Scribd
Upload
103 views38 pages

Protection and switchgear-AU 2013 - Chap 1

Anna University 2013 regulation-Protection and switchgear- chapter 1

Uploaded by

Hari
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
103 views38 pages

Protection and switchgear-AU 2013 - Chap 1

Anna University 2013 regulation-Protection and switchgear- chapter 1

Uploaded by

Hari
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 38
Protection Schemes Principles and need for protective schemes — nature and causes of faults ~ types of faules — fault current calculation using symmetrical components ~ Methods of Neutral grounding ~ Zones of protection and essential qualities of protection ~ Protection schemes = AA INTRODUCTION The protective system is very much essential for an Electrical Power System, | which is used to isolate the faulty equipment from the system and protect the other - equipments as quickly as possible. In case of short circuits or faults, the need for a Protective system is felt, if not isolated it would totally damage the power system. Each part of the power system is protected. The protective systems include circuit breakers and protective relays, to isolate the faulty section of the power system from the healthy ones. . PRINCIPLES OF THE PROTECTIVE SYSTEM ve relay is to sense the abnormal conditions in the power The function of a protecti It minimises stem and gives an alarm or isolates that part from the healthy system. damage 1o the equipment and interruptions to the service when electrical failure ‘The relays are compact, self-contained devices which respond to abnormal ed which intern conditions. Whenever a fault occurs, closes the trip circuit of a circuit breaker. the relay contacts get clos re PNA RE A a Protection and Switchgear —— a Pro ‘The circuit breaker opens and the faulty part is disconnected from the supply, Thus the entire process includes the operations like occurrence of fault, operation of relay, opening of a circuit breaker and removal of faulty element, This entire process is automatic and fast, due to protective relaying scheme. The protective relaying scheme includes protective current transformers, ; voltage transformers, protective relays, circuit breakers ete and normally about —— i" | 5% of the total cost of the project goes towards the protective schemes. thre 4 Tt-should be noted that a relay does not prevent the appearance of faults; butit _ 4nd it should isolate it without tripping the adjacent transmission line breakers or the ‘transformer. If the protective system is not selective, then it operates for the faults beyond its Protective zones and large part of the system may get isolated unnecessarily. This Causes a lot of inconvenience to the supplier and users. (iil) Sensitivity the relay operation, more Sensitive is the relay, ‘ampere input required causing a esi ad ye P 1c Protection Schemes Mathematically the sensitivity is expressed by a factor called sensitivity factor Ke. It is the ratio of minimum short circuit current in the protected zone to the minimum operating current required for the protection to start Is K Sail: where K = sensitivity factor I, = minimum short circuit current in the zone 1, = minimum operating current for the protection (iv) Reliability It is the ability of the relay system to operate under the pre-determined conditions. The failure of the protective system may be due to the failure of any of the ele: of the system vi nts protective relay, circuit breaker, P.T, C.T, Battery ete. In order to get high reliability, care should be taken to the design, installation and maintenance of the elements of the protective system. The reliability should be of the order of above 95%. (%) Simplicity The relaying system should be simple so that it can be easily maintained. It is closely related with the reliability. The simpler the protection scheme, the greater will be its reliability (i) Economy ‘The most important factor in the choice of a particular protection scheme is the economic aspect. The cost of the system should be within limits. As a rule, the Protection cost should not be more than 5% of the total cost. But, if the equipments to be protected are of most importance, economic constraints can be relaxed 1.4, FUNCTIONS OF PROTECTIVE RELAYING The various functions of protective relaying are (i) The perfect removal of the component which is behaving abnormally by closing the trip circuit of circuit breaker or to sound an alarm. (ii) To disconnect the abnormally operating part as to avoid the damage to rest of the system. |e) Protection and Switchgear (ii) To prevent the subsequent faults by disconnecting the abnormally operating part {iy) To disconnect the faulty part as quickly as possible so as to minimise the damage to the faulty part itself he system performance, stability, reliability and) service (v) To improve hus the protective relaying plays an important role in sensi the faults, effect of faults and minimizing the damage due to the faults. minimizing NATURE AND CAUSES OF FAULTS The nature of a fault implies any abnormal condition which causes a reduction in the basic insulation strength between phase conductors or between phase conductors and earth. Faults are normally caused by breaking of conductors or due to insulation failure. The other reasons for occurrence of fault include mechanical failure, accidents, excessive internal and external stresses. When a fault occurs on the system, the voltages of the three phases become umequal. As the fault currents are large, the apparatus may get damaged. The flow of power is diverted towards the fault which affects the supply to the neighbouring zone. A power system consists of generators, transformers, switchgear, transmission and distribution circuits. There is always a possibility that some fault will occur in some part