Engineering Encyclopedia

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COMPRESSOR
PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS

Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s employees.
Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public
domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third
parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission
of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.

Chapter : Mechanical For additional information on this subject, contact

File Reference: MEX-212.03 PEDD Coordinator on 874-6556
Engineering Encyclopedia Compressors

Compressor Performance Characteristics

Section Page

INFORMATION ............................................................................................................... 3
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................. 3
DETERMINING DYNAMIC COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS ... 4
Thermodynamics of Compression ........................................................................ 4
Isothermal Process............................................................................................... 8
Isentropic Process ................................................................................................ 8
Polytropic Process.............................................................................................. 12
Compressibility ................................................................................................... 15
DETERMINING POSITIVE-DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE
CHARACTERISTICS .................................................................................................... 58
WORK AIDS.................................................................................................................. 62
WORK AID 1A: CALCULATION PROCEDURES AND CHARTS FOR
DETERMINING DYNAMIC COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE
CHARACTERISTICS.......................................................................... 62
WORK AID 1B: CHARTS FOR DETERMINING COMPRESSOR
PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS............................................. 65
WORK AID 2: CALCULATION PROCEDURES FOR DETERMINING POSITIVE-
DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE
CHARACTERISTICS.......................................................................... 69
GLOSSARY .................................................................................................................. 71

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Relationship Between Isentropic Efficiency and Polytropic Efficiency Based

on an Ideal Gas...................................................................................................... 15
Figure 2. Compressibility Factors at Low Reduced Pressures ..................................... 20
Figure 3. Psychometric Chart for Normal Temperatures .............................................. 31
Figure 4. Mollier Diagram for Propane ......................................................................... 41
Figure 5. Basic Head Versus Flow Performance Curve ............................................... 43
Figure 6. Centrifugal Compressor Impeller and Vector Diagram.................................. 44
Figure 7. Effect of Impeller Blade Angle on Head and Efficiency ................................. 46
Figure 8. Dynamic Compressor Surge Line ................................................................. 49
Figure 9. Dynamic Compressor Stonewall ................................................................... 50
Figure 10. Graphical Representation of the Effect of Molecular Weight on Compressor
Head Versus Flow Curves...................................................................................... 51
Figure 11. Typical Head Curve..................................................................................... 56
Figure 12. Typical Horsepower Curve .......................................................................... 57
Figure 13. Pressure Volume Cycle............................................................................... 60

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Critical Constants of Gases ............................................................................ 18

Table 1. Critical Constants of Gases (Cont’d) .............................................................. 19
Table 2. Computation of the Physical Characteristics of a Sales Gas/Fuel Gas Mixture23
Table 3. Water Content of Air in Gallons Per 1000 ft3 at Various Relative Humidities . 32
Table 4. Water Content of Saturated Air in Gallons per 1000 ft3 at Various
Temperatures and Pressures with 100% Relative Humidity........................... 34
Table 5. Critical Constants of Gases ............................................................................ 65

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INFORMATION

INTRODUCTION
Compressor performance characteristics can be described as
the operating characteristics that define the ratings of a
compressor. An understanding of compressor performance
characteristics is important when determining compressor
requirements for a system and when evaluating compressor
operation. This module describes compressor performance
characteristics and the methods of determining the compressor
performance characteristics for dynamic and positive-
displacement compressors.

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DETERMINING DYNAMIC COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE

CHARACTERISTICS
The major performance characteristics of a dynamic
compressor are flow, head, and efficiency. To determine these
performance characteristics, the Mechanical Engineer must
understand the following subjects:
• Thermodynamics of Compression
• Properties of Gas Mixtures
• Volumetric Flow
• Mollier Diagrams
• Dynamic Compressor Characteristics

Thermodynamics of Compression
No gas exactly conforms to the Ideal Gas Law, which show the
relationship between the volume, the absolute pressure, and the
absolute temperature of an ideal gas. Most gases, however,
conform to these laws with sufficient accuracy to yield sound
engineering answers relevant to engineering problems. To
understand and to calculate the thermodynamics of
compression, the Mechanical Engineer uses the following
fundamental laws:
• Boyle’s Law
• Charles’ Law
• Dalton’s Law
• Avogadros’ Law

As explained below, these gas laws combine to form the Ideal

Gas Law.

Boyle’s Law states that when the temperature of a gas is kept

constant, the volume of an enclosed mass of gas is inversely
proportional to varying pressure upon the gas. Another way to
state Boyle’s Law is that the product of the pressure multiplied
by the volume remains constant at a constant temperature. The
relationship between pressure and volume can be conveniently
expressed as the following equation:

P1V1 = P2 V2 ;when temperatur e is cons tant

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Where: V = Volume

P = Pressure

Although Boyle’s Law assumes the condition of constant

temperature; constant temperature is seldom the case in actual
industrial situations. Temperature continually changes, and
such changes in temperature affect the volume of a given mass
of gas.

Charles’ Law states that, if constant pressure is maintained, the

volume of gas is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature. The relationship between volume and absolute
temperature can be conveniently expressed as the following
equation:

V2 T2
= when pressure is constant
V1 T1

Where: V = Volume

T = Temperature

Dalton’s Law states that, in a mixture of gases, the summation

of partial pressures is equal to the total pressure of the mixture.
A partial pressure is defined as the pressure that a specific gas
in a gas mixture would exert if the gas alone occupied the total
volume occupied by the mixture at the mixture temperature.
The relationship between partial pressures can be conveniently
expressed as the following equation:

PT = ∑ PP = PP1 + PP2 + PP3 ....PPn

Where: PT = Total pressure

PP = Partial pressure
Σ = Summation
n = Number of component gases

Avogadros’ Law states that all gases have the same number of
moles in the same volume and at the same pressure and
temperature. This relationship can be stated through the
following equation:

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PV
= Constant
T
Where: P = Pressure
V = Volume
T = Temperature

As pointed out above, Boyle’s Law, Charles’ Law, Dalton’s Law,

and Avogadros’ Law combine to form the Ideal Gas Law, which
shows the relationship between the volume, the absolute
pressure, and the absolute temperature of an ideal gas. The
Ideal Gas Law can be expressed with either of the two following
formulas:

RT
υ =
P

or

P
ρ =
RT
Where: υ = Specific volume (ft3/lbm)
ρ = Density (lbm/ ft3)

R = Gas constant =Runiv/MW

= 1545.32 ft-lbf/lbm-Mol-°R/MW
Runiv = Universal Gas constant
= 1.98587 Btu/lbm-Mol-°R
= 1545.32 ft-lbf/lbm-Mol-°R
= 8.3143 Joules/gm-Mol-°R
= 10.73 psia-ft3/ lbm-Mol-°R
MW = Gas molecular weight (lbm/mole)
P = Absolute pressure (lbf/in2)
T = Absolute temperature (°R, where °R =
°F + 460

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The General Gas Law derives from simplification of the Ideal

Gas Law applied to a fixed mass. The General Gas Law relates
the properties of an ideal gas in response to varying
temperatures and volumes, with pressure held constant:

P1V1 P2 V2
=
T1 T2

Where: V = Volume
P = Pressure
T = Temperature

Variation in temperature is a function of the specific heat (C) of

a gas, or the amount of energy that is required to raise the
temperature of one pound of gas one degree Fahrenheit. If the
volume of the gas is kept constant while the heat is added, all of
the heat is used to increase the temperature of the gas. The
specific heat at a constant volume is denoted CV. If the
pressure is kept constant and if the volume is allowed to vary
while the heat is added, an increased amount of heat will be
required. The increased amount of heat is required because, in
addition to increasing the temperature, the gas expands and
thus performs external work. The specific heat at constant
pressure is denoted CP.

The external work that is done when a unit mass of gas is

heated at constant pressure is equal to the gas constant (R).
The external work can be shown by the following formula:

R
CP − C V =
J

Where: CP = Specific heat at constant pressure (Btu/°F/lb)

CV = Specific heat at constant volume (Btu/°F/lb)

R = Specific gas constant (ftlb/°R)

J = Joule’s constant, a ratio of the mechanical

work done to the heat that is produced (equal
to 778 ft-lb/Btu)

The following reversible (Ideal) compression processes can be

applied to compressors:

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• Isothermal Process
• Isentropic Process
• Polytropic Process

Although they describe ideal gases and are not commercially

attainable, these processes are used as a basis for calculations
and comparisons. The variance of a gas from laws and
processes for an ideal gas is referred to as compressibility. The
reversible (ideal) compression processes and compressibility
are discussed below. The discussions will focus on head and
efficiency in the ideal compression processes and in the actual
compression process.

Isothermal Process
The isothermal compression process is compression that takes
place at a constant temperature. Because large amounts of
heat transfer area must be supplied to keep the temperature
constant, isothermal compression is not common in the actual
operation of machinery.

The equation for isothermal efficiency is as follows:

P1V1 = P2 V2 = Cons tant

Where: P = Pressure
V = Volume

Isentropic Process
The isentropic compression process follows a path of constant
entropy. In the isentropic process, heat is neither added to nor
removed from the gas during compression. The fact that heat is
neither added nor removed does not mean that the temperature
is constant. Because of the work of compression that is
performed on the gas, temperature increases as the pressure
increases. In compressor theory, the terms “isentropic”
(constant entropy) and “adiabatic” (no heat transfer) are
interchangeably used. This interchangeability is valid for the
context in which the terms are used. The actual definition of an
isentropic process is an adiabatic, reversible process.

