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Fundamentals of Distance Protection (presentation)

Presentation · March 2018

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 Fundamentals of
Distance Protection

Bogdan Kasztenny
Dale Finney
General Electric

Presented at the 61st Annual Conference for Protective Relay Engineers

March 31 – April 3, 2008, College Station, TX
Historical Perspective
1884 Fuse
1890 Plunger type, induction disk
1909 Watt relay
1917 Symmetrical components
1920 Pilot wire, directional, differential
1930 Power (VI) relay, distance relay
1936 PLC, Recloser, voltage-restrained OC
1940 Draw out construction
1950 V/Hz, UF/OF, solid state, zone packaged 3 phase (KDAR)
1960 Underfrequency load shed
1966 Computer relaying
1982 Synchrophasors
1985 Adaptive relaying

2
Outline

 Electrical measurement of distance to fault

 Mho vs. reactance/quad comparators
 Polarization
 Directional integrity
 Resistive coverage and load encroachment
 Design challenges
 Quantifying response of distance relays

3
Electrical Measurement of Distance

Relay Transmission Line

VA
Distance to fault, d
IA
VB
IB
VC
IC

Shunt
Unbalance
(Fault)

Problem statement:
• Given line impedances, and
• Measuring voltages and currents at one line end,
• Detect a fault within a pre-determined physical distance
4
Measurement of Distance – Ground Loops (AG)
I1
Z1

V1F + I1F ⋅ Z1 − V1 = 0 V1 V1F

IF
I2
Z2

V2 F + I 2 ⋅ Z1 − V2 = 0

RF
V2 V2F VF

I0
Z0

V0 F + I 0 ⋅ Z 0 − V0 = 0 V0 V0F

+
V1F + V2 F + V0 F + (I1 + I 2 ) ⋅ Z1 + I 0 ⋅ Z 0 − V1 − V2 − V0 = 0

I F ⋅ RF + (I1 + I 2 ) ⋅ Z1 + I 0 ⋅ Z 0 − VA = 0
5
Measurement of Distance – Ground Loops (AG)

I F ⋅ RF + (I1 + I 2 ) ⋅ Z1 + I 0 ⋅ Z 0 − VA = 0

I F ⋅ RF + (I1 + I 2 + I 0 ) ⋅ Z1 + I 0 ⋅ Z 0 − I 0 ⋅ Z1 − VA = 0

I F ⋅ RF + I A ⋅ Z1 + I 0 ⋅ (Z 0 − Z1 ) − VA = 0

  Z0  
I F ⋅ RF + Z1 ⋅  I A + I 0 ⋅  − 1  − V A = 0
  Z1  

 Z0 
I A _ LOOP = I A + I 0 ⋅  − 1 V A _ LOOP = V A
 Z1 
6
Measurement of Distance – Ground Loops (AG)
  Z0  
I F ⋅ RF + Z1 ⋅  I A + I 0 ⋅  − 1  − V A = 0

  Z1  
Assumption:
 zero fault resistance

  Z0   X
Z1 ⋅  I A + I 0 ⋅  − 1  − V A = 0

  Z1  

 apparent impedance:
VA VA _ LOOP
Z APP = =
  Z0   I A _ LOOP
 I A + I 0 ⋅  − 1  R
 
  Z 1  
7
Impact of Fault Resistance
Error factor
I F ⋅ RF + Z1 ⋅ I A _ LOOP = V A _ LOOP

V A _ LOOP IF
Z APP = = Z 1 + RF ⋅
I A _ LOOP I A _ LOOP

Accurate value Import

X
No load

Export

R
8
Impact of Fault Resistance
Error factor
I F ⋅ RF + Z1 ⋅ I A _ LOOP = V A _ LOOP

V A _ LOOP IF
Z APP = = Z 1 + RF ⋅
I A _ LOOP I A _ LOOP

Accurate value
X
Local feed only (RF)
Equal contributions (2RF)
Remote end stronger

R
9
Apparent Impedance is Not a Protection Signal
X
Forward, external
Faults

Line Faults
Load, Load,
Import Export R

Reverse, external
Faults

10
Need of a “Distance-Sensing Device”

11
Pioneers

12
Mho characteristic

X
∠(I ⋅ Z − V , V ) = ±90 0

ZR
I*ZR I*ZR - V

R
I*Z = V

13
Role of a “comparator”

 Any condition (mho, reactance, blinder, directional)

can be accomplished as a comparator
 A comparator asserts on/off output based on angle
coincidence or magnitude ratio between two signals
 Complex characteristics are combinations of
comparators
 Comparators are common themes across static and
microprocessor-based technologies

14
Role of a “comparator”

 Any condition (mho, reactance, blinder, directional)

can be accomplished as a comparator
 A comparator asserts on/off output based on angle
coincidence or magnitude ratio between two signals
S1 S1 - S 2

S2 > 90o = S1 + S2 > 1

S1 S1 - S 2

S2 >1 = S1 + S2 > 90o

15
Role of a “comparator”

 Any condition (mho, reactance, blinder, directional)

can be accomplished as a comparator
 A comparator asserts on/off output based on angle
coincidence or magnitude ratio between two signals
 Complex characteristics are combinations of
comparators
I*Z - V
Memory-polarized mho +
V1mem zero-sequence directional +
negative-sequence directional
I0 ± 90o