of the system. The maximum possibility of fault occurrence is on transmission lines due to their greater lengths and exposure to atmospheric conditions. The faults however, can always be minimised, though not avoided by adopting E improved system design, improved quality of components better and adequate Protective relaying etc. ae can be classified, according to the causes of their incidence. The = ae ee cee at normal voltage dus to deterioration of insulation. It may also es een of unpredictable causes which include perching of — me ing by snakes, kite strings, surges caused by lightning etc. ts can also be classified as single line to ground fault, double line to Sround fault, three phase fault that ma; i current an; oceur in the syste1 ‘mt and voltage, over voltages, ystem due to unbalance in under frequency, temperature rise and instability. Protection Schemes 1.7) 4.6. FAULT STATISTICS It is usefull to know the frequency of the fault occurrence on various parts of the able protection circuit. The following table gives system which help in designing s an idea of how faults are distributed in various parts of the system. Table 1.1. Fault distribution in Power System mre htt 1 No | Equipment % of total faults “) Overhead lines 50 Switchgear 15 Transformer 12 | Cables. 10 Miscellaneous | Control equipment | CTs and PTs It can be seen that maximum number of faults are occurring on overhead lines. In case of three phase system, the breakdown of insulation between one of the phases and earth is known as line to ground fault. If there is insulation breakdown between either of the two phases, then it is known as line to line fault. If there is insulation breakdown between two phases and earth, it forms double line to ground fault. The breakdown of insulation between phases is nothing but ¢hree phase fault. Table 1.2 gives the occurrence of these faults. Table 1.2. View of Fault Occurrence Type of fault Representation % occurrence 1, Line to Ground (L-G) 85 2. Line to Line (L-L) 6 3. Line to Line to Ground 5 | 4, Line to Line to Line 2 or Less se =): Protection and Switchgear , It can be seen from the above table that most of the faults are line to ground faults in case of overhead lines. A large number of these fa may vanish within a few cycles. If a twig falls across a line and across arm and burns itself out or just falls down then the fault is transi re transitory in nature and as it vanishes after few cycles, During first one to three cycles, the fault current is very high but later on decreases very rapidly. This zone is called ‘sub-transient’ state. After these first few cycles, the rate of current decrease is slower. This zone is called ‘transient’ state. This state remains for several cycles. Afier the transient state is over, steady state is reached. During the steady state, the gms value of short circuit current remains constant. The circuit breaker operates during transient state. The Line to Line (L-L) fault is symmetrical three phase fault which occurs due to carelessness of operating personnel. Usually the phase lines are tied together with the help of a base conductor in order to protect the lineman working on the lines against inadvertent charging of the line. Sometimes, if lineman forgot to remove the tie up between phase lines and if the circuit breaker is closed then three phase symmetrical fault occurs. “The most common type of fault which may prove to be dangerous is short circuit. 1.6.1. CAUSES OF FAULT OR SHORT CIRCUIT 4 Over voltage due to switching 4 Over voltage due to the direct and indirect lightning strokes Bridging of conductors by birds % Breakdown of insulation due to less dielectric strength “ Mechanical damage to the equipments. 4.7. CONSEQUENCES OF FAULTS If the short circuit occurs in the system, it may have any of the following consequences (i) A great reduction in line voltage over a major part of the power system which may lead to the breakdown of electrical supply to the consumer and may produces wastage in production. Protection Schemes (19) (ii) Damage to other az overheating and. due tc abnormal mechan (iii) Damage caused t s m by the electrical are which almost accompanies the short ci (iv) The stability of the power system irbed which may leads to a shutdown of the power system (¥) Due to reduction voltage, currents drawn by motors are abnormally high may result into loss of industrial production, So such type of faults is avoided by designing suitable and reliable ar protective scheme 4.8. TYPES OF FAULTS A fault occurs when two or more conductors that operate normally with a potential difference come in contact with each other. These faults may be caused by sudden failure of any equipment, by accidental damage or short circuit to overhead lines or by insulation failure resulting from lightning surges. Irrespective of the causes, the faults in a 3-phase system can be classified into twe types viz. (@) Symmetrical faults (ii) Unsymmetrical faults 1.8.1. SYMMETRICAL FAULTS The fault on the power system which gives rise to symmetrical currents (Le. equal fault current in the lines with 120° displacement) is called a symmetrical fault. If all the three phases may be short circuited with ground or simply got shorted without involving ground, then symmetrical fault has occurred. Referring to the Figure 1.3, fault currents |,, ly and 1, will be equal in magnitude with 120° displacement among them. Because of this balanced nature of fault, only one phase need to be considered for calculations since the conditions in the other two phases will also be similar. The symmetrical fault rarely occurs but it is the most severe and imposes more heavy duty on the circuit breaker. Protection and Switchgear — I Shot circuit Fig. 1.3. Depiction of Symmetrical Fault 1.8.2. UNSYMMETRICAL FAULTS ; The faults on the power system which give rise to unsymmetrical currents (ie. “unequal fault currents in the lines with unequal displacement) are known as unsymmetrical faults. If the fault occurs, the currents in the three lines become unequal and so is the phase displacement among them. The various types of unsymmetrical faults are (i Single line to ground fault (L-G) i) Line to Jine fault (L-L) (ii) Double line to ground fault (L-L-G) —————————— a R i—_—_—_—————— Y * Lc Fault LLG Faut Fig. 1.4. Various Unsymmetrical faults The solution on unsymmetrical fault problems can be obtained by either (i) Kirchoff’s law or (ii) Symmetrical components method. Protection Schemes The latter method is preferred because of the following reasons () It is a simple method and gives more generality to be given to fault performance studies. Gi) Itis very useful in tracing out of fault currents. 