The following equation shows the relationship between pressure

and volume for isentropic compression:

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PV k = Constant

Where: P = Pressure
V = Volume
k = Isentropic exponent

The isentropic exponent (k) is the ratio of the specific heat at a

constant pressure (CP) to the specific heat at constant volume
(CV). The isentropic exponent is equal to CP/CV.

The following equations are used to calculate the total work

(Workisen) that is done on a unit mass of gas in the isentropic
compression process:
Workisen:
= Cp (Tr − T1 )

 k   Pr  
k −1 / k

= V1P1     − 1
 k − 1   P1  

or

Workisen:
(k −1/k )
 k   Pf  
= RTi     − 1
 k − 1  Pi  

Where: CP = Specific heat at constant temperature

Tf = Final temperature (°R)
Ti = Initial temperature (°R)
Vi = Initial volume (ft3)
Pf = Final pressure (psia)
Pi = Initial pressure (psia)
k = Isentropic exponent
R = Gas constant

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As listed above, for all gases, the gas constant (R) is equal to
the universal gas constant (Runiv) divided by the gas molecular
weight (MW), or 1545.32/MW. By definition, the air has a
uniform molecular weight of 28.966; therefore, the specific
gravity (sg) of any gas, relative to air, of molecular weight MW is
equal to MW/28.966. The gas constant (R) for any gas can now
be defined as 1545.32/MW, or 53.34/sg.

The energy (lbf) of the compression of a gas can be thought of

as lifting a given weight of gas (lbm) at inlet pressure and
temperature to a height (feet) at which the gas is discharged at
the same pressure and temperature. The unit for head is as
follows:

 ft − lbf 
Foot pound force per pound mass  
 lbm 

Head (Hp) is frequently expressed as “feet,” which relates to the

height of the gas column at which the gas is discharged at the
same pressure and temperature as the inlet gas.

Head (Hp) is a fundamental property of a compressor. Head is a

function of the compressor design and of the compressor
speed. Head is not affected by the nature of the compressed
gas, the thermodynamic properties of the gas, or the addition or
subtraction of heat as the gas flows through the compressor.
The following equation for head is usually stated in terms of
molecular weight:
(k −1/k )
1545.32Ti  k   Pf  
Headisen =     − 1
MW  k − 1  Pi  

Where: Head = ft-lbf/lbm
T = °R
P = psia

The efficiency of a compressor is the ratio of the theoretical

energy output of the system to the actual energy input of the
system. For an isentropic process, the theoretical energy output
is the isentropic work output. To determine the efficiency in the
isentropic process ( η ), the isentropic process must be
understood. Because of the second law of thermodynamics, the
ideal adiabatic compression occurs at constant entropy.

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Efficiency in isentropic compression, as shown in the following

equation, can then be defined as the ratio of isentropic work to
actual work:

Isentropic Work
η=
Actual Work

The overall efficiency in isentropic compression (also referred to

as isentropic efficiency) is used as a measure of the overall
performance of a compressor.

A variation of the isentropic process occurs when compression

with intercooling is used. Multi-stage compressors may use
intercoolers between stages to lower the gas temperature.
Compression with intercooling results in an isothermal
approximation of an isentropic process. When intercooling is
used, the compressor head can be approximated through use of
the following isothermal head equation:

RTi
Hiso = ln(P2 /P1 )
MW

Where: Hiso = Isothermal head

R = Gas constant (1545.32 ft-lbf/lbm - Mol - °R)

Ti = Initial temperature in °R

ln = Log to base e

MW = Gas molecular weight

P1 = Initial pressure in psia

P2 = Final pressure in psia

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Polytropic Process
Polytropic compression is the compression path that closely
follows the compression path in a real centrifugal compressor.
Centrifugal compression is not an ideal thermodynamic process.
The inefficiency of the compression process results in excess
heat input to the process gas, which causes the temperature to
increase faster than it would in isentropic compression.
Because of the temperature increase, the volume at the end of
polytropic compression is larger than the volume at the end of
isentropic compression.

The following equation shows the relationship between pressure

and volume for polytropic compression:

PV n = Constant

Where: P = Pressure
V = Volume
n = Polytropic exponent

In terms of required energy, all compressors operate closest to

the polytropic process. In any gas compression, the actual work
input is greater than the polytropic work input. In a polytropic
process, the temperature rise occurs at a faster rate than it does
in an isentropic process. The faster rise in temperature is
accounted for mathematically by the substitution of the
polytropic exponent (n) for the isentropic exponent (k) in the
following polytropic head equation:
(n −1/n )
 n   Pf  
Headpoly = RTi     − 1
 n − 1  Pi  

The following equation for head is usually stated in terms of

molecular weight:
(n −1/n )
1545.32Ti  n   Pf  
Headpoly =     − 1
MW  n − 1  Pi  


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The following equation shows the relationship between the

polytropic exponent (n) and the isentropic exponent (k):

n −1 k −1 1
= ×
n k ηp

Where: η p = Polytropic efficiency

The equation that shows the relationship between the polytropic

exponent (n) and the isentropic exponent (k) indicates that when
n −1 k −1
η p is equal to 100%, = and the process becomes
n k
isentropic (adiabatic). As mentioned in compressor theory, the
terms “isentropic” (no heat transfer) and “adiabatic” (no entropy
change) are used interchangeably.

If the proper mathematical substitution is performed, the

following equation for polytropic efficiency results:

n
ηp = n − 1
k
k −1

The polytropic exponent for Ideal Gases can be obtained

independent of polytropic efficiency by the following equation,
which relates suction and discharge temperature and pressure:

T 
Ln  2 
n −1 T
=  1
n P 
Ln  2 
 P1 

Polytropic efficiency is a characteristic of each compressor.

Polytropic efficiency is equal to the reversible work divided by
the total work applied to the gas. Because of the various losses
that are caused by the gas as it passes through the impellers
and diffusers at high velocity, reversible work and total work are
different. For centrifugal compressors, the polytropic efficiency
is usually between 60% and 85%. For axial compressors,
efficiencies can be as high as 92%.

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The polytropic exponent (n) is always larger than the isentropic

exponent (k). For the same actual performance, the value of
the polytropic efficiency will be higher than the value of the
isentropic efficiency.

The ratio of any reversible (Ideal) process, isothermal,

isentropic, or polytropic, is equal to the actual work (energy) as
illustrated in the following equation:

Headiso Headisen Headpoly

Actual Work = = =
ηiso ηisen ηpoly

The relationship between isentropic efficiency and polytropic

efficiency (based on a perfect gas) is shown in Figure 1. If the
inlet and outlet pressure of the compressor are known, Figure 1
can be used to convert isentropic efficiency to polytropic
efficiency, or polytropic efficiency to isentropic efficiency. To
convert known efficiency to the unknown efficiency, a
temperature rise factor (X) must be calculated. The following
equation is used to calculate the temperature rise factor (X):

 P (k −1/k ) 
X =  2  − 1
 P1  

Where: X = Temperature rise factor

P2 = Discharge pressure
P1 = Inlet pressure
k = Isentropic exponent

Once the temperature rise factor (X) has been calculated, the
line that corresponds to the temperature rise factor (X) is used
to convert the known efficiency to unknown efficiency. The
point on the unknown efficiency axis that corresponds to the
intersection of the known efficiency and the temperature rise
factor (X) is the unknown efficiency. This point is called
equivalent efficiency.

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Figure 1. Relationship Between Isentropic Efficiency and

Polytropic Efficiency Based on an Ideal Gas

Compressibility
The relationship of specific volume to pressure and temperature
for an ideal gas can be defined by the equation (P)(υ) = (R)(T).
However, most gases that are encountered in industrial
compression do not exactly obey the Ideal Gas Law equation.
Deviation from the Ideal Gas Law is referred to as
“compressibility.” Compressibility is specifically defined as the
degree to which any given gas varies from the Ideal Gas Law.

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Compressibility is stated as a ratio of actual gas volume at a

given pressure and temperature to the volume that is calculated
by theoretical law. The compressibility modifies the equation for
relationship of specific volume to pressure and temperature for
an ideal gas from Pυ = RT to:

(P)(υ) = (Z )(R )(T )

Where: Z = Compressibility factor
P = Pressure
υ = Specific volume
R = Gas constant
T = Temperature

The compressibility factor (Z) is a dimensionless factor that is

independent of the quantity of gas. The compressibility factor
(Z) is determined by the type, the temperature, and the pressure
of the gas. The compressibility factor (Z) can be derived from
the rule of corresponding states through the use of reduced
temperature and pressure. The reduced values of temperature
and pressure are ratios of actual conditions to critical constants
as shown in the following formulas:

T
Tr =
Tc

Where: Tr = Reduced temperature in °R

Tc = Critical temperature in °R
T = Temperature actual in °R

P
Pr =
Pc

Where: Pr = Reduced pressure in lbf/in2

Pc = Critical pressure in lbf/in2
P = Actual pressure in lbf/in2

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Values of the critical constants, Tc and Pc, for individual gases

are given in Table 1. The following example shows how to
determine the compressibility factor of propane gas with
pressure (P) of 300 psia and temperature (T) of 140°F. Table 1
is used to determine the following critical constants of propane:

Pc = 617.4 psia
Tc = 666.2°R

To calculate the reduced temperature (Tr), the temperature of

the propane (140°F) must be converted to degrees Rankine as
follows:

T = T + 460°R
= 140 + 460
= 600°R

The reduced temperature (Tr) is calculated by dividing the

temperature (T) of the propane (600°R) by the critical
temperature constant (Tc) for propane (666.2°R).

