INTRODUCTION

The internet of things, or IoT, is a system of interrelated computing devices,

mechanical and digital machines, objects, animals or people that are provided
with unique identifiers (UIDs) and the ability to transfer data over a network
without requiring human-to-human or human-to-computer interaction.
The Internet of Things, also called The Internet of Objects, refers to a wireless
network between objects. By embedding short-range mobile transceivers into a
wide array of additional gadgets and everyday items, enabling new forms of
communication between people and things, and between things themselves. The
term Internet of Things has come to describe a number of technologies and
research disciplines that enable the Internet to reach out into the real world of
physical objects. Things having identities and virtual personalities operating in
smart spaces using intelligent interfaces to connect and communicate within
social, environmental, and user contexts. From any time, any place connectivity
for anyone, we will now have connectivity for anything.

Characteristics of IOT-
The fundamental characteristics of the IoT are as follows:
 Heterogeneity: The devices in the IoT are heterogeneous as based on different
hardware platforms and networks. They can interact with other devices or
service platforms through different networks.
 Enormous scale: The number of devices that need to be managed and that
communicate with each other will be at least an order of magnitude larger than
the devices connected to the current Internet. Even more critical will be the
management of the data generated and their interpretation for application
purposes. This relates to semantics of data, as well as efficient data handling.
 Safety: As we gain benefits from the IoT, we must not forget about safety. As
both the creators and recipients of the IoT, we must design for safety. This
includes the safety of our personal data and the safety of our physical well-
being. Securing the endpoints, the networks, and the data moving across all of it
means creating a security paradigm that will scale.
 Connectivity: Connectivity enables network accessibility and compatibility.
Accessibility is getting on a network while compatibility provides the
common ability to consume and produce data.
 Dynamic & Self-Adapting : IoT devices and systems may have the
capability to dynamically adapt with the changing contexts and take actions
based on their conditions, user’s context or sensed environment. For
example,consider a surveillance system comprising of a number of
surveillance cameras. The surveillance camera can adapt their modes based
on whether it is day or night. Camera could switch from lower resolution to
higher resolution modes when any motion is detected and alert nearby
camera to do the same. In this example,the surveillance system is adapting
itself based on the context and changing conditions.
● Self-Configuring :IoT devices may have self-configuring capability,allowing
a large number of devices to work together to provide certain functionality.
These devices have ability to configure themselves,setup the networking and
fetch latest software upgrades with minimal manual or user intervention.
● Interoperable Communication Protocols : IoT devices may support a number
of interoperable communication protocols and can communicate with the other
devices and also with the infrastructure.
● Unique Identity :Each IoT device has a unique identity and a unique
identifier. IoT systems may have intelligent interfaces which adapt based on the
context,allow communicating with user and the environmental contexts. : IoT
device interfaces allow users to query the devices,monitor their status and
control them remotely,in association with control,configuration and
management infrastructure.
● Integrated into Information Network : IoT devices are usually integrated into
information network which allows them to communicate and exchange data
with other devices and systems. IoT devices can be dynamically discovered in
the network, by other devices and/or the network,and they have capability to
describe themselves to other devices or the user applications. For example, a
weather monitoring node can describe its monitoring capabilities to another
connected node so that they can communicate and exchange the data.
Integration into the information network helps in marketing IoT systems
“smarter” due to the collective intelligence of the individual devices in
collaboration with the infrastructure. Thus, the data from a large number of
connected weather monitoring IoT node can be aggregated and analyzed to
predict the weather.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN AN IOT SYSTEM

Now, that we have profiled most of the IoT technologies, let us look at some of
the design considerations for designing a practical IoT network.
The first consideration is the design of the sensors. Even though there might not
be much of a choice regarding the sensors, there is definitely a lot of choice
regarding the processing and networking capabilities that are bundled along with
the sensors. Our choices range from small sub-mW boards meant for sensor motes
to Arduino or Atom boards that consume 300–500 mW of power. This choice
depends on the degree of analytics and data preprocessing that we want to
perform at the sensor itself. Secondly, there is an issue of logistics also. To create
a sub-mW board, we need board design expertise, and this might not be readily
available. Hence, it might be advisable to bundle a sensor with commercially
available embedded processor kits.
The next important consideration is communication. In IoT nodes, power is the
most dominant issue. The power required to transmit and receive messages is a
major fraction of the overall power, and as a result a choice of the networking
technology is vital. The important factors that we need to consider are the distance
between the sender and the receiver, the nature of obstacles, signal distortion,
ambient noise, and governmental regulations. Based on these key factors, we
need to choose a given wireless networking protocol. For example, if we just need
to communicate inside a small building, we can use Zigbee, whereas if we need
communication in a smart city, we should choose Sigfox or LoraWAN. In
addition, often there are significant constraints on the frequency and the power
that can be spent in transmission. These limitations are mainly imposed by
government agencies. An apt decision needs to be made by taking all of these
factors into account.
Let us then come to the middleware. The first choice that needs to be made is to
choose between an open source middleware such as FiWare or a proprietary
solution. There are pros and cons of both. It is true that open source middleware
is in theory more flexible; however, they may have limited support for IoT
devices. We ideally want a middleware solution to interoperate with all kinds of
communication protocols and devices; however, that might not be the case.
Hence, if we need strict compatibility with certain devices and protocols, a
proprietary solution is better. Nevertheless, open source offerings have cost
advantages and are sometimes easier to deploy. We also need to choose the
communication protocol and ensure that it is compatible with the firewalls in the
organizations involved. In general choosing a protocol based on HTTP is the best
from this point of view. We also need to choose between TCP and UDP. UDP is
always better from the point of view of power consumption. Along with these
considerations, we also need to look at options to store sensor data streams,
querying languages, and support for generating dynamic alerts.
Finally, let us consider the application layer. Most IoT frameworks provide
significant amount of support for creating the application layer. This includes data
mining, data processing, and visualization APIs. Creating mashups and
dashboards of data is nowadays very easy to do given the extensive support
provided by IoT frameworks. Nevertheless, here the tradeoff is between the
features provided and the resources that are required. We do not need a very
heavy framework if we do not desire a lot of features. This call needs to be taken
by the application developers.

