Contents

1. Scales
2. Engineering Curves - I
3. Engineering Curves - II
4. Loci of Points
5. Orthographic Projections - Basics
6. Conversion of Pictorial View into Orthographic Views
7. Projections of Points and Lines
8. Projection of Planes
9. Projection of Solids
10. Sections & Development
11. Intersection of Surfaces
12. Isometric Projections
13. Exercises
14. Solutions – Applications of Lines
EX
IT
Orthographic Projections -
Basics
1. Drawing – The fact about

2. Drawings - Types

3. Orthographic (Definitions and Important terms)

4. Planes - Classifications

5. Pattern of planes & views

6. Methods of orthographic projections

7. 1 st angle and 3 rd angle method – two illustrations

 Drawings
(Some Types)

Portraits
Botanical ( human
Nature Drawings faces,
Drawings ( plants, flowers
Geographic
Zoological expressions
( landscape, al etc.)
Drawings etc.) Engineering
scenery etc.) Drawings
(creatures, animals Drawings,
( maps etc.) (projections.)
etc.)

Building Related Machine component

Drawings. Drawings

Orthographic Isometric ( Mech.Engg.Term.)

Projections or Perspective(Civil Engg.Term)
(Fv,Tv & Sv.-Mech.Engg terms) (Actual Object Drawing 3-D)
(Plan, Elevation- Civil Engg.terms)
(Working Drawings 2-D type)
 ORTHOGRAPHIC
PROJECTIONS:
IT IS A TECHNICAL DRAWING IN WHICH DIFFERENT VIEWS OF AN
OBJECT
ARE PROJECTED ON DIFFERENT REFERENCE PLANES
OBSERVING PERPENDICULAR TO RESPECTIVE REFERENCE PLANE
Different Reference
planes are
Horizontal Plane (HP),
Vertical Frontal Plane ( VP )

An Plane ( PP)
Side Or Profile
d (FV), Top View (TV) and Side
Different Views are Front View
View (SV) FV is a view projected on VP.
TV is a view projected on HP.
SV is a view projected on PP.
IMPORTANT TERMS OF ORTHOGRAPHIC
PROJECTIONS:
1 Planes.
2 Pattern of planes & Pattern of views
3 Methods of drawing Orthographic
Projections
 PLANE
1 S

PRINCIPAL
PLANES
HP AND VP

AUXILIARY
PLANES
Auxiliary Vertical Auxiliary Inclined Profile
Plane Plane Plane
(A.V.P .) (A.I.P.) ( P.P.)

A.I
A.V.P. .P.
⊥t
⊥ to Hp & ∠ to Vp oV
p
∠t &
oH
p
 PATTERN OF PLANES & VIEWS (First Angle Method)
2
THIS IS A PICTORIAL SET-UP OF ALL THREE PLANES.
ARROW DIRECTION IS A NORMAL WAY OF OBSERVING THE OBJECT.
BUT IN THIS DIRECTION ONLY VP AND A VIEW ON IT (FV) CAN BE
SEEN.
THE OTHER PLANES AND VIEWS ON THOSE CAN NOT BE SEEN.

Y PROCEDURE TO SOLVE ABOVE

PROBLEM:-
TO MAKE THOSE PLANES ALSO VISIBLE FROM THE ARROW DIRECTION,
A) HP IS ROTATED 90 0 DOUNWARD
X B) PP, 90 0 IN RIGHT SIDE DIRECTION.
THIS WAY BOTH PLANES ARE BROUGHT IN THE SAME PLANE CONTAINING
VP.
Click to view
Animation On clicking the button if a warning comes please click YES to continue, this program is
safe for your pc.

V P
Y
P FV LSV P

X Y
X TV

H
P
ACTUAL PATTERN OF PLANES & VIEWS
HP IS ROTATED DOWNWARD PP IS ROTATED IN RIGHT SIDE OF ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS
900 900 DRAWN IN
AND AND FIRST ANGLE METHOD OF
3 Methods of Drawing Orthographic
Projections