4.9. LIMITATION OF FAULT CURRENT When a short circuit occurs at any point in a system, the short circuit current is limited by the impedance of the system upto the point of fault. Fig. 1.5. Feeder Fautt Referring to Figure 1.5, if a fault occurs on the feeder at point F. then the short circuit current from the generating station will have a value limited by the impedance of generator and transformer and the impedance of the line between the generator and the point of fault In many situations, the impedance limiting the fault current are largely reactive, such as transformers, reactors and generators, 1.10. FAULT CURRENT CALCULATION USING SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS When the load is unbalanced, the analysis using normal techniques becomes difficult. In such case, method of symmetrical components can be adopted as suggested by Fortescue. . It is composed of three separate sets of balanced vectors viz (i) A balanced system of 3-phase currents having positive phase sequence. These are called positive sequence components. (ii) A balanced system of 3-phase currents having the opposite or negative phase sequence. These are called negative sequence components. iii) A system of three currents equal in magnitude and having zero displacement. These are called zero sequence components. “eurrentsi?, i” and y, (Figure 1.6) can be resolved (12) The positive, negative and zero phase sequence components are called the symmetrical components of the original unbalanced system The subscripts 1, 2 and Q are generally used to indicate positive, negative and zero phase sequence components Protection and Switchgear > respectively. For example, I,_ indicates the zero sequence component of the current in the red phase. Similarly, iy indicates the nega ive sequence component of current in, yellow phase Mustration Ip Consider a system having phase sequence RYB and if a fault occurs, the resulting unbalanced be ‘into h @ a balanced system of 3:phase currents Tg, Iy, "and Ig, having positive phase sequence (i... a RYB) as shown in Figure 1.7(i). These are the Fig. 1.6. Flow of positive phase sequence components. Fault Currents Gi) @ balanced system of 3-phase currents iy, fy, and ig, having negative phase ‘sequence (i.c. RBY) as shown in Figure 1.7(ii). These are the negative phase ‘sequence components. 120° Tro yo ee a a0" tes Ty2 Fig. 1.7. Negative Phase Sequence Components Protection Schemes {1.13} and Ty, equal in magnitude with zero (iii) a system of 3-phase currents |; phase displacement as shown in Figure 1.7(iii). These are the’ zero phase sequence components Phe current in any phase is equal to the vector sum of positive, negative and zero phase sequence currents in that phases By The following points may be noted (a) The positive, negative and zero phase sequence currents se balanced system of currents. Hence they are called symmetrical components of the unbalanced system (b) This theory equally applies to 3-phase currents and voltages both phase and line values. (c) The symmetrical components do not exist separately. They are only mathematical components of unbalanced currents or voltages which actuall flow in the system. (@) Ina balanced 3-phase system, negative and zero phase currents are zero. 4.44. ZONES OF PROTECTION University In a protective relaying scheme, it is a usual practice to divide the entire system into several protection zones. When a fault occurs in a given zone, then only the circuit breakers within that zone will be opened. This will isolate only the faulty part, leaving the healthy circuit intact A protective zone is the separate zone which is established around each system element. The significance of such a protective zone is that any fault occurring within a given zone will cause the tripping of relays which causes opening of all the circuit breakers located within that zone. The system can be divided into the following protection zones. Protection and Switchgeap eet Ngee —_ Pre (i) Generators 1 (ii) Low-Tension switchgear (LT) ve (ii) Transformers tke (iv) High-Tension Switchgear(HT) g (v) Transmis wit hea | Circuit Transmission line protective zone the various protective zones used in a system.. The zones are decided by the locations of the current transformel: ae adjacent protective zones are overlapped. The overlapping Protection Schemes E af (1.15) For the failures within the region where two adjacent protective zones are overlapped, more circuit breakers the faulty element. get tripped than minimum necessary to disconnect If there are no overlaps, then dead spot may exist, means the circuit breakers lying within the zone may not open even if the fault occurs. This causes damage to the healthy system. The probability of the failures in the overlapped region is v and therefore the opening of too many circuit breakers will also be infrequent Each zone has certain protective scheme and each protective scheme has se protective systems. 