PHYSICAL DESIGN OF IOT

The Internet of Things will become part of the fabric of everyday life. It will
become part of our overall infrastructure just like water, electricity, telephone,
TV and most recently the Internet. Whereas the current Internet typically
connects full-scale computers, the Internet of Things (as part of the Future
Internet) will connect everyday objects with a strong integration into the physical
world.
1. Plug and Play Integration If we look at IoT-related technology available
today, there is a huge heterogeneity. It is typically deployed for very specific
purposes and the configure requires significant technical knowledge and may be
cumbersome. To achieve a true Internet of Things we need to move away from
such small-scale, vertical application silos, towards a horizontal infrastructure on
which a variety of applications can run simultaneously. This is only possible if
connecting a thing to the Internet of Things becomes as simple as plugging it in
and switching it on. Such plug and play functionality requires an infrastructure
that supports it, starting from the networking level and going beyond it to the
application level. This is closely related to the aspects discussed in the section on
autonomy. On the networking level, the plug & play functionality has to enable
the communication, features like the ones provided by IPv6 are in the directions
to help in this process. Suitable infrastructure components have then to be
discovered to enable the integration into the Internet of Things. This includes
announcing the functionalities provided, such as what can be sensed or what can
be actuated.
2. Infrastructure Functionality The infrastructure needs to support applications
in finding the things required. An application may run anywhere, including on
the things themselves. Finding things is not limited to the start-up time of an
application. Automatic adaptation is needed whenever relevant new things
become available, things become unavailable or the status of things changes. The
infrastructure has to support the monitoring of such changes and the adaptation
that is required as a result of the changes.
3. Semantic Modeling of Things To reach the full potential of the Internet of
Things, semantic information regarding the things, the information they can
provide or the actuations they can perform need to be available. It is not sufficient
to know that there is a temperature sensor or an electric motor, but it is important
to know which temperature the sensor measures: the indoor temperature of a
room or the temperature of the fridge, and that the electric motor can open or
close the blinds or move something to a different location. As it may not be
possible to provide such semantic information by simply switching on the thing,
the infrastructure should make adding it easy for users. Also, it may be possible
to derive semantic information, given some basic information and additional
knowledge, e.g. deriving information about a room, based on the information that
a certain sensor is located in the room. This should be enabled by the
infrastructure.
4. Physical Location and Position As the Internet of Things is strongly rooted
in the physical world, the notion of physical location and position are very
important, especially for finding things, but also for deriving knowledge.
Therefore, the infrastructure has to support finding things according to location
(e.g. geo-location based discovery). Taking mobility into account, localization
technologies will play an important role for the Internet of Things and may
become embedded into the infrastructure of the Internet of Things.
5. Security and Privacy In addition, an infrastructure needs to provide support
for security and privacy functions including identification, confidentiality,
integrity, non-repudiation authentication and authorization. Here the
heterogeneity and the need for interoperability among different ICT systems
deployed in the infrastructure and the resource limitations of IoT devices (e.g.,
Nano sensors) have to be taken into account.
Physical Design of IoT
1.Things in IoT
2.IoT Protocols
Things in IoT
● The "Things" in IoT usually refers to IoT devices which have unique identities
and can perform remote sensing, actuating and monitoring capabilities.
● IoT devices can:
○ Exchange data with other connected devices and applications (directly or
indirectly), or
○ Collect data from other devices and process the data locally or ○ Send the data
to centralized servers or cloud-based application back-ends for processing the
data, or
○ Perform some tasks locally and other tasks within the IoT infrastructure, based
on temporal and space constraints.
block diagram of IoT device.
● An IoT device may consist of several interfaces for connections to other
devices, both wired and wireless.
1. I/O interfaces for sensors
2. Interfaces for Internet connectivity
3. Memory and storage interfaces
4. Audio/video interfaces.
5. IoT Protocols
● Link Layer
○ 802.3 – Ethernet
○ 802.11 – WiFi
○ 802.16 – WiMax
○ 802.15.4 – LR-WPAN
○ 2G/3G/4G
● Network/Internet Layer
○ IPv4
○ IPv6
○ 6LoWPAN
● Transport Layer
○ TCP
○ UDP
● Application Layer
○ HTTP
○ CoAP
○ WebSocket
○ MQTT
○ XMPP
○ DDS
○ AMQP
LOGICAL DESIGN OF IOT
Logical design of an IoT system refers to an abstract representation of the entities
and processes without going into the low-level specifics of the implementation.
● An IoT system comprises of a number of functional blocks that provide the
system the capabilities for identification, sensing, actuation, communication, and
management.
● These functional blocks are described as follows:
○ Device: An IoT system comprises of the devices that provides sensing,
actuation, communication, and control functions.
○ Communication: The communication block handles the communication for the
IoT system.
○ Services: An IoT system uses various types of IoT services such as services
for device monitoring,device control services,data publishing services and
services for device discovery.
○ Management: Management functional block provides various functions to
govern the IoT system.
○ Security: Security functional blocks secures the IoT system by providing such
as authentication,authorization, message and content integrity and data security.
○ Application: IoT applications provide an interface that the users can use to
control and monitor various aspects of the IoT systems.Application also allow
users to view the system status and view or analyze the processed data.
IOT ENABLING TECHNOLOGIES
 Wireless Sensor Network
 Cloud Computing
 Big Data Analytics
 Embedded Systems
 Communication protocols
 1. WSN : Distributed Devices with sensors used to monitor the
environmental and physical conditionsConsists of several end-nodes
acting as routers or coordinators tooCoordinators collects data from all
nodes / acts as gateway that connects WSN to internetRouters route the
data packets from end nodes to coordinators.
Example of WSNs in IoT & Protocols used
Weather monitoring system
Indoor Air quality monitoring system
Soil moisture monitoring system
Survelliance systems