I2
16
Role of a “comparator”

 Any condition (mho, reactance, blinder, directional)

can be accomplished as a comparator
I*Z - V
Self-polarized mho
V ± 90o

I*Z - V
Reactance
I*Z ± 90o

I0
AG fault
I2A ± 50o
17
Resistive Coverage – Back to the Drawing Board

Reactance Supervision Offset Mho with Reactance

X X

R R

18
Resistive Coverage – Back to the Drawing Board

Concentric Mho with Reactance

and directional Supervision

19
Variable/memory-polarized Mho

X
∠(I ⋅ Z − V , VPRE ) = ±90 0

ZR I*ZR - V
I*ZR

I*Z = V
ZSYS
I*(Z + ZSYS) = VPRE
20
Increasing Resistive Coverage
I F ⋅ RF + Z1 ⋅ I A _ LOOP = V A _ LOOP

− I F ⋅ RF = Z1 ⋅ I A _ LOOP − V A _ LOOP
Fault Resistance is a
Real Number

− I F and Z1 ⋅ I A _ LOOP − V A _ LOOP

are exactly in phase for end zone faults
(regardless of the fault resistance),
… assuming a 90deg limit angle:
S POL = j ⋅ I F and S OP = Z REACH ⋅ I A _ LOOP − V A _ LOOP

A perfect distance comparator is polarized

from the fault current/voltage
21
Polarization of Reactance Comparators

Current Polarizing

Fault Components Loop Current

Zero-seq (I0) Neg-seq (I2)

Dynamic Combination
Selection

 Analyze the network for best  Open pole condition

polarizing source (single-phase tripping)
 Non-homogeneity angle
setting
22
Apparent Impedance
X
Properly polarized Forward, external
reactance Faults
comparator resolves
this overlap

Line Faults
Load, Load,
Import Export R

Reverse, external
Faults

23
Need for Directional Supervision

 Memory-polarized mho is directional on its own:

Internal fault X X Reverse fault

R R

 Quadrilateral functions need explicit directional

supervision

24
Directional Supervision

Directional Elements

Voltage Current

Neg-seq (V2)
Zero-seq (I0) Neg-seq (I2)
Pos-seq (V1)

Zero-seq (V0) Dynamic Combination

Selection
Quadrature
Loop Current

Memorized Actual

25
Apparent Impedance
X
Forward, external
Faults

Line Faults
Load, Load,
Import Export R

Reverse, external Directional

Faults comparator resolves
this overlap
26
Load Encroachment (blinders)
X

Line Faults
Load, Load,
Import Export R

27
Load Encroachment (blocking)
X

Line Faults
Load, Load,
Import Export R

28
Shaping a Quadrilateral Distance Zone
X
Forward, external
Faults

Line Faults
Load, Load,
Import Export R

Reverse, external
Faults

29
Shaping a Mho Distance Zone
X
Forward, external
Faults

Line Faults
Load, Load,
Import Export R

Reverse, external
Faults

30
Source Impedance Ratio, Accuracy & Speed

Relay
Line
System

d[ PU ]
Voltage at the relay: VR ≈ V N
d[ PU ] + SIR

Consider SIR = 0.1

Fault location Voltage (%) Voltage change (%)
75% 88.24 2.76
90% 90.00 0.91
100% 90.91 N/A
110% 91.67 0.76

31
Source Impedance Ratio, Accuracy & Speed

Relay
System
Line
d[ PU ]
Voltage at the relay: VR ≈ V N
d[ PU ] + SIR

Consider SIR = 30
Fault location Voltage (%) Voltage change (%)
75% 2.4390 0.7868
90% 2.9126 0.3132
100% 3.2258 N/A
110% 3.5370 0.3112

32
Transients
 High frequency
 DC offset in currents
 CVT transients in voltages 30

20
steady - state
output
10

voltage, V
0

- 10
Secondary Voltage

CVT output
Output

- 20

- 30
0 1 2 3 4
power cycles

33
Transients
 High frequency
 DC offset in currents
 CVT transients in voltages 60

40
steady-state
output
20

voltage, V
0

-20
Secondary Voltage

CVT
output
Output

-40

-60
0 1 2 3 4
power cycles

34
Why is it a challenging relay design problem?
100
100
80

60

40
Voltage [V]

Reactance comparator [V]

20 50
0 SOP
-20

-40 0
-60 SPOL
-80

-100
-0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 -50
5

3 -100
-0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
Current [A]

2 power cycles
1

0 • In-phase = internal fault

-1
• Out-of-phase = external fault
-2

-3
-0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5

35
Quantifying Performance of Distance Relays

 Transient accuracy < 5% (for zone 1)

 Speed
• Fault location
• Fault type
• SIR
 CVT is a variable to both accuracy and speed

30
SIR
time
Time

SIR

0.1
0 Fault location 0.7 0 Fault location 0.7
36
Direct Comparison

Relay 1 New subcycle relay

15
% of cases, distribution

10

0 -
-1.5 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
1
Operating time difference Relay 1 - Relay 2, cycles

37
Speed vs. Accuracy

Do not operate line

Time

0 Fault location 0.7

Zone 1 operation is like a 100m dash…

…with a brick wall at the end !
38
 Questions?
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