1.12. PRIMARY AND BACK-UP PROTECTION i A ee re The protection provided by the protective relaying equipment can be classified into two types as (1) Primary protection (2) Back up Protection Primary protection is the main protection provided for protecting the power system elements from all types of faults. If the primary protection fails, the back-up protection comes into action and removes the faulty part from the healthy system. The backup protection is provided as the main protection can fail due to many reasons like (a) Failure in circuit breaker (b) Failure in protective Relay. (©) Failure in d.c. tripping voltage (d) Failure in tripping circuit (e) Loss of voltage or current supply to the relay Thus if there is no backup protection and the main protection fails then there is possibility of severe damage to the system, From the cost and economy point of view, the backup protection is employed only for the protection against short circuit and not for any other abnormal conditions. 4.12.1. CONCEPT OF BACKUP RELAYING Let us consider the backup relaying employed for the transmission line section E F as shown in Figure 1.9. La. ee 1.16 Protection and Switchgear Station K a4 pale te Transmission line Fig. 1.9. Back up Relaying The relays C, D, G, H are primary relays while A, B, I and J are back up re Normally backup relays are tripped if primary relay fails. So if the primary relay E fails to trip, then backup relays and associated backup relaying equipments are physically far away from the faulty equipment. The backup relays A and B provide backup protection for fault at station K. Also the backup relays at A and F provides the backup protection for the faults in line DB. If the backup relay operates, the larger part of the system is disconnected. The main requirement of backup relaying is that it must operate with minimum time delay so that the primary relaying is given a chance to operate. When fault occurs, both the type of relays starts relaying operation but primary is expected to trip first and backup will reset without having had time to complete its relaying operation. 1.12.2, METHODS OF BACK UP PROTECTION The various methods used for back up protections are (a) Relay Back Up Protection In this method, a single breaker is used by both primary and back up protection but the two protective systems are different. (b) Breaker Back Up Protection In this method, separate breakers are provided for primary and back up protection. Both breakers are at the same station. (c) Remote Back Up Protection In this method, separate breakers are provided for primary and back up protectio®- But the breakers are at different stations and are completely isolated. = Pri @ rot » Protection Si 1.17 (i) Centrally Co-ordinated Back-Up Protection In this method, pr room and back up protectior It continuously inspects the load of the system fails, load flow gets affected which is sensed t method is also called centrally controlled back up prc 1.13, POWER SYSTEM EARTHING 1.13.1. NEUTRAL EARTHING OR GROUNDING It is nothing but, the neutral point of generator, transformer. rotating machines, etc., is connected to earth either directly or through The neutral earthing is one of the most important features of s Neutral grounding is important to a power system, because * The earth fault protection is based on the method of neutral earthing, % The system voltage during earth fault depends on neutral earthing 4 Ithas associated switchgear % It is provided basically for the purpose of protection against arcing grounds. unbalanced voltages with respect to earth, protection from lightning and for improvement of the system. Both “Earthing” and “grounding” have the same meaning. The term “earthing” is used in U.K and “grounding” in U.S.A. Equipment earthing is different from neutral point earthing, Equipment earthing is connected to earth the non-current carrying metallic parts in the neighbourhood of electrical circuits, The non-current carrying metallic parts includes the following: (i) Motor body, transformer tank, switchgear metal enclosure, conduits of wiring etc. (ii) Sheaths of cables (iii) Support structures, tower, poles ete. (iv) Body of portable equipment such as iron, oven ete. Thus neutral earthing is different from equipment earthing. : Protection and Switchgear Prot When grounding shocks and avoids accidents, ‘The potential of earthed be dangerously high value is provided it ensures the safety of personnel against clectrica, h to bove earth since it is connected to earth. Also, the earth fauly Current flows through the earthing and may cause operation of fuse or an earth relay, The death can occur even at 230V shock. Hence the equipment earthing is the essential safety measure. 4.44. DEFINITIONS RELATED TO EARTHING () Earthing or Grounding It means connecting to earth or ground. (2) Neutral Earthing The star point of generator, transformer or rotating machine connected to e: (3) Reactance Earthing The neutral point is connected to earth through a reactance (&) Resistance Earthing The neutral point is connected to earth through a resistance. (3) Non-effective Earthing When an intentional resistance or reactance is connected between neutral point and earth. The co-efficient of earthing > 80%. (6) Solid Earthing or Effective Earthing When the neutral point is connected to earth without intentional resistance or reactance. The co-efficient of earthing < 80%. (2) Resonant Earthing The reactance between the neutral point and earth is selected to neutralise the power frequency capacitive current between line and earth. It is infact a reactance earthing with a selected value of reactance to match with line to ground capacitance (8) Peterson coil, Arc suppression coil, ground fault neutraliser All the three terms have the same meaning. The specially constructed adjustable reactor is connected