T
Tr =
Tc
600
=
666.2
= 0.9006

The reduced pressure (Pr) is calculated by dividing the pressure

(P) of the propane (300 psia) by the critical pressure constant
(Pc) for the propane (617.4 psia).

P
Pr =
Pc
300
=
617.4
= 0.4859

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Table 1. Critical Constants of Gases

Cp and Cp/Cr
at 14.7 psia and
60°F
Critical Constants
Mol. Wt. Pressure Temp. °R Mcp Mcp Mcp
Tc
Compound Formula M Cp Cp/Cr psia Pc at 60°F at at
100°F 200°F
Acetylene C2H2 26.036 0.3966 1.238 905.0 557.4 10.33 10.69 11.53
Air N+O2 28.966 0.2470 1.395 547.0 238.7 6.96 6.96 6.99
Ammonia NH3 17.032 0.5232 1.310 1,657.0 731.4 8.91 8.57 9.02
Benzene C6H6 78.108 0.2404 1.118 714.0 1,013.0 18.78 20.47 24.46
1,2-Butadiene C4H6 54.088 (0.3458) (1.120) 653.0 799.0 18.70
1,3-Butadiene C4H6 54.088 (0.3412) 1.120 628.0 766.0 18.45
N-Butane C4H10 58.120 0.3970 1.094 550.7 765.6 23.07 24.51 26.16
Isobutane C4H10 58.120 0.3872 1.097 529.1 734.9 22.50 23.96 27.62
N-Butene C4H6 56.104 0.3703 1.105 583.0 755.6 20.77 22.09 25.18
Isobutene C4H6 56.104 0.3701 1.106 579.8 752.5 20.76
Butylene C4H6 56.104 0.3703 1.105 583.0 755.6 20.78 21.94 24.86
Carbon dioxide CO2 44.010 0.1991 1.300 1,073.0 548.0 8.76 9.00 9.35
Carbon CO 28.010 0.2484 1.403 510.0 242.0 6.96 6.96 6.98
monoxide
Chlorine Cl2 70.914 0.1149 1.366 1,120.0 751.0 8.15
Ethane C2H4 30.068 0.4097 1.193 708.3 550.1 12.32 12.96 14.68
Ethyl alcohol C2H5OH 46.069 0.3070 1.130 927.0 629.6 14.14
Ethylene C2H4 28.052 0.3622 1.243 742.1 509.8 10.16 10.68 12.08
N-Hexane C6H14 86.172 0.3984 (1.062) 439.7 914.5 34.33 36.23 41.08
Helium He 4.003 1.2480 1.6598 480.0 510.0 5.00
Hydrogen H2 2.016 3.408 1.408 188.0 60.2 6.87 6.90 6.95
Hydrogen H2S 34.076 0.254 1.323 1,306 672.7 8.66 8.18 8.36
sulfide
Methane CH4 16.042 0.5271 1.311 673.1 343.5 8.46 8.65 9.30
Methyl alcohol CH3OH 32.042 0.2700 1.203 1,157.0 924.0 8.65
Nitrogen N2 28.016 0.2482 1.402 492.0 227.2 6.95 6.96 6.963
N-Octane C8H18 114.224 0.3998 (1.046) 362.1 1,025.2 45.67
Oxygen O2 32.00 0.2188 1.401 730 278.2 7.00 7.03 7.120

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Table 1. Critical Constants of Gases (Cont’d)

Cp and Cp/Cr
at 14.7 psia and
60°F Critical Constants
Mol. Wt. Pressure Temp. °R Mcp Mcp Mcp
Compound Formula Cp Cp/Cr
M psia Pc Tc at 60°F at 100°F at 200°F
N-Pentane C5H12 72.146 0.3972 1.074 489.5 845.9 28.66 30.30 34.41
Isopentane C5H12 72.146 0.3880 1.075 483.0 830.0 27.99 29.90 34.44
Propane C3H8 44.094 0.3885 1.136 617.4 666.2 17.13 18.21 20.90
Propylene C3H6 42.078 0.3541 1.154 667 657.4 14.90 15.77 17.88
Sulfur dioxide SO2 64.060 0.1470 1.246 1.142 775.0 9.42
Toluene C7H8 92.134 0.2599 1.091 611 1,069.5 23.95
Water H2O 18.016 0.4446 1.335 3,206 1,165.4 8.01 8.03 8.12
Hydrogen HCl 36.465 0.1939 1.410 1,199.2 584.5 7.07
chloride

The compressibility factor curves are graphs of reduced

pressure (Pr) versus compressibility factor (Z) for various
reduced temperatures (Tr). The compressibility factor (Z) shown
in Figure 3 is for low reduced pressure. As shown in Figure 2, a
compressibility factor curve is used in conjunction with the
calculated reduced temperature (Tr) and reduced pressure (Pr)
to determine the compressibility factor (2) determined by
locating the point at which the reduced temperature (Tr =
0.9006) and the reduced pressure (Pr = 0.4859) intersect and,
then, by reading horizontally to find the compressibility factor (Z
= 0.675).

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Figure 2. Compressibility Factors at Low Reduced Pressures

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In our previous discussion of the isentropic process and the

polytropic process, the equations for work or head were only
true for the Ideal Gas Law equation. The compressibility factor
is used to account for the deviation of a gas from the Ideal Gas
Law equations. To correct for deviation from Ideal Gas Law, the
compressibility factor must be used in the work or head
equations.

The compressibility factor will vary from compressor inlet

conditions to compressor outlet conditions. In most cases, the
compressibility factor remains fairly constant over the range of
compression, and an average value for the compressibility
factor can be used. The average compressibility factor can be
determined through use of the following calculation:

Z 2 − Z1
Zavg =
2

Where: Zavg = Average compressibility factor

Z2 = Compressibility factor at discharge

conditions

Z1 = Compressibility factor at inlet conditions

If the proper mathematical substitutions are made to the

isentropic and polytropic head equations, the following
isentropic and polytropic head equations would result:

Isentropic:
(k −1/k )
 k   Pf  
Headisen = ZavgRTi     − 1
 k − 1  Pi  

(k −1/k )
1545.32Z avgTi  k   Pf  
=     − 1
MW  k − 1  Pi  

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Polytropic:
(n −1/n )
 n   Pf  
Headpoly = ZavgR /Ti     − 1
 n − 1  Pi  

(n −1/n )
1545.32Z avg Ti  n   Pf  
=     − 1
MW  n − 1  Pi  

Properties of Gas Mixtures

Many of the gases that are involved in engineering systems are

physical mixtures of either the permanent gases or one or more
of these gases with superheated or saturated vapors. For
example, atmospheric air is a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen
with traces of other gases, with superheated or saturated water
vapor or, at times, with saturated vapor and liquid. This section
discusses the properties of the following gas mixtures:

• Dry Gas Mixtures

• Wet Gas Mixtures

• Dry Gas Mixtures

The procedures that are required to individually consider the

properties of each constituent of a dry gas mixture are very
complex. Experience has demonstrated that a mixture of dry
gases may be regarded as an equivalent gas. The properties of
the equivalent gas depend upon the types of gases and the
proportion of each of the gases that make up the equivalent
gas.

If the chemical composition of a dry gas mixture is known, it is

possible to determine the gas characteristics that are necessary
to perform compressor calculations. The following are the
properties of a dry gas mixture that are required for adiabatic
compressor calculations:

• Gas constant (dependent on molecular mass MW)

• k, specific heat ratio and adiabatic exponent

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• P1, T1, V1, and P2

• Critical pressure , PC

• Critical temperature, TC

• Compressibility factor, Z

Of the above properties, MW, CP, CV, PC, and TC are calculated
by addition of the products of the individual mol fraction of each
of the constituents of the gas mixture multiplied by the specific
properties of the individual gas. An application of the individual
mol fraction calculations is shown in Table 2, which presents the
computation of the physical characteristics of a typical sales
gas/fuel gas mixture. The composition is known on the
volumetric basis.