First Angle Projections Third Angle Projections

Method Method
Here views are drawn Here views are drawn
by placing object by placing object
in 1 st Quadrant SYMBOLIC
in 3rd Quadrant.
( Fv above X-y, Tv below PRESENTATION ( Tv above X-y, Fv below X-
X-y ) OF BOTH METHODS
WITH AN OBJECT y)
STANDING ON HP ( TV
F GROUND)
V
ON IT’S BASE.
X Y NOTE:- X Y
st
HP term is used in 1 Angle method
& F
TV V
For the same
G L
Ground term is used
in 3 rd Angle method of projections
 ORTHOGRAPHIC
PROJECTIONS
{ MACHINE ELEMENTS }
OBJECT IS OBSERVED IN THREE DIRECTIONS.
THE DIRECTIONS SHOULD BE NORMAL
TO THE RESPECTIVE PLANES.
AND NOW PROJECT THREE DIFFERENT VIEWS ON THOSE PLANES.
THESE VEWS ARE FRONT VIEW , TOP VIEW AND SIDE VIEW.

FRONT VIEW IS A VIEW PROJECTED ON VERTICAL PLANE ( VP )

TOP VIEW IS A VIEW PROJECTED ON HORIZONTAL PLANE ( HP )
SIDE VIEW IS A VIEW PROJECTED ON PROFILE PLANE ( PP )

FIRST STUDY THE CONCEPT OF 1 ST AND 3RD ANGLE

PROJECTION METHODS

AND THEN STUDY NEXT 26 ILLUSTRATED CASES CAREFULLY.

TRY TO RECOGNIZE SURFACES
PERPENDICULAR TO THE ARROW DIRECTIONS
 FIRST
FOR T.V.
ANGLE
PROJECTION
IN THIS METHOD,
THE OBJECT IS ASSUMED TO BE
SITUATED IN FIRST QUADRANT
MEANS
ABOVE HP & INFRONT OF VP.

OBJECT IS INBETWEEN
OBSERVER & PLANE.

V P
P P
FV LSV
FO
S. V. R F
X Y R .
FO
TV V.

H
P
ACTUAL PATTERN OF
PLANES & VIEWS
IN
FIRST ANGLE METHOD
OF PROJECTIONS
 FOR T.V.
THIRD
ANGLE
PROJECTION
IN THIS METHOD,
THE OBJECT IS ASSUMED TO BE
SITUATED IN THIRD QUADRANT
( BELOW HP & BEHIND OF VP. )

PLANES BEING TRANSPERENT

AND INBETWEEN
OBSERVER & OBJECT.

TV
X Y
LSV FV

ACTUAL PATTERN OF
PLANES & VIEWS FO
OF V. R F
THIRD ANGLE PROJECTIONS
S.
R .
FO
V.
 FOR T.V.
1

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

FRONT L.H.SIDE
FO VIEW VIEW
R
F.
V.
S.
R
FO
V.

x y

PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN TOP

VIEW
DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 FOR T.V.
2

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

FRONT L.H.SIDE
VIEW VIEW

X Y
FO
S. V. R F
R .
FO
V.

TOP
VIEW

PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN

DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 FOR T.V.
3

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

FRONT L.H.SIDE
VIEW VIEW

FO
R
S. F.
V. X Y
R
FO
V.

TOP
VIEW
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN
DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 4
FOR T.V.

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

FRONT L.H.SIDE
VIEW VIEW

X Y
FO
S. V. R F
O R .
F
V.

TOP
VIEW

PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN

DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 FOR T.V.
5

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

FRONT L.H.SIDE
VIEW VIEW
S.
R
FO FO
V. V. R F
. X Y

TOP
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN VIEW
DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 6
FOR T.V.

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

FRONT L.H.SIDE
VIEW VIEW

FO X Y
S. V. R F
R
FO .
V.

TOP
VIEW

PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN

DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 7
FOR T.V.

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

FRONT L.H.SIDE
VIEW VIEW
FO
V. R F
.
S.
R X Y
FO
V.

TOP
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN VIEW
DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 STUDY 8
FOR T.V.
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

FRONT
VIEW
5
0

X Y

2
0

2
FO 5
V. R F
.
2 2
5 0
TOP
VIEW
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN
DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 9
FOR T.V.
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

FRONT L.H.SIDE
VIEW VIEW

X Y

FO
V. R F
S. .
O R
F
V.

TOP
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN VIEW
DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 1
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS 0
FOR T.V.

FRONT L.H.SIDE
VIEW VIEW

X Y

R S.
FO
V.
FO
V.
R
F.