between neutral and earth, the reactance is such that power frequency current between line and earth is equal and opposite to the current in the earth connection. It is noted that the reactor used in resonant earthing is called Peterson coil or are suppression coil or ground fault neutralizer. be L 119] Protection Schemes ; Generator or Transformer rs istance {a) Ungrounded neutral (b) Resistance ground Generator or Transformer ' N N Peterson coil or Arc Supression coil or Earth fault Neutralizer E Reactor (©) Reactane grounding (d) Resonant grounding Fig. 1.10. Types of Neutral grounding (9) Ungrounded System The neutral points are not earthed. It is also called isolated neutral system. (10) Earth fault Error Itis calculated at the selected point of the system. It is given by the ratio vy, Earth fault factor Ve Protection and Switchgeap Highest rms phase to phase power frequency voltage of sound phases during earth fault on another phase ms phase to earth power frequency voltage at the same location with fault on the faulty phase removed How to Control ground faults Consider a high voltage line connected to supply without load. Even if no currents are drawn by the load, the conductors of the system continue to charge the system capacitance alternately to positive and neg ative polarity. The charge is given by Q=cv where Q= Charge in coulombs C = Capacitance in farad V = Voltage in volts For high voltage systems, the capacitance and the charging currents are significant and the reactive KVA may be of the order of hundreds of KVA. During ground faults, the reactive KVA cause substantial flow of capacitance current flow with a ground as a return path. Neutral grounding is a simple method of controlling such currents, 1.15. DRAWBACKS OF UNGROUND SYSTEM @ (i) The difficulties faced in ungrounded systems are Arcing ground It is a temporary fault caused by falling of a branch, lightning surge etc., creates an are between an overhead line and ground. The are extinguishes and restrikes in a repeated manner. This phenomenon is called “arcing ground”. It produces severe voltage oscillations reaching three to four times’ normal voltage. Secondly, a temporary fault turns into a permanent fault due to arcing grounds. The problem of arcing ground is solved by earthing the neutral through a coil called Peterson coil or Are suppression coil connected between neutral and earth. The voltage of healthy line above earth is increased by V3 times, when an earth fault occurs on a line. This causes stress on the insulation of all the machines and equipments connected to the system. Pro (oy) ret rat Protection Schemes 1.21 (ily The earth faults cannot be sensed easily and the earth fault relaying become complicated (fv) The over voltages due to induced static charges and lightning surges are not conducted to earth in ungrounded systems: 4.16. ADVANTAGES OF NEUTRAL GROUNDING By 1. The arcing grounds are eliminated from occurring because the curren flowing through the neutral to ground connections is made alm¢ opposite to the capacitive current from healthy lines to ground .. The voltages of healthy lines do not increase to /3 time’s normal value a v ungrounded system. 3. The life of insulation is long due to prevention of voltage sur sustained over voltages. 4. Life of equipment’s, machines are improved due to limitation of vol Hence economical. 5. The over voltage due to lightning are discharged to earth. 6. There is useful amount of earth fault current to operate earth fault relay, hence earth fault current can be controlled. 7. Improved service reliability, continuity due to limitation of arcing grounds. 8. Greater safety to personnel and equipment due to operation of fuses or relays on earth fault. 41.17. TYPES OF GROUNDING The different types of grounding used in the systems are 1.17.1. UNGROUNDED SYSTEM This system is used no more, The neutral is not connected to earth. It is also called insulated neutral system. 1.17.2. SOLID OR EFFECTIVE GROUNDING The neutral is directly connected to ground without any intentional impedance j between neutral and ground. The coefficient of earthing is less than 80% for such systems. By solid grounding, the earth fault current during single line to ground fault is partially or completely eliminated by the capacitive ground current. Protection and Switchgear Hence arcing grounds are greatly reduced, Secondly, the potential of health lines - above earth is held at a constant value approximately. “ oR NatG (a) Schematic diagram (90° ahead of VigR) (Vector sum of Igy and lgp) i {Lags behind V gg by 90° being inductive) (b) Relating current vector Fig. 1.11. Schematic Diagram of Solid Grounding 117.3, RESISTANCE EARTHING In order to limit the fault current, one or more resistance is connected between neutral and earth. It is mostly used in the circuit between 3.3KV and 22KV. by | Protection Scheme | Fig. 1.12. Schematic of Resistance Earthing For circuits below 3.3KV, the external resistance in neutral circuit is unnecéssary because the voltage available between line and earth is only 230V. If earth resistance is 1.5 ohms, then the earth current is limited to 230/1.5, i.e. 153 amperes even if the | grounding resistance is not used. For circuits above 22KV solid grounding is used. No resistance is necessary in neutral connection. 