Table 2. Computation of the Physical Characteristics of a

Sales Gas/Fuel Gas Mixture

Mol Molecular Critical Critical

Gas Fraction Weight (y)x MCP at (y) x MCP Pressure Temperature
Component (y) (MW) (MW) 100°F at 100°F Pc (y) x Pc Tc (y) x Tc

Methane 0.922 16.04 14.78 8.65 7.975 673.1 620.6 343.5 316.7

Ethane 0.048 30.07 1.44 12.96 0.622 708.3 34.0 550.1 26.4

Propane 0.019 44.09 0.84 18.21 0.346 617.4 11.7 666.2 12.7

i-Butane 0.004 58.12 0.23 23.96 0.096 529.1 2.1 734.9 2.9

N-butane 0.006 58.12 0.35 24.51 0.147 550.7 3.3 765.6 4.6

i-pentane 0.001 72.15 0.07 29.90 0.030 483.0 0.5 830.0 0.8

Total 1.00 MW = 17.71 Mcp = 9.216 Pcmix = 672.2 Tcmix = 364.1

MCv = MCP - 1.986 = 7.230 k = MCP/MCv

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Several individual equations are used to calculate the individual

properties of a dry gas mixture. The molecular weight of a gas
mixture is determined from the following equation:

MW = ∑(Xi )(MWi )

Where: Xi = Mol fraction of the individual component of

the mixture

MWi = Molecular weight of the individual

component of the mixture

MW = Molecular weight of the mixture

∑ = Sum

The premise for the calculation of MW is the following equation:

Runiv
R=
MW

Where: Runiv = Universal gas constant

R = Gas constant of mixture

Given that MW = ∑( X i )(MW i ) , it follows that:

Runiv
R=
∑(Xi )(MWi )

The k value of a gas mixture is determined from the following

equation:

∑(Mi )(c pi )
k=
∑(Mi )(c pi ) − 1.986

For metric values (Cpi in kJ/Kmol°K), the k value of a mixture is

determined from the following equation:

∑(Mi )(c pi )
k=
∑(Mi )(c pi ) − 8.32

Where: Mi = Molecular weight of the individual

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component of the mixture

Cpi = Specific heat at constant pressure of the

individual component of the mixture

The pressure of a gas mixture can be calculated from the

following equation:

P = ∑(Xi )(Pi )

Where: P = Pressure of the mixture

Xi = Mol fraction of the individual component
Pi = Pressure of the individual component

The temperature of a gas mixture can be calculated from the

following equation:

T = ∑(Xi )(Ti )

Where: T = Temperature of the mixture

Xi = Mol fraction of the individual component
Ti = Temperature of the individual component

The specific volume of a gas mixture can be calculated from the

following equation:

υmix = Σ(Xi)(υi)

Where: υmix = Specific volume of the mixture

Xi = Mol fraction of the individual component

υi = Specific volume of the individual component

The critical pressure of a gas mixture can be calculated from the

following equation:

Pc mix = ∑(Xi )(Pci )

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Where: Pcmix = Critical pressure of the mixture

Xi = Mol fraction of the individual component

Pci = Critical pressure of the individual

component

The critical temperature of a mixture can be calculated from the

following equation:

Tc mix = ∑( X i )(Tci )

Where: Tcmix = Critical temperature of the mixture

Xi = Mol fraction of the individual component

Tci = Critical temperature of the individual

component

The compressibility factor (Z) of the mixture is determined by

the calculation of the reduced temperature (Tr) and the reduced
pressure (Pr) through the use of the following equations:

T
Tr =
Tcmix

P
Pr =
Pcmix

Where: Tr = Reduced temperature of the gas mixture

Tcmix = Critical temperature of the mixture

Pr = Reduced pressure of the gas mixture

Pcmix = Critical pressure of the mixture

T = Temperature of the gas in °R

P = Pressure of the gas in psia

The compressibility factor for the inlet condition (Z1) is

determined through the use of inlet pressure (P1) and
temperature (T1). The compressibility factor for the outlet
condition (Z2) is determined through the use of outlet pressure

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(P2) and temperature (T2).

The calculated values of reduced pressure and reduced

temperature for the gas mixture are then used with the curves of
compressibility factors at low reduced pressure that were
previously shown in Figure 2 to determine the compressibility
factor (Z) of the gas mixture.

Wet Gas Mixtures

Compressor performance is affected by compressing wet gas

(gases that contain water vapor). As the gas pressure is
increased during compression, the gas reaches the water vapor
saturation point. The weight of a cubic foot of gas at standard
temperature and pressure and when entering the compressor
will be more than the weight of a cubic foot of gas at standard
temperature and pressure and when leaving the compressor.
Compressor inlet flow rate is typically rated for dry air
conditions. The compressor inlet flow rate must be corrected to
reflect the capacity at wet gas conditions. Gas density and the
polytropic exponent (n) must also be adjusted for the effect of
water vapor.

The amount of water vapor that is contained in the air is

measured in two ways: specific humidity and relative humidity.
Specific humidity is the ratio of the mass of water vapor present
in a gas to mass of dry gas. Relative humidity is the ratio of the
amount of water vapor that is actually present in the gas to the
amount of water vapor that would be present if the air were
saturated.

Specific humidity is also known as absolute humidity, or the

humidity ratio. Specific humidity can be expressed by the
following equation:

mv
ωs =
ma

Where: Šs = Specific humidity

mv = Mass of water vapor in kg or lbm

ma = Mass of dry air in kg or lbm

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The specific humidity can also be expressed by the following

equations:

Pv V Pv
mv R vT R v R a Pv
ωs = = = =
m a Pa V Pa R v Pa
R aT Ra

or

RaPv
ωs =
R v (P − Pv )

Where: ωs = Specific humidity

Pv = Partial pressure of the water vapor

Pa = Partial pressure of the dry gas

P = Total pressure of the gas mixture

Rv = Gas constant of the gas-water vapor

mixture

Ra = Gas constant for the dry gas

T = Absolute temperature

Relative humidity can be determined from the following

equation:

Pv V
mv R v T Pv
φ= = =
P
mg g V Pg
R vT

Where: φ = Relative humidity as a decimal fraction

Pv = Partial pressure of the water vapor

Pg = The saturation pressure at the gas

temperature

Rv = Gas constant of the gas-water vapor mixture

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T = Absolute temperature

The effect of humidity on compressor flow rate can be shown by

the following scenario for an air compressor:

Compressor design conditions:

Dry air inlet capacity at 60°F: 62,000 cfm

Molecular weight of air: 28.95

Inlet temperature: 80°F

Inlet pressure: 14.7 psia

Relative humidity: 48%

Discharge pressure: 250 psig

Saturation pressure at 80°F: 0.507 psia

Partial pressure of the water

vapor at 48% RH: 0.48 x 0.507 = 0.243 psia

Partial pressure of air: 14.7 - 0.243 = 14.56 psia

The weight flow of dry air at the inlet can be calculated by the
following equation:

QP1 × 144
Weight Flow of Dry Air (W) =
RaT
62,000 × 14.7 × 144
=
53.3 × 520
= 4735 lbm/min

The volume flow rate of air and water vapor at the inlet
conditions can be calculated by the following equation:

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WRTi
Qi =
Pa × 144
4735 × 53.3 × 520
=
14.56 × 144
=62,593cfm

The example shows the effect of humidity on the air compressor

flow rate.

The specific humidity of process gases can be determined by

sampling and analyzing the gas stream at the compressor
suction. The relative humidity for air compressors can be
determined by using a sling psychrometer.

The sling psychrometer consists of two identical thermometers

that are mounted on a light frame. One thermometer, which is
called the wet bulb (WB), is covered with a wick that is saturated
with water before a reading is taken. The other thermometer,
which is called the dry bulb (DB), has no wick. The sling
psychrometer is whirled or “slung” through the air. As the sling
psychrometer is whirled through the air, the water evaporates
from the wick. The amount of evaporation depends on the
degree of saturation of the surrounding air with water vapor.
The evaporation cools the bulb of the wet-bulb thermometer and
causes its temperature reading to fall below the temperature
reading of the dry-bulb thermometer. The difference between
the two temperature readings is called the wet-bulb depression.
The wet-bulb depression is a measure of the relative humidity.
The cooling effect of the wet bulb depends on the evaporation
rate from the wick, which depends on the degree of saturation in
the surrounding air.

The properties of air are normally presented in a graphical form

that is called a psychometric chart. Figure 3 shows a portion of
a psychometric chart for normal temperatures. To determine
the relative humidity of the atmosphere with a sling
psychrometer, the wet-bulb temperature and the dry-bulb
temperature are determined. For example, the dry-bulb
temperature is found to equal 85°F, and the wet-bulb
temperature is found to equal 77°F. The dry-bulb temperature
(85°F) is found on the psychometric chart. A vertical line is
followed upward until the line intersects with the 77°F axis for

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wet-bulb temperature. This intersection is located on the 70%

relative humidity curve (Point A).

Figure 3. Psychometric Chart for Normal Temperatures

Relative humidity is expressed as a percentage of saturation.

Air is said to be saturated with water vapor when the air
contains as much water as it can possibly hold at a specific
temperature. At saturation, the relative humidity is 100%, while
absolutely dry air has a relative humidity of 0%. Table 3 lists the
water content of air (in gallons per 1000 ft3) at various
temperatures (°F) and relative humidities (%RH)

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The temperature has a major effect on the ability of air at a

given pressure to hold vapor content. As the temperature
increases, the amount of water vapor that can be mixed with the
air before saturation occurs also increases. For example, at
80°F and with a relative humidity of 100%, 1000 ft3 of air would
contain 0.2046 gallons of water. At 120°F and with a relative
humidity of 100%, 1000 ft3 of air would contain 0.7460 gallons of
water. Conversely, as the air temperature decreases, the air’s
capacity to hold water vapor also decreases.

