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Power Supplies
Types | Dual supplies | Transformer | Rectifier | Smoothing | Regulator

Next Page: Transducers

Also See: AC and DC | Diodes | Capacitors

Types of Power Supply

There are many types of power supply. Most are designed to convert high voltage AC
mains electricity to a suitable low voltage supply for electronics circuits and other
devices. A power supply can by broken down into a series of blocks, each of which
performs a particular function.

For example a 5V regulated supply:

Each of the blocks is described in more detail below:

 Transformer - steps down high voltage AC mains to low voltage AC.

 Rectifier - converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying.
 Smoothing - smooths the DC from varying greatly to a small ripple.
 Regulator - eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage.

Power supplies made from these blocks are described below with a circuit diagram and
a graph of their output:

 Transformer only
 Transformer + Rectifier
  Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing
 Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing + Regulator

Dual Supplies

Some electronic circuits require a

power supply with positive and negative
outputs as well as zero volts (0V). This
is called a 'dual supply' because it is
like two ordinary supplies connected
together as shown in the diagram.

Dual supplies have three outputs, for

example a ±9V supply has +9V, 0V and -9V outputs.

Transformer only

The low voltage AC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and special AC motors. It is
not suitable for electronic circuits unless they include a rectifier and a smoothing
capacitor.

Further information: Transformer

Transformer + Rectifier
The varying DC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and standard motors. It is not
suitable for electronic circuits unless they include a smoothing capacitor.

Further information: Transformer | Rectifier

Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing

The smooth DC output has a small ripple. It is suitable for most electronic circuits.

Further information: Transformer | Rectifier | Smoothing

Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing + Regulator

The regulated DC output is very smooth with no ripple. It is suitable for all electronic
circuits.

Further information: Transformer | Rectifier |

Smoothing | Regulator

Transformer
circuit symbol
Transformer
Photograph © Rapid Electronics

There is more information

about transformers on the
Electronics in Meccano
website.

Transformer

Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to another with little loss of power.
Transformers work only with AC and this is one of the reasons why mains electricity is
AC.

Step-up transformers increase voltage, step-down transformers reduce voltage. Most

power supplies use a step-down transformer to reduce the dangerously high mains
voltage (230V in UK) to a safer low voltage.

The input coil is called the primary and the output coil is called the secondary. There is
no electrical connection between the two coils, instead they are linked by an alternating
magnetic field created in the soft-iron core of the transformer. The two lines in the
middle of the circuit symbol represent the core.
Transformers waste very little power so the power out is (almost) equal to the power in.
Note that as voltage is stepped down current is stepped up.

The ratio of the number of turns on each coil, called the turns ratio, determines the
ratio of the voltages. A step-down transformer has a large number of turns on its
primary (input) coil which is connected to the high voltage mains supply, and a small
number of turns on its secondary (output) coil to give a low output voltage.

Vp Np power out = power in   
  turns ratio =   =     and   
Vs Ns Vs × Is = Vp × Ip
Vp = primary (input) voltage Vs = secondary (output) voltage
Np = number of turns on primary coil     Ns = number of turns on secondary coil
Ip  = primary (input) current Is  = secondary (output) current

Rectifier

There are several ways of connecting diodes to make a rectifier to convert AC to DC.
The bridge rectifier is the most important and it produces full-
wave varying DC. A full-wave rectifier can also be made from There is more information
about rectifiers on the
just two diodes if a centre-tap transformer is used, but this Electronics in Meccano
method is rarely used now that diodes are cheaper. A website.
single diode can be used as a rectifier but it only uses the
positive (+) parts of the AC wave to produce half-wave varying
DC.

Bridge rectifier

A bridge rectifier can be made using four individual diodes, but it is also available in
special packages containing the four diodes required. It is called a full-wave rectifier
because it uses all the AC wave (both positive and negative sections). 1.4V is used up
in the bridge rectifier because each diode uses 0.7V when conducting and there are
always two diodes conducting, as shown in the diagram below. Bridge rectifiers are
rated by the maximum current they can pass and the maximum reverse voltage they
can withstand (this must be at least three times the supply RMS voltage so the rectifier
can withstand the peak voltages). Please see the Diodes page for more details,
including pictures of bridge rectifiers.
 Bridge rectifier Output: full-wave varying DC
Alternate pairs of diodes conduct, changing over (using all the AC wave)
the connections so the alternating directions of
AC are converted to the one direction of DC.