1.17.4. REACTANCE EARTHING Fig. 1.13. Reactance Grounding we [1.24] Protection and Switchgeap at Labia eee The reactance grounding provides additional reactance, thereby the capacitive currents are neutralized. Hence for circuits where high charging currents are involyeq such as transmission lines, underground cables etc, and reactance earthing ig preferred. tem reactance provides the current is limited and ‘ound current and fault current, For If resistance is used fault necessary phase opposition between capacitive stance ground is preferred network where capacitance is relatively low, te RESONANT GROUNDING / ARC SUPPRESSION COIL GROUNDING Anna Itis also referred as are suppression coil grounding, It consists of a coil called are pression coil provided with tappings connected between neutral and ground. Tt works on the principle that when inductance and capacitance are connected in iparallel, resonance takes place between them and the fault current is reduced or neutralized due to resonance. Earth fault relay 2 cB Normally ao Arc Bee thi] Coil DC supply for Gercak Fig. 1.14. Resonant Grounding or arc suppression coil grounding The coil is rated at continuous rated current equal to maximum earth fault current. However if a second earth fault occurs) a circuit breaker closes after a certain time a Protection Schemes Jag and the earth fault current flo’ suppression coil Normally, CB is in open condition. It clo thus the arc suppression coil is bypasse 4.18. EARTHING TRANSFORMER When the transformers or generators are delta connected, the neutral ear can be created with the use of star connected earthing transformer. Such has no secondary. Each phase of primary has two equal parts. The and each limb has two windings providing opposite flux during normal conc Such a transformer is shown in Figure 1.15. ‘> Ground Fig. 1.15, Earthing Transformer Arrangement During faulty condition in primary side, the transformer offers a low impedance path to the flow of zero phase sequence currents. The small magnetizing current is circulated in the windings during normal condition. The Figure 1.15 shows the schematic arrangement of earthing transformers. They are of short time rating (10 seconds to Imin), Therefore, their size is small as compared to the power transformer of same ratings. If earthing transformer is not available, then a star-delta transformer is used without loading the delta side. This is necessary in systems with operating voltage between 2.2KV and 3.3KV. Protection and Switchgeg, 2 (@) Winding of an earthing transformer (b) Schematic arrangement of winding of an interconnected star connected earthing transformer Fig. 1.16. Schematic arrangement of windings of an earthing transformer 4.19. STATION EARTHING SYSTEM The most important factor in the substation is its grounding. The system neutral is connected to the ground through grounding. The grounding gives low resistances path to-earth and ensures safety of operating personnel. The ground connection is achieved through grids or mat, The grid consists of a number of meshes and connected to several earth electrodes driven at intervals. ‘The total number of electrodes required is determined by the following expression Maximum fault current 500 Depending on the size of the substation nature of soil and the grounding resistance Number of electrodes = required, the size of grid and number along with length of driven rods can be determined. Protection Schemes [ . — 1.27] The size of grounding conductor should be appropriate so as to have thermal stability for ground fault current and it should be mechanically strong Copper aluminium and galvanised iron are generally used for earthing electrodes, ‘The resistance to earth should be less than 0.5 ohm for EHV substation earthing 4.20, IMPORTANT TERMS IN PROTECTIVE RELAYING 1. Protective Relay It is an electrical relay used for protection of electrical devices. It closes its contacts, when operating quantity reaches certain pre-determined value. It is used to initiate isolation of a part of circuit during abnormal conditions 2. Measuring Relay Measuring relay operates at a pre-determined value of operating quantity performing the necessary measurement. 3. Trip Circuit The circuit which comprises of trip coil, relay contacts, auxiliary switch, battery supply, seal in coil etc which controls the circuit breaker for opening operation, 4. Relay Time The time interval between occurance of fault and the closure of relay contacts. 5. Breaker Time The time interval between closure of trip circuit and final are interruption. Fault clearing Time = Relay time + Breaker time 6. Pick Up ‘The operation of relay is called relay Pick-up. The pickup value is the minimum value of operating quantity at which the relay operates and closes its contacts. 7. Dropout or Reset The value of current/voltage below which the relay resists and comes back to original position. 8 Burden ‘The power consumed by the relay circuits expressed in VA or W under certain specified conditions. Lal oe : Protection and Switchgegy 9. Earth Fautt BS A fault involving earth or ground eg, L-G fault, L-L-G fault, arcing grounds eg are termed as earth fault 10. Phase fault A fault which does not involve earth. eg., L-L fault 11, Instantaneous Relay Itisa fast relay having relay time of less than 0.2 sec and has no time lag. 12, Electromechanical Relay It operates on the electromagnetic principle in which the measurement js performed by movable parts. 13. Static Relay It is also called solid state relay in which relay measurement is performed by static circuit. 14, Distance Relay This relay measures the impedance or reactance at the relay location. The impedance of the line is proportional to length of the line and it is used for the protection of transmission line. 15. Overcurrent Relay This relay operates when the actuating current exceeds a pick-up value. 16. Under Voltage Relay This relay operates when the system voltages fal below the pickup value. 17. Directional Relay This relay is able to sense whether the fault lies in the forward direction or reverse direction with respect to the relay location, 18. Differential Relay This relay measures the difference of two actuating quantities and operates whe? this difference exceeds a preset value, 19, Inverse Definite Minimum Time Relay (IDMT) A relay having inverse time characteristic at lower values of operating current and definite time characteristic at higher value of operating current. 