TOP
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN VIEW
DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 FOR T.V.
1
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS 1

FRONT L.H.SIDE
VIEW VIEW

FO
V. R F X Y
.

S.
R
FO
V.

TOP
VIEW
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN
DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 1
FOR T.V. 2

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

FRONT L.H.SIDE
VIEW VIEW

X Y
FO
S. V. R F
R .
F O
V.

TOP
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN VIEW
DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 1
STUDY 3
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS FOR T.V.
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

3
F 5
V

3
5
1
x 0
y

1 2 3
0 0 0

FO
V. R F 4
. 0
7
0
TV
O
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN
DRAW FV AND TV OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 1
STUDY
Z 4
ILLUSTRATIONS

FOR T.V. ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

F
V
3 3 S
0 10 0 V
3
0

1
0
3
0
x y

FO
S. V. R F
O R
F .
V.
ALL VIEWS
TV IDENTICAL
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN
DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 1
STUDY 5
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS
FOR T.V.
ALL VIEWS
IDENTICAL
F S
V V

x y

1
0 4 6
0 0
FO
.V. R
S F.
OR V. 4
0 TV
6
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN 0

DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT

BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 FOR T.V.
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS
1
6
ALL VIEWS
IDENTICAL
F S
V V

x y
1
0
FO
S. V. R F
R .
FO
V. 4 6
0 0

PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN 4 TOP

DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT 0 VIEW
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD 6
0
 1
7

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

FRONT L.H.SIDE
VIEW VIEW 30
SQUARE
4 2
0 0

5
0

FO 2
S. V. R F 1
R . X 0
0 Y
F O 3
V. O 60
F.V. 0
S.
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN V.
DRAW FV AND SV OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 FOR T.V. 1
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS 8

FV
4
0

X 1 Y
O 0
30 4
D 5
FO
V. R F
.
O
1
5
0
0 PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN
DRAW FV AND TV OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
8
0
TV
 1
FOR T.V. 9

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

4
F
0
V
X O 1 Y
0
10
1 0
0 2 FO
TV
5 V. R F
1 3 1 .
0 2
0 0
5 O
30
R 20
D
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN
DRAW FV AND TV OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 2
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS
0
DRAW FV AND TV OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
3
FOR T.V. 0

F
V RECT.
SLOT

1 5
3 0 0
5

1
X 0 Y

20
D

FO
V. R F TV
.

60
D 30
D
TOP
VIEW
O
 2
1

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS
1
0

2 1
5 5

2
4 5
1
0 0
2
5
FO
S. V. R F 2
R . 5
F O O
O
V. 8 2
0 5
F.V. S.
V.

PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN

DRAW FV AND SV OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 FOR T.V.
2
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS 2

45
0

3
0 F
V

4
0

X Y

30
FO D
V. R F
.

4 T
0 V
O
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN
1
DRAW FV AND TV OF THIS OBJECT 4 5
0
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 2
3

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

FO HEX
V. R F PART
3
. 2
0
0
2
0
4
S. 0 2
O R 0
F O
V. 5
2 0
0 1
5
O 3
10 06
0 0
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN FRONT L.H.SIDE
DRAW FV ABD SV OF THIS OBJECT VIEW VIEW

BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD

 FOR T.V. 2
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS 4
2 4
0 0
FRONT
VIEW
F.V.
3
0

1
X 0 Y
O

1
0

3
FO 0
V. R F
. 1
0
3
0
O 8
0
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN T.V. TOP
VIEW
DRAW FV AND TV OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 2
5

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

1 1 1
0 0 5

2
5

2
5
X Y
O 5 1
0 0
F LSV S. FO
R
V
FO V. R F
.
V.

PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN

DRAW FV AND LSV OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
2 PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN
6 DRAW FV AND SV OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS
FO
V. R F
.

3 2 1 2
0 0 0 0
1
1 5
0
1
5
S.
R O
FO 3
1
V. 0
5
1
X 5 Y
5
0
F.V. LEFT S.
V.
 ORTHOGRAPHIC
PROJECTIONS
TO DRAWOF POINTS, LINES, PLANES, AND SOLIDS .
PROJECTIONS OF ANY OBJECT,
ONE MUST HAVE FOLLOWING INFORMATION
A) OBJECT
{ WITH IT’S DESCRIPTION, WELL DEFINED.}
B) OBSERVER
{ ALWAYS OBSERVING PERPENDICULAR TO RESP. REF.PLANE}.
C) LOCATION OF OBJECT,
{ MEANS IT’S POSITION WITH REFFERENCE TO H.P. & V.P.}

TERMS ‘ABOVE’ & ‘BELOW’ WITH RESPECTIVE TO H.P.