Table 3. Water Content of Air in Gallons Per 1000 ft3 at Various

Relative Humidities

Temperature, °F
%RH 35 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
5 .0019 .0024 .0035 .0050 .0071 .0099 .0136 .0186 .0250 .0332
10 .0039 .0047 .0069 .0100 .0142 .0198 .0273 .0372 .0501 .0668
15 .0058 .0071 .0104 .0150 .0213 .0298 .0411 .0561 .0755 .1007
20 .0078 .0095 .0139 .0200 .0284 .0398 .0549 .0750 .1012 .1351
25 .0098 .0119 .0174 .0251 .0356 .0498 .0689 .0940 .1270 .1699
30 .0117 .0143 .0209 .0301 .0427 .0599 .0828 .1132 .1531 .2051
35 .0137 .0166 .0244 .0351 .0499 .0700 .0969 .1325 .1794 .2407
40 .0156 .0190 .0279 .0402 .0571 .0801 .1110 .1519 .2060 .2768
45 .0176 .0214 .0314 .0453 .0644 .0903 .1251 .1715 .2328 .3133
50 .0195 .0238 .0349 .0503 .0716 .1005 .1394 .1912 .2598 .3502
55 .0215 .0262 .0384 .0554 .0789 .1107 .1537 .2110 .2871 .3876
60 .0235 .0286 .0419 .0605 .0861 .1210 .1681 .2310 .3146 .4254
65 .0254 .0310 .0454 .0656 .0934 .1313 .1825 .2511 .3424 .4637
70 .0274 .0334 .0490 0.707 .1007 .1417 .1970 .2713 .3705 .5025
75 .0294 .0358 .0525 .0758 .1081 .1521 .2116 .2917 .3988 .5418
80 .0313 .0382 .0560 .0810 .1154 .1625 .2263 .3122 .4273 .5816
85 .0333 .0406 .0596 .0861 .1228 .1730 .2410 .3328 .4562 .6219
90 .0353 .0430 .0631 .0913 .1302 .1835 .2559 .3536 .4853 .6627
95 .0372 .0454 .0666 .0964 .1376 .1940 .2707 .3745 .5147 .7041
100 .0392 .0478 .0702 .1016 .1450 .2046 .2857 .3956 .5443 .7460

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Pressure also has a major effect on the ability of air to hold

vapor content. The capacity of air at a given temperature to
hold moisture in vapor form decreases as the air pressure
increases. Table 4 lists the water content of saturated air
(relative humidity of 100 percent) at given temperatures and
pressures. For example, if 1000 ft3 of saturated air is
compressed from 0 to 200 psig while the temperature is
maintained constant at 100°F, the ability of the air to hold
moisture in vapor form decreases. The moisture would
condense. The amount of moisture that will condense is the
difference between the amount of moisture that air can hold at
the two pressures, 0.3956 gallons at 0 psig minus 0.0254
gallons at 200 psig, or 0.3701 gallons.

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Table 4. Water Content of Saturated Air in Gallons per 1000 ft3 at Various
Temperatures and Pressures with 100% Relative Humidity

Temperature, °F

psig 35 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

0 .0392 .0479 .0702 .1016 .1450 .2046 .2857 .3956 .5443 .7460

10 .0233 .0283 .0416 .0600 .0854 .1200 .1667 .2290 .3119 .4217

20 .0165 .0201 .0295 .0426 .0605 .0849 .1176 .1612 .2186 .2939

30 .0128 .0156 .0229 .0330 .0469 .0657 .0909 .1213 .1682 .2256

40 .0165 .0128 .0187 .0269 .0383 .0536 .0741 .1012 .1367 .1830

50 .0089 .0108 .0158 .0228 .0323 .0452 .0625 .0853 .1152 .1540

60 .0077 .0093 .0137 .0197 .0280 .0391 .0540 .0737 .0995 .1329

70 .0068 .0082 .0121 .0174 .0246 .0345 .0476 .0649 .087 .1169

80 .0060 .0074 .0108 .0155 .0220 .0308 .0425 .0580 .078 .1043

90 .0055 .0067 .0098 .0140 .0199 .0279 .0385 .0524 .0706 .0942

100 .0050 .0061 .0089 .0128 .0182 .0254 .0351 .0478 .0644 .0858

110 .0046 .0056 .0082 .0118 .0167 .0234 .0323 .0439 .0592 .0789

120 .0043 .0052 .0076 .0109 .0155 .0216 .0298 .0407 .0548 .0729

130 .0040 .0048 .0071 .0102 .0144 .0201 .0278 .0378 .0509 .0678

140 .0037 .0045 .0066 .0095 .0135 .0188 .0260 .0354 .0476 .0634

150 .0035 .0042 .0062 .0089 .0126 .0177 .0244 .0332 .0447 .0595

160 .0033 .0040 .0058 .0084 .0119 .0167 .0230 .0313 .0421 .0561

170 .0031 .0038 .0055 .0080 .0113 .0158 .0217 .0296 .0398 .0530

180 .0029 .0036 .0052 .0075 .0107 .0149 .0206 .0281 .0378 .0503

190 .0028 .0034 .0050 .0072 .0102 .0142 .0196 .0267 .0359 .0478

200 .0027 .0032 .0048 .0068 .0097 .0136 .0187 .0254 .0342 .0455

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Volumetric Flow

A compressor is typically specified by the required volumetric

flow. Volumetric flow is the gas flow rate through the
compressor at specified conditions. Standard cubic feet per
minute (SCFM) is a common method of describing the capacity
of a compressor; however, the specified “standard” conditions
that define volumetric flow may vary. For example, one source
defines SCFM conditions as 14.7 psia at 60°F (15.5°C) and 0%
relative humidity, while another source defines SCFM conditions
as 14.7 psia at 68°F (20°C) and 36% relative humidity. The
metric standard for volumetric flow conditions, standard cubic
meter per hour (SCMH), is defined as 1 atmosphere at 0°C
(32°F) and 0% relative humidity. Compressor manufacturers
frequently define the volumetric flow of a compressor by the
actual volume used to obtain the actual gas velocity. Inlet cubic
feet per minute (ICFM) or inlet cubic meter per hour (ICMH)
indicates the actual volumetric flow of gas entering the
compressor at the expected operating conditions. The inlet
cubic feet per minute is also referred to as the actual cubic feet
per minute (ACFM). Likewise, the inlet cubic meter per hour is
also referred to as the actual cubic meter per hour (ACMH).

The manufacturer’s curves for the performance of a compressor

are based on the actual volumetric flow at the inlet of the
compressor (ACFM). As the following equation shows,
calculations of the value of actual volumetric flow can be
determined from the standard flow (SCFM).

Actual Volumetric Flow = Standard Volumetric

P T
Flow × std × 1 × Z1
P1 Tstd

Where:

Actual Volumetric Flow = Volumetric flow in actual cubic

feet per minute for English units or actual cubic meter per
hour for metric units.

Standard Volumetric Flow = Volumetric flow in standard

cubic feet per minute for English units or standard cubic
meter per hour for metric units.

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P1 = Inlet pressure, psia

Pstd = 14.7 psia in English units, 1 atmosphere in metric

units

T1 = Inlet temperature, °R

Tstd = Standard temperature, 520°R

Z1 = Inlet compressibility factor

The following example shows how to use this equation to

calculate the inlet flow of a centrifugal compressor that delivers
5000 SCFM of natural gas. The inlet pressure (P1 ) is 25 psia,
the inlet temperature (T1 ) is 560°R, and the inlet compressibility
factor (Z1 ) is 0.95. The inlet compressibility factor would
normally need to be calculated as previously discussed in this
module.

Actual Volumetric Flow at Inlet ,in ACFM = 5000 SCFM

 14.7   560 
× ×  × 0.95 = 3008 ACFM
 25   520 

Mechanical Engineers should note that, for this example

calculation, the inlet temperature was given in degrees Rankine
(°R) and that the inlet pressure was given in pounds per square
inch absolute (psia). In actual field calculations, these values
must be obtained from installed instrumentation, which normally
indicates the inlet temperature in degrees Fahrenheit (°F) and
the inlet pressure in pounds per square inch gauge (psig). The
suction temperature (in °F) and the inlet pressure pounds per
square inch gauge (psig) must be converted to °R and psia
before they can be used in the ACFM calculation of actual
volumetric flow at the inlet. The following equation is used to
convert temperatures in °F to temperature in °R:

°R = °F + 460

The following equation is used to convert pressures in psig to

pressure in psia:

PSIA = PSIG + 14.7

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Actual volumetric flow can also be determined from mass flow

through the use of the following equation:

ACFM = W x V

Where: W = Weight flow in lb/min (kg/min)

V = Inlet specific volume in ft3/lb (m3/lb)

Inlet specific volume may be determined through the use of the

following equation:

Z1 RT1
V=
144P1

Where: V = Inlet specific volume in ft3/lb

Z1 = Compressibility factor at inlet conditions

R univ 1545.32
R = Gas constant from =
MW Molecular Weight

T1 = Temperature at inlet conditions, °R

P1 = Pressure at inlet conditions, psia

For metric calculations:

Joules
R = 8.3143 and 144 is replaced
gm mol °R
with 18.129

Mollier Diagrams

Compressor performance cannot be accurately predicted

without detailed knowledge of how a gas or gases will behave
when compressed. The behavior of a wide variety of gases in
any conceivable mixture can be accurately computed, plotted,
and offered to the process engineer in the form of a pressure-
enthalpy diagram, which is called a Mollier diagram. A Mollier
diagram is a graphical representation of the relationship
between the pressure, the temperature, the volume, the
enthalpy, and the entropy of a gas. Mollier diagrams are readily

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available for most pure gases at “conventional” pressures and

temperatures, but Mollier diagrams are not readily available for
gas mixtures. Because most of the gases that are used at
Saudi Aramco are gas mixtures, Mollier diagrams are not that
widely used in Saudi Aramco. The Saudi Aramco applications
for which Mollier diagrams are useful are the refrigerant gases,
namely, propane and freon.