1.29 Protection Schemes 20. Protective System A combination of protective cquiy breakers and other anci element during abnormal conditior 21. Protective Scheme A set of several protective systems constitute a protecti 7 Transmission line protective scheme may comprise of overcurrent protection earth fault protection system. 22. Auto-reclosure The process of automatic reclosing of circuit breaker after its opening 23. Reach Itis the distance upto which the relay will cover for protection 24. Over Reach If the relays operate for a fault beyond its preset reach, it is called over reach 25. Under Reach If the relay fails to operate for a fault within its reach (pre-set value), it is under reach. WORKED EXAMPLES Determine the operating current of the relay from the table given below. At TSM = 1, the operating time at various PSM are PSM 2 fa asal Operating 6 5 2 Time 8 6 AAS, iA] 128 The current ratings of an overcurrent relay i 5A, PSM = 4, TSM = 0.5 C.T ratio is 200, Sault current is 40004. Solution Given, current rating = 5 PSM = 4 So, the relay setting current =5x4 = 20A 3 Ta Protection and Switchgeap Secondar PSM = Relay setting curren Primary fault curren/C.T ratio Relay setting current 4000/200/s 7 520 4000 x5 ~ 200 x 20 From the above table, for PSM = 5 and TSM = 1, the operating time is 4 seconds. But in the problem, the TSM = 0.5, Hence, the actual operating time of the relay should be less than 4 seconds. Hence the actual operating time of the relay = 4 * 0.5 = 2 see 2] Find Plug setting multiplier of a relay given the current rating of Example overcurrent relay is $A. C.T. ratio 300/5, fault current is 3000 A. PSM = 2. Solution Given data Current rating = SA PSM = 2 © So, the relay setting current 10a, PSM = Secondary current/Relay seti _ Primary fault current/C.1. ratio a Relay Setting Current _ 3000s ) 300 x 10 £ ‘ PSM = 5 Example 1.3 In a 3 phase 4 wire system, the currents R,¥ and B under abnormal conditions of loading are as under Ip = 100 2 30° A, I, = 50 2 300° I, = 30 2180" A. Calculate the positive, negative and zero sequence currents in the ET R line and return current in the neutral wire, Solution: Ik 100 2 30° 100 [cos 30° + j sin 30°] Prot 30 — mane, ————————_ lee Protection Schemes = 100 [0.866 + j 0.5] = 86.6 + j 50 50 2300 50 [cos 300° + j sin 300°] $0 [0.5 +} 0.866] = 25+ | 43.3 30 Z 180° tin 30 [cos 180° +j sin 180°] ha | 30[-1+j0)=-30 Current in neutral path = Ip 1, + Tp = 86.6 +j50+2 y Igo = V3 (gt +ls] = 1/3 [81.6 ~j 6.7] = 27.2 +} 2.25 Iq = V3 Ig tal, +22] = 2/3 [(86.5 + j 50) + (0.5 + j 0.866) x (25 — j 43.3) + (0.5 — j 0.866) ( j43.3-30=81.6+j6.7=82A = 422+j398 Ip = 1/4 [ly + alta lp) = 172+j8 Ly BZA Ino = 272452254 Iq = 42.24}39.8.A Iqg = 17.24j8A Determine the inductance of Peterson coil to be connected between the neutral and ground to neutralize the charging current of overhead line having the line to ground capacitance of 0.15 mf. If the supply frequency is 50 Hz and the operating voltage is 132 KV, find the KVA rating of the coil Solution: L = 1/3 wC) Henries Where L = inductance of coil connected in neutral to ground circuit w = 314x2xf f = frequency cycles / seconds C = capacitance to earth of each phase L = 1/(3 x G.14 x 2 x 50)? x 0.15 x 10°) = 22.54 Henries The KVA rating KVA rating = Vpn% In Where In = Vyn/ wl w = 3.14x2xf Ip = (132 x 1000) (1.734 x 3.14 x 2 x 50 x 22.54) In = 10.762 Amps KVA Rating = Vpn * In 132/ 1.734 x 10.762 = 820.18 KVA : " L = 22.54 Henries , KVA = 820.18KVA xample 1.5| A relay is connected to 400/5 ratio current transformer with setting of 150%. Calculate the plug setting when circuit carries @ fault Rated Secondary current of CT x Current setting SxS = 15 A ; 1.33 Protection Schemes TWO MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 1. Define a relay A Relay is an electrical device performing the function of fault detection 2. What are the essential qualities of a Relay? (1) Speed (2) Selectivity (3) Sensitivity (4) Reliability (5) Simplicity and (6) Economy 3. Define Relay Operating Time It is the time which elapses between the instant when actuating quantity exceeds the pickup value, to the instant when the relay contacts close. 4. Classify the protective schemes. The protective schemes are classified into (i) Overcurrent protection (ii) Distance protection (iii) Carrier Current protection (iv) Differential Protection 5. How the relays are classified? Based on Technology (a) Electromagnetic relay (b) Static relay (C) Microprocessor based relay Based on function (a) Over current relay (b) Under/over voltage relay (©) Impedance relay. (4) Over/under frequency relay (©) Directional relay FF 4 Protection and Switchgeq 6. What are the actuating quantities in respect of relays. 1. Voltage 2. Current 3. Phase angle 4, Frequency 7. What is meant by drop offipick-up ratio? I The ratio of the reduced operating current at which the already closed relay contacts start opening, to the pickup current at which the relay begins to operate is called Drop off ratio or Holding ratio or Pick up ratio. 8 Define Plug Setting Multiplier. Itis the ratio of fault current in the relay coil to the pickup current of the relay. Fault current in relay coil Plug Setting multiplier = Peeasemet 9. Define Time Setting Multiplier. It is a measure of travel of the disc of the relay which can be adjusted to vary the relay operating time. 10. What is meant by carrier transfer inter tripping? ‘The carrier signal sent from-one-end to other end of transmission line so as to trip the circuit breaker at the other end. Il. What is meant by carrier blocking? The carrier signal sent to the other end of transmission line so as to prevent the tripping of circuit breaker at other end. 12, What is PLCC? It is Power Line Carrier Channel in which high frequency signals are transmitted through the transmission line conductor for the purpose of communication, protection, monitoring and signalling. 