Health monitoring systems
ProtocolsZigbee
2. Cloud Computing Deliver applications and services over internet
Provides computing, networking and storage resources on demandCloud
computing performs services such as Iaas, Paas and Saas
Iaas : Rent Infrastructure
Paas : supply an on-demand environment for developing, testing,
delivering and managing software applications.
Saas : method for delivering software applications over the Internet, on
demand and typically on a subscription basis.
3. Big Data Analytics : Collection of data whose volume, velocity or
variety is too large and difficult to store, manage, process and analyze the
data using traditional databases.It involves data cleansing, processing and
visualizationLots of data is being collected and warehousedWeb data, e-
commercepurchases at department/ grocery storesBank/Credit Card
transactionsSocial Network
Big Data Analytics Variety Includes different types of data Structured
UnstructuredSemiStructuredAll of above
Big Data Analytics Velocity Refers to speed at which data is processed
BatchReal-timeSTreams
Big Data Analytics Volume refers to the amount of data Terabyte
RecordsTransactionsFilesTables
 4. Embedded Systems
As its name suggests, Embedded means something that is attached to another
thing. An embedded system can be thought of as a computer hardware system
having software embedded in it. An embedded system can be an independent
system or it can be a part of a large system. An embedded system is a controller
programmed and controlled by a real-time operating system (RTOS) with a
dedicated function within a larger mechanical or electrical system, often with
real-time computing constraints. It is embedded as part of a complete device
often including hardware and mechanical parts. Embedded systems control
many devices in common use today. Ninety-eight percent of all microprocessors
are manufactured to serve as embedded system component.
An embedded system has three components −
 It has hardware.
 It has application software.
 It has Real Time Operating system (RTOS) that supervises the application
software and provide mechanism to let the processor run a process as per
scheduling by following a plan to control the latencies. RTOS defines the way
the system works. It sets the rules during the execution of application program.
A small scale embedded system may not have RTOS.
5. Communication protocols
Communication protocols form the backbone of IoT systems and enable
network connectivity and coupling to applications. Communication protocols
allow devices to exchange data over the network. Multiple protocols often
describe different aspects of a single communication. A group of protocols
designed to work together are known as a protocol suite; when implemented in
software they are a protocol stack.
Internet communication protocols are published by the Internet Engineering
Task Force (IETF). The IEEE handles wired and wireless networking, and the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) handles other types. The
ITU-T handles telecommunication protocols and formats for the public
switched telephone network (PSTN). As the PSTN and Internet converge, the
standards are also being driven towards convergence.
In IoT we used MQTT, COAP, AMQP etc. protocols.
IoT Deployment Templates.
An IoT system comprises of the following components:
● Device: An IoT device allows identification, remote sensing, actuating and
remote monitoring capabilities.
 ● Resource: Resources are software components on the IoT device for
accessing, processing, and storing sensor information, or controlling actuators
connected to the device. Resources also include the software components that
enable network access for the device.
● Controller Service: Controller service is a native service that runs on the
device and interacts with the web services. Controller service sends data from
the device to the web service and receives commands from the application (via
web services) for controlling the device
● Database: Database can be either local or in the cloud and stores the data
generated by the IoT device.
● Web Service: Web services serve as a link between the IoT device,
application, database and analysis components. Web service can be either
implemented using HTTP and REST principles (REST service) or using
WebSocket protocol (WebSocket service).
● Analysis Component: The Analysis Component is responsible for analyzing
the IoT data and generate results in a form which are easy for the user to
understand.
● Application: IoT applications provide an interface that the users can use to
control and monitor various aspects of the IoT system. Applications also allow
users to view the system status and view the processed data.
IOT LEVELS
IoT Level-1
● A level-1 IoT system has a single node/device that performs sensing and/or
actuation, stores data, performs analysis and hosts the application
● Level-1 IoT systems are suitable for modeling low cost and low-complexity
solutions where the data involved is not big and the analysis requirements are
not computationally intensive.
IoT Level-2
 ● A level-2 IoT system has a single node that performs sensing and/or
actuation and local analysis.
● Data is stored in the cloud and application is usually cloud based.
● Level-2 IoT systems are suitable for solutions where the data involved is big,
however, the primary analysis requirement is not computationally intensive and
can be done locally itself.
IoT Level-3
● A level-3 IoT system has a single node. Data is stored and analyzed in the
cloud and application is cloud based.
● Level-3 IoT systems are suitable for solutions where the data involved is big
and the analysis requirements are computationally intensive.
IoT Level-4
● A level-4 IoT system has multiple nodes that perform local analysis.
● Data is stored in the cloud and application is cloud-based.
● Level-4 contains local and cloud based observer nodes which can subscribe
to and receive information collected in the cloud from IoT devices.
● Level-4 IoT systems are suitable for solutions where multiple nodes are
required, the data involved is big and the analysis requirements are
computationally intensive.
IoT Level-5
● A level-5 IoT system has multiple end nodes and one coordinator node.
● The end nodes that perform sensing and/or actuation.
● Coordinator node collects data from the end nodes and sends to the cloud.
● Data is stored and analyzed in the cloud and application is cloud-based.
● Level-5 IoT systems are suitable for solutions based on wireless sensor
networks, in which the data involved is big and the analysis requirements are
computationally intensive.
IoT Level-6
● A level-6 IoT system has multiple independent end nodes that perform
sensing and/or actuation and send data to the cloud.
● Data is stored in the cloud and application is cloud-based.
● The analytics component analyzes the data and stores the results in the cloud
database.
● The results are visualized with the cloud-based application.
● The centralized controller is aware of the status of all the end nodes and sends
control commands to the nodes.