AND TERMS ‘INFRONT’ & ‘BEHIND’ WITH RESPECTIVE TO V.P
FORM 4 QUADRANTS.
OBJECTS CAN BE PLACED IN ANY ONE OF THESE 4 QUADRANTS.

IT IS INTERESTING TO LEARN THE EFFECT ON THE POSITIONS OF VIEWS ( FV, TV )

OF THE OBJECT WITH RESP. TO X-Y LINE, WHEN PLACED IN DIFFERENT QUADRANTS.

STUDY ILLUSTRATIONS GIVEN ON HEXT PAGES AND NOTE THE RESULTS.TO MAKE IT EASY
HERE A POINT A IS TAKEN AS AN OBJECT. BECAUSE IT’S ALL VIEWS ARE JUST POINTS.
 NOTATIONS

FOLLOWING NOTATIONS SHOULD BE FOLLOWED WHILE NAMEING

DIFFERENT VIEWS IN ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS.

OBJECT POINT A LINE

AB
IT’S TOP VIEW a ab

IT’S FRONT VIEW a’ a’

b’
IT’S SIDE VIEW a” a” b”

SAME SYSTEM OF NOTATIONS SHOULD BE FOLLOWED

INCASE NUMBERS, LIKE 1, 2, 3 – ARE USED.
 V
2nd Quad. P 1ST Quad.

Y
Observe
r

X H
Y P
X

3rd Quad. 4th

Quad.

THIS QUADRANT PATTERN,

IF OBSERVED ALONG X-Y LINE ( IN RED ARROW DIRECTION)
WILL EXACTLY APPEAR AS SHOWN ON RIGHT SIDE AND HENCE,
IT IS FURTHER USED TO UNDERSTAND ILLUSTRATION PROPERLLY.
 Point A is POINT A IN VP POINT A IN
ST
Placed In ND
2 QUADRANT 1 QUADRANT
VP a
different A A
a ’
quadrants
and it’s Fv & Tv ’
a
are brought in
same plane for
HP OBSERVE
R
Observer to see
clearly . HP OBSERVE
R
Fv is visible as
it is a view on
VP. But as Tv is a
is a view on Hp,
it is rotated
downward 90 0 ,
In clockwise
direction.The
In front part of a
Hp comes
below
xy line and the HP
HP OBSERVE
part behind Vp OBSERVE R
R
comes above.

Observe and a
note the a
process. A ’ a
POINT A IN A POINT A IN
’
RD
3 QUADRANT VP 4TH QUADRANT
VP
 PROJECTIONS OF A POINT IN FIRST QUADRANT.
POINT A ABOVE HP POINT A ABOVE HP POINT A IN HP
& INFRONT OF VP & IN VP & INFRONT OF VP
For
For
Tv
Tv
PICTORIAL PICTORIAL For
PRESENTATION A PRESENTATION Tv
a a
’ ’ For
A Fv Y
For Y
Y a
Fv a
’
a
X a X X A For
Fv

ORTHOGRAPHIC PRESENTATIONS
OF ALL ABOVE CASES.

Fv above xy, Fv above xy, Fv on xy,

Tv below xy. Tv on xy. Tv below xy.
VP VP VP

a a
’ ’
X Y X Y X
a Y
a ’

a a

HP HP HP
 PROJECTIONS OF STRAIGHT LINES.
INFORMATION REGARDING A LINE means
IT’S LENGTH,
POSITION OF IT’S ENDS WITH HP & VP
IT’S INCLINATIONS WITH HP & VP WILL BE GIVEN.
AIM:- TO DRAW IT’S PROJECTIONS - MEANS FV & TV.

