing, or specifying the members of, a set.
One way is by intension definition, using a rule or semantic description:
A is the set whose members are the first four positive integers.
B is the set of colors of the French flag.

The second way is by extension – that is, listing each member of the set.
An extensional definition is denoted by enclosing the list of members in curly brackets:
C = {4, 2, 1, 3}
D = {blue, white, red}.
 Republic of the Philippines
PARTIDO STATE UNIVERSITY
Camarines Sur

Math 200
Set Theory

Portfolio of
Learning
MA. FERLY M. AGUILAR
Graduate Student

MARGARITA M. LANCISO
Assistant Professor II