SENSORS
Sensors are sophisticated devices that are frequently used to detect and respond
to electrical or optical signals. A Sensor converts the physical parameter (for
example: temperature, blood pressure, humidity, speed, etc.) into a signal which
can be measured electrically. Let’s explain the example of temperature. The
mercury in the glass thermometer expands and contracts the liquid to convert the
measured temperature which can be read by a viewer on the calibrated glass tube.

Types of Sensors
Some commonly used sensors alongwith their principle and applications are
explained as follows:

1. Temperature Sensors
This device collects information about temperature from a source and converts
into a form that is understandable by other device or person. The best illustration
of a temperature sensor is mercury in glass thermometer. The mercury in the glass
expands and contracts depending on the alterations in temperature. The outside
temperature is the source element for the temperature measurement. The position
of the mercury is observed by the viewer to measure the temperature. There are
two basic types of temperature sensors:
· Contact Sensors – This type of sensor requires direct physical contact with
the object or media that is being sensed. They supervise the temperature of solids,
liquids and gases over a wide range of temperatures.
· Non contact Sensors – This type of sensor does not require any physical
contact with the object or media that is being sensed. They supervise non-
reflective solids and liquids but are not useful for gases due to natural
transparency. These sensors use Plank’s Law to measure temperature. This law
deals with the heat radiated from the source of heat to measure the temperature.
2. IR Sensor

This device emits and/or detects infrared radiation to sense a particular phase in
the environment. Generally, thermal radiation is emitted by all the objects in the
infrared spectrum. The infrared sensor detects this type of radiation which is not
visible to human eye.

Advantages

· Easy for interfacing

· Readily available in market

 Disadvantages

· Disturbed by noises in the surrounding such as radiations, ambient light etc.

Working

The basic idea is to make use of IR LEDs to send the infrared waves to the object.
Another IR diode of the same type is to be used to detect the reflected wave from
the object. The diagram is shown below.

Fig. 4: Simple Diagram Explaining Working Of IR Led Sensor

When IR receiver is subjected to infrared light, a voltage difference is produced

across the leads. Less voltage which is produced can be hardly detected and hence
operational amplifiers (Op-amps) are used to detect the low voltages accurately.

Measuring the distance of the object from the receiver sensor: The electrical
property of IR sensor components can be used to measure the distance of an
object. The fact when IR receiver is subjected to light, a potential difference is
produced across the leads.
3. UV Sensor

These sensors measure the intensity or power of the incident ultraviolet radiation.
This form of electromagnetic radiation has wavelengths longer than x-rays but is
still shorter than visible radiation. An active material known as polycrystalline
diamond is being used for reliable ultraviolet sensing. UV sensors can discover
the exposure of environment to ultraviolet radiation.

Criteria to select a UV Sensor

· Wavelength ranges in nanometres (nm) that can be detected by the UV

sensors.

· Operating temperature

· Accuracy

· Weight

· Power range

Working

The UV sensor accepts one type of energy signal and transmits different type of
energy signals.

To observe and record these output signals they are directed to an electrical meter.
To create graphs and reports, the output signals are transmitted to an analog-to-
digital converter (ADC), and then to a computer with software.