From the Mollier diagram, enthalpy and specific volume can

then be directly determined. The use of a Mollier diagram
enables calculation of head, efficiency, and specific volume
(ft3/lbm).

Mollier diagrams display gas properties. The process of gas

compression is easy to “visualize” when plotted on a Mollier
diagram. The phase change, the expansion, and the
compression process can be “seen,” and it is easier to
comprehend the overall process and the effect of process
changes.

On a Mollier diagram, as shown in Figure 4, the pressure is

taken as the ordinate, and enthalpy is taken as the abscissa.
Lines of constant entropy and constant volume slope upward
from left to right. Lines of constant temperature slope
downward from left to right. The area on the diagram that is
enclosed by the saturated vapor line represents the liquid-vapor
region of the gas. The critical point represents the top-most part
of the saturated vapor line. Above the critical point, a gas
cannot be liquefied.

The following equation is used to calculate isentropic head:

H is = h 2is − h1

Where: His = Isentropic head

h2is = Isentropic discharge enthalpy

hi = Inlet enthalpy

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The following equation is used to calculate isentropic efficiency:

h 2is − h1
ηis =
h 2 − h1

Where: ηis = Isentropic efficiency

h2 = Discharge enthalpy

The following example illustrates how to use the Mollier diagram

that is shown in Figure 4 to find the inlet and discharge specific
volume, the enthalpy, and the isentropic discharge enthalpy.
Figure 4 is a section of the Mollier diagram for propane. The
compressor gas inlet pressure is 14.7 psia at a temperature of
40°F. The compressor gas discharge pressure is 310 psia at a
temperature of 315°F.

The inlet pressure, 14.7 psia (P1), is located on the ordinate. A

line is horizontally followed from P1 until it intersects with the
temperature line that corresponds to the given inlet temperature
of 40°F (T1). This intersection is labeled point 1.

The specific volume for point 1 (v1) is estimated from the two
adjacent constant volume lines. For this example, v1 is
approximately 8.25 cubic feet per pound.

A line is vertically followed from point 1 down to the abscissa.

This point on the abscissa is the inlet enthalpy (hi). For this
example, inlet enthalpy is approximately 128 BTUs per pound.

The given discharge pressure, 310 psia (P2), is located on the

ordinate. A line is horizontally followed from P2 until it intersects
with the temperature line that corresponds to the discharge
temperature, 315°F (T2). This intersection point is labeled point
2.

The specific volume for point 2 (v2) is estimated at 0.57 cubic

feet per pound from the two adjacent constant volume lines.

A line is vertically followed from point 2 up to the abscissa. This

point on the abscissa is the actual discharge enthalpy (h2).

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The isentropic discharge enthalpy (h2is) is located by following a

constant entropy line from point 1 to point 2 until the discharge
pressure line (P2) is intersected. This intersection is point 2is. A
line is vertically followed from point 2is down to the abscissa.
This point on the abscissa is the isentropic discharge enthalpy
(h2is). For this example, h2is is approximately 206 BTUs per
pound.

The isentropic efficiency is the ratio of ideal (isentropic) energy

to actual energy.

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Figure 4. Mollier Diagram for Propane

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Dynamic Compressor Characteristics

This section of the module examines the following areas that

Saudi Aramco Engineers must consider when determining the
operation of dynamic compressors:

• Cause of the Performance Curve (Velocity Triangles)

• Performance Curves

• Performance Characteristics

• Use of Fan Laws to Find Operating Points at Different

Speeds

• Cause of the Performance Curve (Velocity Triangles)

A performance curve is a plot of the expected compressor

operating characteristics. For example, a performance curve
can be plotted as compressor head, volumetric flow rate, power,
or efficiency. A performance curve usually sets the volumetric
flow rate as the abscissa and either head, power, or efficiency
as the ordinate.

A compressor head versus volumetric flow performance curve

provides important compressor operating information. There
are three important aspects of a compressor head versus
volumetric flow performance curve: slope of the curve, surge,
and stonewall (also called choke). Figure 5 illustrates a head
versus volumetric flow diagram.

The change in compressor head for the change in gas

volumetric flow defines the slope of the performance curve. The
slope of the performance curve is defined by the gas velocities
at the compressor impeller. A vector analysis of gas velocity
and impeller blade tip speed can be graphically shown as a
compressor velocity triangle.

The impeller design and the inlet design combine to greatly

affect the gas velocity distribution in the impeller. The design of
the impeller has a higher impact on the velocity triangle than
does the design of the compressor inlet; therefore, the design of
the impeller, such as blade angle, will be discussed.

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Figure 5. Basic Head Versus Flow Performance Curve

As shown in Figure 6, there are three blade profile

configurations: forward leaning, radial, and backward leaning.
The impeller blade profile influences the velocity of the gas as it
travels through the impeller and exits at the blade tip. Figure 6
illustrates the shape and impeller-exit velocity diagrams and the
resulting head curves for the three conventional types of blades.
The gas stream moves through the impeller blades with a
relative velocity (Vr) while, at the same time, the impeller
rotation imparts a tangential velocity (Vb) to the gas stream. The
gas stream possesses the resultant velocity (V) as it exits the
impeller. The resultant velocity is the vector sum of the relative
velocity (Vr) and the tangential velocity (Vb). The length of the
vectors and the magnitude of the exit angle are determined by
the design of the impeller blades. The magnitude of the vectors
is determined by the tip speed of the impeller blade and by the
gas velocity relative to the blade.

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Figure 6. Centrifugal Compressor Impeller and Vector Diagram

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Forward Leaning Blades - Forward leaning blades produce a

significant increase in the resultant velocity (V) when compared
to radial and backward leaning blades. The increase of the
resultant velocity is due to the coordinating vector sum of its
components, relative velocity (Vr), and tangential velocity (Vb).
The direction of the relative velocity (Vr) allows all flow changes
to dramatically affect the magnitude of the resultant velocity (V).
Forward leaning blades produce a head versus flow
performance curve that does not continuously rise with a
decrease in compressor flow. As a result of the saddle-shaped
performance curve, forward leaning blades produce inconsistent
head versus volumetric flow, which results in operational
instability. The operational instability is the reason that forward
leaning blades are not used for centrifugal compressor
applications.
Radial Blades - The increase in the resultant velocity (V) in the
radial blades due to relative velocity (Vr) change is so small that
the resultant velocity (V) is never appreciably different than
tangential velocity (Vb), which results in nearly horizontal
performance curves. Any increase in head that is required by
the process will significantly reduce throughput and could easily
surge the compressor. Some older, open impellers were
designed with radial blades because of the ease in
manufacturing.

Backward Leaning Blades - In contrast to forward leaning

blades, backward leaning blades produce the lowest pressure
rise for a given impeller tip speed. The direction of the relative
velocity (Vr) of backward leaning blades is such that it
decreases the magnitude of the resultant velocity (V).

The performance curve of a backward leaning blade impeller is

a concave curve declining toward the right side of the plot.
Because they produce the stable performance curves with the
highest efficiency, backward leaning bladed impellers are the
preferred choice for most compressor applications. The typical
standard for conventional closed impellers is 25 to 35 degrees
of backward lean. A good design practice is to have a
backward leaning impeller blade’s exit angle preferably between
15 to 35 degrees. Typically, impellers that use a radial or near
radial blade design should not be used for process gas
centrifugal compressors.

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Performance Curves

Figure 7 shows the effect of the impeller blade angle on head

and efficiency as compressor gas flow increases.

Figure 7. Effect of Impeller Blade Angle on Head and Efficiency

Because the magnitude of the resultant velocity that exits the

impeller produces the characteristics of the head curve, the
forward leaning bladed impeller produces a greater head than
backward lean or radial blade impellers when all other factors
are the same. The forward leaning blades provide a positive
sloping head curve with the maximum head output. Although
the head profile is a positive attribute, the efficiency of the

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forward lean is the lowest of the three.

A radial bladed impeller has a theoretically constant head curve

because tangential velocity does not effectively change with
flow. The fact that the head is reduced on increasing flow due
to a decrease in efficiency is attributable to higher friction
losses. When going from design flow to minimum flow, the
resulting basic slope normally shows a 2% to 3% head rise.

Overall stage efficiency is highest for backward leaning

impellers. The characteristics of the backward leaning blade
are such that, for a constant blade speed, the tangential velocity
increases as flow decreases, which is due to a lower relative
velocity. These factors result in an increased head output when
flow is decreased. When compared to forward leaning and
radial blades, a backward leaning blade has the greatest head
rise, which results in the most stable performance curve of all
blade profiles. The effect of the blade angle is not proportional
in regard to head, and the effect of backward lean on head
output is minimized at low flow; therefore, a high backward
leaning impeller will produce almost as much head at minimum
flow as a low backward leaning impeller running at the same tip
speed. As design flow is approached, however, the head
difference greatly changes. Because longer angles decrease
the slip factor, an increase in the backward lean angle to about
45 degrees reduces the head that is produced, which partially
cancels out any positive effects of a greater backward lean. Slip
is a consequence of the nonuniform velocity distribution across
the impeller channels, boundary-layer accumulation, and flow
separation.

Performance Curve Limits

Operation in some areas of a performance curve may be

detrimental to the operation of the compressor. The design of a
compressor is controlled to minimize the likelihood of such
occurrences; however, operation of a compressor outside the
design operating region may cause damage due to the
phenomena that are known as surge and stonewall.