13. What are the causes of faults? | (i) Overyoltage due to switching (ii) Lightning surges (iii) Insulation failure (iv) Mechanical damage (v) Bridging of conductors by birds peer Protection Schemes 14, What are the types of faults in 3-phase system? The faults can be classified into two tyr (i) Symmetrical fault (ii) Unsymmetrical fault 15. What is known as symmetrical fault? The fault which gives rise to symmetrical currents ic. equal fault current with 120° displacement is called symmetrical fault 16. What is known as Unsymmetrical fault? ‘The fault which gives rise to unsymmetrical currents i.e., unequal fault curr in the lines with unequal displacement is called unsymmetrical fault. 17. What is meant by protective zone? A protective zone is the separate zone which is established around each system element which causes the tripping of relays by which the circuit breaker opens during fault conditions located within that zone only. 18. What are the types of protection? The protective relaying equipment provides two types of protection (i) Primary Protection (ii) Back Up Protection 19, What is primary and back up Protection? ‘The main protection provided for protecting the power system elements from all types of faults is called primary protection. If the primary protection fails, then the backup protection is provided as the main protection, 20. What are the factors on which the earth fault protection depends on? It depends upon the type of neutral earthing and size of the alternator. 21. The positive, negative and zero-sequence reactance of a 20 MVA, 13.2 KV synchronous generators are 0.3 p.t., 0.2 pute, and 0.1. pate, respectively. The generator is solidly grounded and is not loaded. A line-to-ground fault occurs on phase ‘a? neglecting all the resistances, determine the fault current. d] Protection and Switchge, Leta, band ¢ be three terminals of the generator. Fault occur between tering and ground, Let the induced voltage of phase a line to neutral Ea be | p.u EB, = 1+/0pu.=13.2A/3. ky, actu yo = B,/(X, +Xq+Xq) =1 / (10.3 +/0.2 +)0.1) = 1 +/0 4 0.60 ye j 1.667 piu 1, = Toot dar +lo2=3lgo=-/ 5-001 piu Base current 2000/3 x 13.2 = 874.77 Amps Fault current I, / 5.001 x 874.77 = 4376 A 2-90 22. What are the different types of earthing? i) resistive earthing ii) reactance earthing iii) resonant earthing 23. State the significance of single line to ground fault. In single line to ground fault all the sequence networks are connected in series All the sequence currents are equal and the fault current magnitude is three times its sequence currents. 24, Differentiate between a fuse and a circuit breaker. Fuse is a low current interrupting device. It is a copper or an aluminum wire Circuit breaker is a high current interrupting device and it act as a switch under normal operating conditions 25, Define per unit value. It is defined as the ratio of actual value to its base value. 26. What is surge absorber? How do they differ from surge diverter? Surge absorber is a device designed to protect electrical equipment from transient high voltage to limit the duration and amplitude of the following current, Surg diverter discharge the impulse surge to the earth and dissipates energy in the form of heat. Pro 27. 28. 29 Protection Schemes 27, Define the term “insulation coordination” Grading of withstand level of apparatus/equipment with the protective levels of i co-ordination at entire voltage level and various other volta surge arresters levels. 28. Define negative sequence component. It has 3 vectors equal in magnitude and displaced from each other by an angl 120 degrees and has the phase sequence in opposite to its original phasor: 29. Give the consequences of short circuit. Whenever short-circuit occurs, the current flowing through the coil increases to an enormous value. If protective relays are present, a heavy current also flows through the relay coil, causing it to operate by closing its contacts. The trip circuit is then closed, the circuit breaker opens and the fault is isolated from the rest of the system. Also, a low voltage may be created which may damage systems connected to the supply. 30. What is the need of relay coordination? The operation of a relay should be fast and selective, ie, it should isolate the fault in the shortest possible time causing minimum disturbance to the system. Also, if a relay fails to operate, there should be sufficiently quick backup protection so that the rest of the system is protected. By coordinating relays, faults can always be isolated quickly without serious disturbance to the rest of the system. Qo a REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Describe in detail the principles of protective system 2. Explain in detail about basic requirements of protective relays. 3. What are the functions of protective relaying? Narrate about Nature and Causes of faults. What are the types of faults? Explain in detail about symmetrical and unsymmetrical faults. Clearly describe about fault current calculation using symmetrical components 6. Explain different zones of protection. 1.17.4. Reactance Earthing...... 1.17.5. Resonant Grounding, 1.18. Earthing Transformer... 1.19, Station Earthing System..... 20. Important Terms in Protective Relaying. Worked Examples... Two Marks Questions and Answers ..... Review Questions... Module 2 ELECTROMAGNETIC RELAYS... 2.1. Introduction.......... 2.2. Protective Relays. 2.2.1. A Typical Relay Circuit .... 2.3. Classification of Relay: 2.3.1. Relays — According to Operating Principle... 2.3.3. Relays - According to Application zeta

You might also like