Examples include:
· UV phototubes are radiation-sensitive sensors supervise UV air treatments,
UV water treatments, and solar irradiance.

· Light sensors measure the intensity of incident light.

· UV spectrum sensors are charged coupled devices (CCD) utilized in

scientific photography.

· Ultraviolet light detectors.

· Germicidal UV detectors.

· Photo stability sensors.

Applications

· Measures the portion of the UV spectrum which sunburns human skin

· Pharmacy

· Automobiles

· Robotics

· Printing industry for solvent handling and dyeing processes

· Chemical industry for the production, storage, and transportation of

chemicals

Read more about UV sensors and their working.

Type4: Touch Sensor

4. Touch Sensor

A touch sensor acts as a variable resistor as per the location where it is touched.
The figure is as shown below.
Fig. 5: Figure Showing Touch Sensor Working As Variable Resistor

A touch sensor is made of:

· Fully conductive substance such as copper

· Insulated spacing material such as foam or plastic

· Partially conductive material

Principle and Working

The partially conductive material opposes the flow of current. The main principle
of the linear position sensor is that the current flow is more opposed when the
length of this material that must be travelled by the current is more. As a result,
the resistance of the material is varied by changing the position at which it makes
contact with the fully conductive material.

Generally, softwares are interfaced to the touch sensors. In such a case, a memory
is being offered by the software. They can memorize the ‘last touched position’
when the sensor is deactivated. They can memorize the ‘first touched position’
once the sensor gets activated and understand all the values related to it. This act
is similar to how one moves the mouse and locates it at the other end of mouse
pad in order to move the cursor to the far side of the screen.
Applications

The touch sensors being cost effective and durable are used in many applications
such as

· Commercial – Medical, vending, Fitness and gaming

· Appliances – Oven, Washing machine/dryers, dishwashers, refrigerators

· Transportation – Cockpit fabrication and streamlining control among the

vehicle manufacturers

· Fluid level sensors

· Industrial Automation – Position and liquid level sensing, human touch

control in automation applications

· Consumer Electronics – Provides a new feel and level of control in various

consumer products

Type5: Proximity Sensor

5. Proximity Sensor

A proximity sensor detects the presence of objects that are nearly placed without
any point of contact. Since there is no contact between the sensors and sensed
object and lack of mechanical parts, these sensors have long functional life and
high reliability. The different types of proximity sensors are Inductive Proximity
sensors, Capacitive Proximity sensors, Ultrasonic proximity sensors,
photoelectric sensors, Hall-effect sensors, etc.

Working
A proximity sensor emits an electromagnetic or electrostatic field or a beam
of electromagnetic radiation (such as infrared), and waits for the return signal or
changes in the field. The object which is being sensed is known as the proximity
sensor’s target.

Applications

· Used in automation engineering to define operating states in process

engineering plants, production systems and automating plants

· Used in windows, and the alarm is activated when the window opens

· Used in machine vibration monitoring to calculate the difference in distance

between a shaft and its support bearing

Principle

Different definitions are approved to distinguish sensors and transducers. Sensors

can be defined as an element that senses in one form of energy to produce a
variant in same or another form of energy. Transducer converts the measurand
into the desired output using the transduction principle.

Based on the signals that are obtained and created, the principle can be
categorized into following groups namely, Electrical, Mechanical, Thermal,
Chemical, Radiant, and Magnetic.

Let’s take the example of an ultrasonic sensor.

An ultrasonic sensor is used to detect the presence of an object. It achieves this

by emitting ultrasonic waves from the device head and then receiving the
reflected ultrasonic signal from the concerned object. This helps in detecting the
position, presence and movement of objects.
Fig. 6: Figure Explaining Principle Of Ultrasonic Sensor

Since ultrasonic sensors rely on sound rather than light for detection, it is widely
used to measure water-levels, medical scanning procedures and in the automobile
industry. Ultrasonic waves can detect transparent objects such as transparent
films, glass bottles, plastic bottles, and plate glass, using its Reflective Sensors.

Working

The movement of ultrasonic waves differ due to shape and type of media. For
example, ultrasonic waves move straight in a uniform medium, and are reflected
and transmitted back at the boundary between differing media. A human body in
air causes considerable reflection and can be easily detected.

The travelling of ultrasonic waves can be best explained by understanding the

following:

1. Multi-reflection

Multi-reflection takes place when waves are reflected more than once between
the sensor and the detection object.

2. Limit zone
The minimum sensing distance and maximum sensing distance can be adjusted.
This is called the limit zone.

3. Undetection zone
The undetected zone is the interval between the surface of the sensor head and
the minimum detection distance resulting from detection distance adjustment.
The figure is shown below.

Fig. 7: Diagram Of Sensing Range In Ultrasonic Sensor

The Undetection zone is the area close to the sensor where detection is not
possible due to the sensor head configuration and reverberations. Detection may
occur in the uncertainty zone due to multi-reflection between the sensor and the
object.