Surge - An important characteristic of a dynamic compressor is

its surge point or surge limit. At some point on the operating
curves for both centrifugal compressors and axial compressors,
as shown in Figure 8, a condition of minimum flow exists in
which the developed head is insufficient to overcome the head

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that is required by the system. This point or line is called the

surge point or surge line. When the compressor reaches the
surge point, flow separation (stall) occurs in the compressor
blades and/or stationary passages and the gas in the discharge
piping backflows into the compressor. As the required head
increases, the flow decreases to produce enough head to match
the system demand. When the highest point on the compressor
curve is reached, the compressor cannot increase the head
further. At this point, the head that is required by the system is
higher than the maximum head that is produced by the
compressor. The flow in the impellers becomes unstable and
reverses, which causes the discharge pressure to collapse. The
discharge pressure will subsequently rise again, and the cycle
repeats. As many as six surge cycles can occur in one second.

Surge occurs at a predictable flow rate that is shown on the

manufacturer’s curve as the surge point. The surge point on a
performance curve is specific to the speed of the compressor.
A surge point can be determined for various compressor
speeds. A plot of the surge points for each performance curve
at a given speed provides a parabolic curve called the surge
line. A complete surge line, down to the origin of the plot, is
needed to assess the possibility of surge during compressor
startup and shutdown. A control system is used to keep the
actual compressor flow rate above the minimum surge point
value.

The following are the most significant damaging effects of

surge:

• Rapid temperature rise

• Increased thrust

• Variable pressure

• Variable flow

• Variable speed

These effects can cause catastrophic compressor failure if they

are allowed to continue. The protection system (as specified in
SAES-J-604) that is required by Saudi Aramco protects a
compressor from extensive damage by tripping the unit before
such damage can occur.

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Figure 8. Dynamic Compressor Surge Line

Stonewall - Another important characteristic of dynamic

compressors is stonewall (or a choked flow condition), which is
shown in Figure 9. As the flow rate through the compressor
increases beyond the design value, the amount of head that is
produced decreases because the tangential velocity of the gas
decreases. As the flow rate increases, the rate at which the
produced head decreases is accelerated. At a certain point, the
head that is produced drops rapidly to zero. This point is called
the stonewall, or choked flow condition. The point at which
stonewall occurs is influenced by the Mach number.

The Mach number is the magnitude of the relative velocity

compared to the speed of sound (sonic velocity) of a particular
gas. When the Mach number equals one, the point at which
stonewall occurs is reached. Stonewall occurs when sonic
velocity is reached at any point in the compressor, but it is
normally considered as stonewall when sonic velocity is
reached at the compressor stage entrance. Once the sonic
velocity is reached, the flow through the compressor cannot be
increased. Because the system resistance is usually too great
to allow the compressor to reach this condition, stonewall or
choked flow is not usually reached in actual operation.

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The following are the most significant damaging effects of

stonewall:

• Temperature rise due to low efficiency.

• Gas turbulence that can excite blade natural frequencies

(typically in axial compressors only).

Figure 9. Dynamic Compressor Stonewall

The molecular weight of the compressed gas also impacts the

point of stonewall. The following is the equation for determining
the Mach number:

Vrel
M=
Vsonic

Where: M = Mach number

Vrel = The gas velocity relative to the blade

Vsonic = Sonic velocity

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The following equation is used for determining the sonic velocity

of a gas:

Kg(1545)T
Vsonic =
MW

Where: Vsonic = Sonic velocity

K = Ratio of specific heats

g = Gravitational constant, 32 ft-lbm/lbf-sec2

T = Temperature in °R

MW = Molecular weight of the gas

Using the equations for Vsonic and the Mach number, high
molecular weight gases result in low Vsonic values and the Mach
number will quickly approach 1. Figure 10 shows a graphical
representation of the effect of molecular weight on compressor
head versus flow curves.

Figure 10. Graphical Representation of the Effect of Molecular Weight on

Compressor Head Versus Flow Curves

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Use of Fan Laws to Find Operating Points at Different Speeds

The general laws for speed characteristics (fan laws) are the
same for centrifugal compressors as for centrifugal fans and
centrifugal pumps. The three basic fan laws are as follows:

N2
Equation 1: Q2 = Q1
N1

2
N
Equation 2: H2 = H1 2
N1

3
N
Equation 3: bhp 2 = bhp1 2
N1

Where: Q1 = Initial flow rate, cfm

Q2 = Final flow rate, cfm

N1 = Initial speed, rpm

N2 = Final speed, rpm

H1 = Initial head, ft-lbs/lbm

H2 = Final head, ft-lbs/lbm

These equations show the relationship between the flow rate

(Q), the head (H), the horsepower (bhp), and the compressor
speed (N). Basically, the performance of a centrifugal
compressor at speeds other than the speed for which the
compressor is designed is such that the capacity or flow rate will
vary directly as the speed varies, as indicated in Equation 1.
The head that is developed will vary as the square of the speed,
as indicated in Equation 2. The horsepower will vary as the
cube of the speed, as indicated in Equation 3.

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The fan laws can be used for estimation purposes; however, the
accuracy of the calculated results decreases with increasing
speed ratio. Because the change in energy in a fan is
significantly lower than in a compressor, the fan laws are more
accurate for fans than for compressors. Other factors that
contribute to the inaccuracies of the fan laws include the
following:

• The higher the head, the greater the inaccuracy.

• The heavier the gas, the greater the inaccuracy.

• The greater the backward lean, the greater the

inaccuracy.

• Typically, the discrepancies will not be great until a speed

change of 30 to 40 percent is reached (except in
multistage compressors, where a change of 10 percent
can affect the fan laws). The fan laws only accurately
apply to single-stage compressors with very low
compression ratios.

The following examples illustrate the application of the fan laws:

Assume that a multistage compressor delivers 10,000 cfm at a

ft lbf
head of 30,000 at an operational speed of 8000 rpm
lbm
with a required power input of 2200 bhp. The fan laws can be
used to determine the speed, the head, and the power that are
required from the same compressor system to deliver 11,000
cfm.

The first fan law states that speed is proportional to flow rate.
The required new speed can be found as follows:

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N 
Q 2 = Q1  2 
 N1 

Q2  N 2 
= 
Q1  N1 

 Q2 
  N1 = N 2
 Q1 

11,000 
10,000 8000 = 8800rpm
 

The new speed that is required to obtain 11,000 cfm is 8800

rpm.

The second fan law states that speed squared is proportional to

head. The required new head can be found as follows:
2
N 
H 2 = H1  2 
 N1 

2
ft lbf  8800 
H 2 = 30,000
lbm  8000 

H 2 = 30,000[1.21]

ft lbf
H 2 = 36,300
lbm

The new head that is required to obtain 11,000 cfm at a speed

ft lbf
of 8800 rpm is 36,300 .
lbm

The third fan law states that speed cubed is proportional to

brake horsepower. The new power required to obtain 11,000
ft lbf
cfm (at a speed of 8800 rpm and with a head of 36,300 )
lbm
can be found as follows:

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3
N
bhp 2 = bhp1 2
N1

3
8800
bhp 2 = 2200
8000

bhp 2 = 2200[1.331]

bhp 2 = 2928

The new required brake horsepower input is 2928 bhp.

These equations are used to draw the head curves at speed N2

if the curve at speed N1 is known, as shown in Figure 11.
Starting with any point on the head curve at speed N1 (point A1),
both the head (H2) and the flow rate (Q2) are calculated by
equations 1 and 2. Although the head is proportional to speed
squared, flow is proportional to speed; therefore, as point A2
moves up to indicate the increase in head as speed increases,
point A2 also moves to the right to indicate increase in flow as
speed increases. These calculations give equivalent operating
points on the curve for speed N2 (point A2). A series of these
points defines the head curves for the speed N2. Similarly, for
the horsepower curve that is shown in Figure 12, the
horsepower (bhp2) and the flow rate (Q2) for speed N2 are
calculated from the horsepower (bhp1) and the flow rate (Q1) at
speed (N1 point A1) to obtain the equivalent operating point A2.

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Figure 11. Typical Head Curve

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Figure 12. Typical Horsepower Curve

In the fan law example, a flow increase of only 10 percent

requires a driver horsepower increase of 33 percent. Saudi
Aramco specifications 31-SAMSS-001 and 31-SAMSS-006 only
require that the compressor driver brake horsepower be rated
10 percent greater than the compressor rated horsepower. As a
result, the driver and the coupling power ratings are typically the
limiting factors when considering a design flow increase of a
compressor.

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DETERMINING POSITIVE-DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSOR

PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
This section discusses the following performance characteristics
for positive-displacement compressors:

• Isentropic Process

• Pressure Volume Cycle

• Clearance Volume

• Pressure Effect on Volume

• Isentropic Process

The isentropic process of a positive-displacement compressor

varies little from that of the dynamic compressor. The theory is
the same, but other factors are taken into account that affect the
isentropic exponent.

The specific heat at constant pressure (Cp) and the specific heat
at constant volume (Cυ) are affected by the variation in
temperatures commonly occurring in reciprocating compressors.
The temperature does not vary as much in centrifugal
compressors. These variations typically will increase the
specific heat constant.

The experimentally determined constant (n) in a polytropic

equation is typically less than the ratio of specific heat constant
(k) in the isentropic equation for a positive-displacement
compressor. The mechanical efficiency range also is slightly
higher than for centrifugal compressors. It is approximately
88% to 95% for positive-displacement compressors.