Single diode rectifier

A single diode can be used as a rectifier but this produces half-wave varying DC which
has gaps when the AC is negative. It is hard to smooth this sufficiently well to supply
electronic circuits unless they require a very small current so the smoothing capacitor
does not significantly discharge during the gaps. Please see the Diodes page for some
examples of rectifier diodes.

Single diode rectifier Output: half-wave varying DC

(using only half the AC wave)

Smoothing

Smoothing is performed by a large value electrolytic capacitor connected across the DC

supply to act as a reservoir, supplying current to the output when the varying DC
voltage from the rectifier is falling. The diagram shows the unsmoothed varying DC
(dotted line) and the smoothed DC (solid line). The capacitor charges quickly near the
peak of the varying DC, and then discharges as it supplies current to the output.
Note that smoothing significantly increases the average DC voltage to almost the peak
value (1.4 × RMS value). For example 6V RMS AC is rectified to full wave DC of about
4.6V RMS (1.4V is lost in the bridge rectifier), with smoothing this increases to almost
the peak value giving 1.4 × 4.6 = 6.4V smooth DC.

Smoothing is not perfect due to the capacitor voltage falling a little as it discharges,
giving a small ripple voltage. For many circuits a ripple which is 10% of the supply
voltage is satisfactory and the equation below gives the required value for the
smoothing capacitor. A larger capacitor will give less ripple. The capacitor value must
be doubled when smoothing half-wave DC.
There is more information
about smoothing on the
 Smoothing Electronics in Meccano
5 × Io   
capacitor for website. Vs × f
10% ripple, C =

C  = smoothing capacitance in farads (F)

Io  = output current from the supply in amps (A)
Vs = supply voltage in volts (V), this is the peak value of the unsmoothed DC
f    = frequency of the AC supply in hertz (Hz), 50Hz in the UK

Regulator
Voltage regulator ICs are available
with fixed (typically 5, 12 and 15V)
or variable output voltages. They are
also rated by the maximum current
they can pass. Negative voltage
regulators are available, mainly for Voltage regulator
use in dual supplies. Most regulators  
Photograph © Rapid Electronics
include some automatic protection
from excessive current ('overload  
protection') and overheating ('thermal protection').

Many of the fixed voltage regulator ICs have 3 leads and look like power transistors,
such as the 7805 +5V 1A regulator shown on the right.
They include a hole for attaching a heatsink if
necessary.
zener diode
Please see the Electronics in Meccano website for more a = anode, k = cathode
information about voltage regulator ICs.

Zener diode regulator

For low current power supplies a simple voltage

regulator can be made with a resistor and a zener diode
connected in reverse as shown in the diagram. Zener
diodes are rated by their breakdown voltage Vz and
maximum power Pz (typically 400mW or 1.3W).

The resistor limits the current (like an LED resistor). The current through the resistor is
constant, so when there is no output current all the current flows through the zener
diode and its power rating Pz must be large enough to withstand this.

Please see the Diodes page for more information about zener diodes.

Choosing a zener diode and resistor:

1. The zener voltage Vz is the output voltage required

2. The input voltage Vs must be a few volts greater than Vz
(this is to allow for small fluctuations in Vs due to ripple)
3. The maximum current Imax is the output current required plus 10%
4. The zener power Pz is determined by the maximum current:  Pz > Vz × Imax
5. The resistor resistance:  R = (Vs - Vz) / Imax
6. The resistor power rating:  P > (Vs - Vz) × Imax

Example: output voltage required is 5V, output current required is 60mA . There is more information
about regulators on the
1. Vz = 4.7V (nearest value available) Electronics in Meccano
website.
 2. Vs = 8V (it must be a few volts greater than Vz)
3. Imax = 66mA (output current plus 10%)
4. Pz > 4.7V × 66mA = 310mW, choose Pz = 400mW
5. R = (8V - 4.7V) / 66mA = 0.05k = 50 , choose R = 47
6. Resistor power rating P > (8V - 4.7V) × 66mA = 218mW, choose P = 0.5W

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