Applications

Sensors are used in many kinds of applications such as:

· Shock Detection

· Machine monitoring applications

· Vehicle dynamics

· Low power applications

· Structural Dynamics

· Medical Aerospace

· Nuclear Instrumentation

· As pressure sensor in Mobiles ‘touch key pad’

· Lamps which brighten or dim on touching its base

· Touch sensitive buttons in elevators

Advanced Sensor Technology

Sensor technology is used in wide range in the field of Manufacturing. The
advanced technologies are as follows:

1. Bar-code Identification – The products sold in the markets has a Universal

Product Code (UPC) which is a 12 digit code. Five of the numbers signify the
manufacturer and other five signify the product. The first six digits are
represented by code as light and dark bars. The first digit signifies the type of
number system and the second digit which is parity signifies the accuracy of the
reading. The remaining six digits are represented by code as dark and light bars
reversing the order of the first six digits. Bar code is shown in the figure given
below.
Fig. 8: A Typical Image Of Bar Code Scanned By Bar Code Reader

The bar code reader can manage different bar code standards even without having
the knowledge of the standard code. The disadvantage with bar coding is that the
bar scanner is unable to read if the bar code is concealed with grease or dirt.

2. Transponders – In the automobile section, Radio frequency device is used

in many cases. The transponders are hidden inside the plastic head of the key
which is not visible to anyone. The key is inserted in the ignition lock cylinder.
As you turn the key, the computer transmits a radio signal to the transponder. The
computer will not let the engine to ignite until the transponder responds to the
signal. These transponders are energized by the radio signals. The figure of a
transponder is as shown below:

Fig. 9: A Image Of Embedded Transponder Used In Key

3. Electromagnetic Identification of Manufactured Components – This is

similar to the bar code technology where the data can be coded on magnetic stripe.
With magnetic striping, the data can be read even if the code is concealed with
grease or dirt.

4. Surface Acoustic Waves – This process is similar to the RF identification.

Here, the part identification gets triggered by the radar type signals and is
transmitted over long distances as compared to the RF systems.