Pressure Volume Cycle

Figure 13 shows the pressure volume cycle of the reciprocating

type of positive-displacement compressor. The positions of the
piston (a, b, c, d) correspond to the labeled points on the
pressure volume diagram. As shown in Figure 13, the pressure
volume cycle includes:

Isentropic compression (the line between “A” and “B”). The

cylinder is filled with gas at the suction pressure with the

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piston at position “A.” As the piston starts to move, the

suction valve closes. As the piston continues to move from
position “A” toward position “B,” the piston compresses the
gas isentropically until the pressure within the cylinder
reaches the discharge pressure. At this point, the
discharge valve is closed.

Constant-pressure discharge (the line between “B” and “C”).

At point “B,” the discharge valve opens and permits gas to
flow from the cylinder into the discharge line at a constant
pressure until the piston has reached the end of its stroke at
point “C.”

Isentropic expansion (the line between “C” and “D”).

Because it is impossible to build a compressor with zero
clearance volume, gas remains in the cylinder’s clearance
volume at the end of the discharge stroke. The gas in the
cylinder expands isentropically to the suction pressure as
the piston starts to move from point “C” to “D.” Both the
suction and discharge valves are closed.

Constant-pressure suction (the line between “D” and “A”).

When the pressure within the cylinder reaches the suction
pressure, the suction valve opens and permits gas at
suction pressure to enter the cylinder as the piston moves
from “D” to “A.”

Since points “B” and “D” are at some position during the
cycle, the cycle is made up of a suction stroke (“C” to “A”)
and a discharge stroke (“A” to “C”).

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Figure 13. Pressure Volume Cycle

Clearance Volume

In a reciprocating compressor, the piston does not travel

completely to the end of the cylinder at the end of the discharge
stroke. Some clearance volume is necessary. Clearance
volume includes the space between the end of the piston and
the cylinder head when the piston is at the end of its stroke.
The clearance volume also includes the volume that is in the
valve ports, the volume that is in the suction valve guards, and
the volume that is around the discharge valve seats.

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The clearance volume is usually expressed as a percentage of

the piston displacement, and it is referred to as percent
clearance, or cylinder clearance (C), as indicated in the
following equation:

clearance volume,in 3
C= ×(100)
piston displacement,in 3

For double-acting cylinders, the percent clearance is based on

the total clearance volume for both the head end and the crank
end of the cylinder. Because of the presence of the piston rod
in the crank end of the cylinder, these two clearance volumes
are not the same. Additional external clearance volume
occasionally is added (the volume of any volume pockets) to
reduce cylinder capacity. The design clearance volume varies
only slightly with the gas composition (MW).

Pressure Effect on Volume

A review of the gas laws shows how pressure affects volume.

Boyle’s Law states that when the temperature of a gas is kept
constant, the volume of an enclosed mass of gas varies
inversely with the absolute pressure that is applied. The
following formula shows the relationship between pressure and
volume when the temperature is held constant:

P1V1 = P2 V2

Where: P1 = Inlet pressure

V1 = Inlet volume

P2 = Discharge pressure

V2 = Discharge volume

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WORK AIDS

WORK AID 1A: CALCULATION PROCEDURES AND CHARTS FOR

DETERMINING DYNAMIC COMPRESSOR
PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
Use Work Aid 1 to perform Exercise 1.

P1 = ( )+( )=( ) psia

P2 = ( )+( )=( ) psia

T1 = ( )+( )=( ) °R

T2 = ( )+( )=( ) °R

Calculate Zavg, using Figure 14 and Figure 15.

At the inlet:

P ( )  = ( )
P1 = =
Pt  (
) 
T  ( )
T1 = =   = ( )
Tt  ( ) 
Z1 = ( )( Figure 14 and Figure 15)

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At the discharge:

Pr =
P
=
( )=( )
Pc ( )

Tr =
T
=
( )=( )
Tc ( )

Z2 = ( )(Figure14 and Figure15)

Zavg =
( )+ ( )=( )
2

Calculate (n-1)/n
(n − 1) / n
 T2   P2 
  = 
 T1   P1 

(n − 1) / n
( )  ( )
  = 
( )  ( )

(n − 1) 1n( )
= =( )
n 1n( )

Calculate Hp

 n   P  ( n − 1/ n ) 
H P = Z avg RT1    2  − 1
 n − 1  P1  

)   ( 
( )
( ) ( )
=( ) ( )    − 1
( ) ( )   (

) 

ft − lbf
=( )
lbm

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Calculate the polytropic efficiency, using Figure 15.

 k −1
  (( ) −( )/( )) 
 P   ( ) 
k

X =   − 1 =
2
− 1 = ( )
 P1    ( )  
   

From Figure 15.

η=( )

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WORK AID 1B: CHARTS FOR DETERMINING COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE

CHARACTERISTICS

Use Table 5 and Figures 14, and 15 to perform the calculations.

Table 5. Critical Constants of Gases

Critical Constants

Compound Formula Mol. Wt. M Pressure psia Pc Temp. °R Tc

Acetylene C2H2 26.036 905.0 557.4

Air N+O2 28.966 547.0 238.7

Ammonia NH3 17.032 1,657.0 731.4

Benzene C6H6 78.108 714.0 1,013.0

1,2-Butadiene C4H6 54.088 653.0 799.0

1,3-Butadiene C4H6 54.088 628.0 766.0

N-Butane C4H10 58.120 550.7 765.6

Isobutane C4H10 58.120 529.1 734.9

N-Butene C4H6 56.104 583.0 755.6

Isobutene C4H6 56.104 579.8 752.5

Butylene C4H6 56.104 583.0 755.6

Carbon dioxide CO2 44.010 1,073.0 548.0

Carbon Monoxide CO 28.010 510.0 242.0

Chlorine Cl2 70.914 1,120.0 751.0

Ethane C2H4 30.068 708.3 550.1

Ethyl alcohol C2H5OH 46.069 927.0 629.6

Ethylene C2H4 28.052 742.1 509.8

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Table 5. Critical Constants of Gases (Cont’d)

Critical Constants

Compound Formula Mol. Wt. M Compound Formula

N-Hexane C6H14 86.172 439.7 914.5

Helium He 4.003 480.0 510.0

Hydrogen H2 2.016 188.0 60.2

Hydrogen sulfide H2S 34.076 1,306 672.7

Methane CH4 16.042 673.1 343.5

Methyl alcohol CH3OH 32.042 1,157.0 924.0

Nitrogen N2 28.016 492.0 227.2

N-Octane C8H18 114.224 362.1 1,025.2

Oxygen O2 32.00 730 278.2

N-Pentane C5H12 72.146 489.5 845.9

Isopentane C5H12 72.146 483.0 830.0

Propane C3H8 44.094 617.4 666.2

Propylene C3H6 42.078 667 657.4

Sulfur dioxide SO2 64.060 1.142 775.0

Toluene C7H8 92.134 611 1,069.5

Water H2O 18.016 3,206 1,165.4

Hydrogen chloride HCl 36.465 1,199.2 584.5

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Compressor Performance Characteristics

Figure 14. Compressibility Factors at Low Reduced Pressure

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Engineering Encyclopedia Compressors

Compressor Performance Characteristics

Figure 15. Efficiency Chart

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Engineering Encyclopedia Compressors

Compressor Performance Characteristics

WORK AID 2: CALCULATION PROCEDURES FOR DETERMINING

POSITIVE-DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSOR
PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS

Use Work Aid 2 to perform Exercise 2.

Calculate the total cylinder volume:

2
d
Volume = L
2

= 3.14 ( )2 ( )

Calculate the piston displacement volume:

2
d
Volume = h
2
where h = piston stroke
=( )2 ( )

Calculate the clearance volume:

Clearance Volume = Total Cylinder Volume Piston Displaceme nt Volum e

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Calculate clearance percentage:

Clearance Volume
C= × 100
Piston Displaceme nt

( )
=
( ) × 100

=( )%

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GLOSSARY

balance piston A device that is installed on the shaft of a centrifugal

compressor and that reduces the forces on the thrust
bearing.
casing The outer containment vessel of a compressor.
clearance volume A volume in a reciprocating compressor cylinder that is not
swept by the piston.
crankshaft The rotating element that transmits power from the driver to
the connecting rods and that converts the rotary motion of
the prime mover into the reciprocating motion of the
pistons.
cross-head The mechanical element between the connecting rod and
the piston rod that absorbs the nonaxial forces from the
connecting rod and that transmits only axial forces to the
piston rod.
cylinder The principal component of a reciprocating compressor,
which contains the piston, the suction and discharge valves,
and the packing around the piston rod.
diffuser A component of centrifugal compressors that is located
after an impeller. The diffuser converts velocity head to
pressure head.
discharge volute Spiral-shaped casing that is designed to convert velocity
energy to pressure energy.
dynamic compression The compression of a gas with continuous flow due to the
interaction between a vane and a gas.
impeller The rotating element of a centrifugal compressor that
develops velocity head. Also called a wheel.
intercooler A gas cooler that is located between compressor stages.
piston The component that moves back and forth in the cylinder
and that compresses the gas.
positive-displacement Compression that occurs when a quantity of gas occupies a
compression space and is mechanically reduced. Such compression
results in a corresponding increase in pressure.

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