5. Optical Character Recognition – This is a type of automatic identification

technique which uses alphanumeric characters as the source of information. In
United States, Optical character recognition is used in mail processing centres.
They are also used in vision systems and voice recognition systems.
IOT APPLICATIONS.
● Home Automation
○ Smart Lighting
○ Smart Appliances
○ Intrusion Detection
○ Smoke/Gas Detectors
● Cities
○ Smart Parking
○ Smart Lighting
○ Smart Roads
○ Structural Health Monitoring
○ Surveillance
○ Emergency Response
● Environment
○ Weather Monitoring
○ Air Pollution Monitoring
○ Noise Pollution Monitoring
○ Forest Fire Detection
○ River Floods Detection
● Energy
○ Smart Grids
○ Renewable Energy Systems
○ Prognostics
● Retail
○ Inventory Management
○ Smart payments
○ Smart Vending Machines
● Logistics
○ Route Generation & Scheduling
○ Fleet Ticketing
○ Shipment Monitoring
○ Remote Vehicle Diagnostics
● Agriculture
○ Smart Irrigation
○ Green House Control
● Industry
○ Machine Diagnosis & Prognosis
○ Indoor Air quality Monitoring
● Health & Life Style
○ Health & Fitness Monitoring
○ Wearable Electronics
IOT APPLICATIONS
Potential applications of the IoT are numerous and diverse, permeating into
practically all areas of every-day life of individuals, enterprises, and society as a
whole.
 IOsL (Internet of smart living)-Remote Control Appliances:
Switching on and off remotely appliances to avoid accidents and save energy,
Weather: Displays outdoor weather conditions such as humidity, temperature,
pressure, wind speed and rain levels with ability to transmit data over long
distances, Smart Home Appliances: Refrigerators with LCD screen telling what’s
inside, food that’s about to expire, ingredients you need to buy and with all the
information available on a Smartphone app. Washing machines allowing you to
monitor the laundry remotely, and. Kitchen ranges with interface to a Smartphone
app allowing remotely adjustable temperature control and monitoring the oven’s
self-cleaning feature, Safety Monitoring: cameras, and home alarm systems
making people feel safe in their daily life at home, Intrusion Detection Systems:
Detection of window and door openings and violations to prevent intruders,
Energy and Water Use: Energy and water supply consumption monitoring to
obtain advice on how to save cost and resources.
 IOsC ( Internet of smart cities)-Structural Health:
Monitoring of vibrations and material conditions in buildings, bridges and
historical monuments, Lightning: intelligent and weather adaptive lighting in
street lights, Safety: Digital video monitoring, fire control management, public
announcement systems, Transportation: Smart Roads and Intelligent High-ways
with warning messages and diversions according to climate conditions and
unexpected events like accidents or traffic jams, Smart Parking: Real-time
monitoring of parking spaces availability in the city making residents able to
identify and reserve the closest available spaces, Waste Management: Detection
of rubbish levels in containers to optimize the trash collection routes. Garbage
cans and recycle bins with RFID tags allow the sanitation staff to see when
garbage has been put out.
 IOsE (Internet of smart environment)-
Air Pollution monitoring: Control of CO2 emissions of factories, pollution
emitted by cars and toxic gases generated in farms, Forest Fire Detection:
Monitoring of combustion gases and preemptive fire conditions to define alert
zones, Weather monitoring: weather conditions monitoring such as humidity,
temperature, pressure, wind speed and rain, Earthquake Early Detection, Water
Quality: Study of water suitability in rivers and the sea for eligibility in drinkable
use, River Floods: Monitoring of water level variations in rivers, dams and
reservoirs during rainy days, Protecting wildlife: Tracking collars utilizing
GPS/GSM modules to locate and track wild animals and communicate their
coordinates via SMS.
  IOsI (Internet of smart industry)-Explosive and Hazardous Gases: Detection of
gas levels and leakages in industrial environments, surroundings of chemical
factories and inside mines, Monitoring of toxic gas and oxygen levels inside
chemical plants to ensure workers and goods safety, Monitoring of water, oil and
gas levels in storage tanks and Cisterns, Maintenance and repair: Early
predictions on equipment malfunctions and service maintenance can be
automatically scheduled ahead of an actual part failure by installing sensors inside
equipment to monitor and send reports.
 IOsH (Internet of smart health)-Patients Surveillance: Monitoring of conditions
of patients inside hospitals and in old people’s home, Medical Fridges: Control
of conditions inside freezers storing vaccines, medicines and organic elements,
Fall Detection: Assistance for elderly or disabled people living independent,
Dental: Bluetooth connected toothbrush with Smartphone app analyzes the
brushing uses and gives information on the brushing habits on the Smartphone
for private information or for showing statistics to the dentist, Physical Activity
Monitoring: Wireless sensors placed across the mattress sensing small motions,
like breathing and heart rate and large motions caused by tossing and turning
during sleep, providing data available through an app on the Smartphone
.  IOsE (internet of smart energy)-Smart Grid: Energy consumption monitoring
and management, Wind Turbines/ Power house: Monitoring and analyzing the
flow of energy from wind turbines & power house, and two-way communication
with consumers’ smart meters to analyze consumption patterns, Power Supply
Controllers: Controller for AC-DC power supplies that determines required
energy, and improve energy efficiency with less energy waste for power supplies
related to computers, telecommunications, and consumer electronics
applications, Photovoltaic Installations: Monitoring and optimization of
performance in solar energy plants.
 IOsA (internet of smart agriculture)-Green Houses: Control micro-climate
conditions to maximize the production of fruits and vegetables and its quality,
Compost: Control of humidity and temperature levels in alfalfa, hay, straw, etc.
to prevent fungus and other microbial contaminants, Animal Farming/Tracking:
Location and identification of animals grazing in open pastures or location in big
stables, Study of ventilation and air quality in farms and detection of harmful
gases from excrements, Offspring Care: Control of growing conditions of the
offspring in animal farms to ensure its survival and health, field Monitoring:
Reducing spoilage and crop waste with better monitoring, accurate ongoing data
obtaining, and management of the agriculture fields, including better control of
fertilizing, electricity and watering.
EXTRA TOPICS FROM PDF
IOT ARCHITECTURAL VIEW
-IOT architecture consists of different layers of technologies supporting IOT. It
serves to illustrate how various technologies relate to each other and to
communicate the scalability, modularity and configuration of IOT deployments
in different scenarios. The functionality of each layer is described below
:  Smart device / sensor layer: The lowest layer is made up of smart objects
integrated with sensors. The sensors enable the interconnection of the physical
and digital worlds allowing real-time information to be collected and processed.
There are various types of sensors for different purposes. The sensors have the
capacity to take measurements such as temperature, air quality, speed, humidity,
pressure, flow, movement and electricity etc. In some cases, they may also have
a degree of memory, enabling them to record a certain number of measurements.
A sensor can measure the physical property and convert it into signal that can be
understood by an instrument. Sensors are grouped according to their unique
purpose such as environmental sensors, body sensors, home appliance sensors
and vehicle telemetric sensors, etc
 Gateways and Networks-Massive volume of data will be produced by these tiny
sensors and this requires a robust and high performance wired or wireless network
infrastructure as a transport medium. Current networks, often tied with very
different protocols, have been used to support machine-to-machine (M2M)
networks and their applications. With demand needed to serve a wider range of
IOT services and applications such as high speed transactional services,
contextaware applications, etc, multiple networks with various technologies and
access protocols are needed to work with each other in a heterogeneous
configuration. These networks can be in the form of a private, public or hybrid
models and are built to support the communication requirements for latency,
bandwidth or security. Various gateways (microcontroller, microprocessor) &
gateway networks (WI-FI, GSM, GPRS).
 Management Service Layer-The management service renders the processing of
information possible through analytics, security controls, process modeling and
management of devices. One of the important features of the management service
layer is the business and process rule engines. IOT brings connection and
interaction of objects and systems together providing information in the form of
events or contextual data such as temperature of goods, current location and
traffic data. Some of these events require filtering or routing to post-processing
systems such as capturing of periodic sensory data, while others require response
to the immediate situations such as reacting to emergencies on patient’s health
conditions. The rule engines support the formulation of decision logics and
trigger interactive and automated processes to enable a more responsive IOT
system.
 Application Layer-The IoT application covers “smart” environments/spaces in
domains such as: Transportation, Building, City, Lifestyle, Retail, Agriculture,
Factory, Supply chain, Emergency, Healthcare, User interaction, Culture and
tourism, Environment and Energy.

IOT CONCEPTUAL VIEW

The main tasks of this framework are to analyze and determine the smart
activities of these intelligent devices through maintaining a dynamic
interconnection among those devices. The proposed framework will help to
standardize IoT infrastructure so that it can receive e-services based on context
information leaving the current infrastructure unchanged. The active
collaboration of these heterogeneous devices and protocols can lead to future
ambient computing where the maximum utilization of cloud computing will be
ensured. This model is capable of logical division of physical devices placement,
creation of virtual links among different domains, networks and collaborate
among multiple application without any central coordination system. IaaS can
afford standard functionalities to accommodate and provides access to cloud
infrastructure. The service is generally offered by modern data centers maintained
by giant companies and organization. It is categorized as virtualization of
resources which permits a user to install and run application over virtualization
layer and allows the system to be distributed, configurable and scalable. Total
infrastructure system can be categorized into 4 layers to receive context supported
e-services out of raw data from the Internet of Things. These 4 layers establish a
generic framework that does not alter the current network infrastructure but create
an interfacing among services and entities through network virtualization. Fig.
1. Connectivity Layer
This layer includes all the physical devices involved in the framework and the
interconnection among them. Future internet largely depends on the unification
of these common objects found everywhere near us and these should be distinctly
identifiable and controllable. This layer also involves assigning of low range
networking devices like sensors, actuators, RFID tags etc and resource
management checks the availability of physical resources of all the devices and
networks involved in the underlying infrastructure. These devices contain very
limited resources and resource management ensures the maximum utilization
with little overhead. It also allows sharing and distribution of information among
multiple networks or single network divided into multiple domains.
2. Access Layer
Context Data will be reached to internet via IoT Gateway as captured by short
range devices in form of raw data. Access layer comprises topology definition,
network initiation, creation of domains etc. This layer also includes connection
setup, intra-inter domain communication, scheduling, packet transmissions
between flow-sensors and IoT gateway. The simulation was run later in this paper
for different scenario based on this layer. Feature management contains a feature
filter which accepts only acceptable context data and redundant data are rejected.
Large number of sensor maintains lots of features but only a small subset of
features is useful generate a context data. Feature filter helps to reduce irrelevant
data transmission, increases the data transfer rate of useful data and reduce energy
and CPU consumption too. Number of features can be different based on the
application requirements and context data types.
3. Abstraction Layer
 One of the most important characteristics of OpenFlow is to add virtual layers
with the preset layers, leaving the established infrastructure unchanged. A virtual
link can be created among different networks and a common platform can be
developed for various communication systems. The system is fully a centralized
system from physical layer viewpoint but a distribution of service (flow visor
could be utilized) could be maintained. One central system can monitor, control
all sorts of traffics. It can help to achieve better band-width, reliability, robust
routing, etc. which will lead to a better Quality of Services (QoS). In a multi-
hopping scenario packets are transferred via some adjacent nodes. So, nodes near
to access points bears too much load in comparison to distant nodes in a
downstream scenario and inactivity of these important nodes may cause the
network to be collapsed. Virtual presence of sensor nodes can solve the problem
where we can create a virtual link between two sensor networks through access
point negotiation. So, we can design a three a three layer platform, where common
platform and virtualization layer are newly added with established infrastructure.
Sensors need not to be worried about reach-ability or their placement even in
harsh areas. Packet could be sent to any nodes even if it is sited on different
networks.
4. Service Layer
Storage management bears the idea about all sorts of unfamiliar and/or important
technologies and information which can turn the system scalable and efficient. It
is not only responsible for storing data but also to provide security along with it.
It also allows accessing data effectively; integrating data to enhance service
intelligence, analysis based on the services required and most importantly
increases the storage efficiency. Storage and management layer involves data
storage & system supervision, software services and business management &
operations. Though they are included in one layer, the business support system
resides slightly above of cloud computing service whereas Open-Flow is placed
below of it as presented to include virtualizations and monitor management.
Service management combines the required services with organizational
solutions and thus new generation user service becomes simplified. These
forthcoming services are necessitated to be co interrelated and combined in order
to meet the demand socio- economic factors such as environment analysis, safety
measurement, climate management, agriculture modernization etc
IOT FUNCTIONAL VIEW-
The Internet of Things concept refers to uniquely identifiable things with their
virtual representations in an Internet-like structure and IoT solutions comprising
a number of components such as
(1) Module for interaction with local IoT devices. This module is responsible for
acquisition of observations and their forwarding to remote servers for analysis
and permanent storage.
(2) Module for local analysis and processing of observations acquired by IoT
devices.
(3) Module for interaction with remote IoT devices, directly over the Internet.
This module is responsible for acquisition of observations and their forwarding
to remote servers for analysis and permanent storage.
(4) Module for application specific data analysis and processing. This module is
running on an application server serving all clients. It is taking requests from
mobile and web clients and relevant IoT observations as input, executes
appropriate data processing algorithms and generates output in terms of
knowledge that is later presented to users.
(5) User interface (web or mobile): visual representation of measurements in a
given context (for example on a map) and interaction with the user, i.e. definition
of user queries.