SIMPLE CASES OF THE

LINE
1. A VERTICAL LINE ( LINE PERPENDICULAR TO HP & // TO
VP)

2. LINE PARALLEL TO BOTH HP & VP.

3. LINE INCLINED TO HP & PARALLEL TO VP.

4. LINE INCLINED TO VP & PARALLEL TO HP.

5. LINE INCLINED TO BOTH HP & VP.

STUDY ILLUSTRATIONS GIVEN ON NEXT PAGE
SHOWING CLEARLY THE NATURE OF FV & TV
OF LINES LISTED ABOVE AND NOTE RESULTS .
 For Orthographic
(Pictorial Tv Pattern
V.P.
Presentation) a Note: a
’ Fv is a vertical line ’
. A F
V.P
Showing True
1 F Length v
. V b
&
A Line b Tv is a point. ’
perpendicular ’ Y
X Y
B Fo
r
Fv
to Hp TV a
b T a
& X
v b
// to Vp
H.
P.
Orthographic
(Pictorial Pattern
V.P.
For Note:
Presentation) Tv Fv & Tv both
2 are a F b
.
V.P
. b // to xy ’ v ’
A Line F. ’
B &
V.
// to a both show T. L.
’
Hp A Y X Y
& Fo
Fv
r

// to Vp b a b
T
X V.
T. v
a
H.
P.
 Fv inclined to V.P.
3 xy b
.
V.P
b
. ’ Tv parallel to . ’
xy. F.V
A Line inclined to Hp B

F.
a θ
and

V.
θ Y ’
parallel to Vp a
’
X Y
θ
(Pictorial presentation) A b
a
T.V. b
.
X
T.V
a
H.
P.
Orthographic
Projections
Tv inclined to V.P.
4 xy
. .
V.PF. b
Fv parallel to a F b
A Line inclined to Vp xy. ’ v ’
and a V. ’
’ Ø
parallel to Hp A B X Y
(Pictorial presentation) a Ø

Ø T
a b
T.V. v
b
H.
P.
 For
For
5 Tv
Tv
.
A Line inclined to both
Hp and Vp b
b .
. ’ (Pictorial V.P ’
V.P B
B presentation)

F.
V.
F.
V.

Y
Y α
α On removal of object a For
a For i.e. Line AB ’ Fv
’ Fv Fv as a image on Vp.
Tv as a image on Hp,
A
A β
β X
X a T. b
a T. b V.
V.
V.P.
b
’
F
V
a
’ α
X Y
Orthographic Projections Note These Facts:-
Fv is seen on Vp clearly. Both Fv & Tv are inclined to xy.
To see Tv clearly, HP is a β (No view is parallel to xy)
rotated 90 0 downwards, Both Fv & Tv are reduced
Hence it comes below xy. T lengths.
V (No view shows True Length)
H. b
P.
 Orthographic Projections Note the procedure Note the procedure
Means Fv & Tv of Line AB When Fv & Tv known, When True Length is known,
are shown below, How to find True Length. How to locate Fv & Tv.
(Views are rotated to determine (Component a-1 of TL is drawn
with their apparent Inclinations
True Length & it’s inclinations which is further rotated
α&β
with Hp & Vp). to determine Fv)
V.P. V.P. V.P.
b b b1 b b1
’ ’ ’ ’ ’
F F F
T
v
V V T α L
a a θ L a θ 1
’ α ’ ’ ’
X Y X Y X Y

1
a β b2 a Ø
a β T β
V
T
T TV T L
v
V
H. b H. H.
b b b
P. P. P. 1

Here TV (ab) is not // to XY line In this sketch, TV is Here a -1 is component

Hence it’s corresponding FV rotated of TL ab 1 gives length of Fv.
a’ b’ is not showing and made // to XY line. Hence it is brought Up to
True Length & Hence it’s corresponding Locus of a’ and further rotated
FV a’ b 1’ Is showing to get point b’. a’ b’ will be Fv.
True Inclination with Hp .
True Length Similarly drawing component
& of other TL(a’ b 1 ‘) Tv can be drawn.
True Inclination with Hp.
 The most important diagram showing graphical 1) True Length ( TL) – a’ b 1’ & a
relations b of TL with Hp
2) Angle θ Important
TEN parameters
among all important parameters of this topic. - of TL with Vp
3) Angle Ø
Study and memorize it as a CIRCUIT DIAGRAM to be
And use in solving various problems.
– of FV with xy
4) Angle α remembered
– of TV with xy with Notations
V.P. 5) Angle β used here onward
Distance between
End Projectors. 6) LTV– (length of FV) – Component
b1
b
’ 7) LFV(a-1)
(length of TV) – Component
’ (a’-1’)of A- Distances of a & a’ from
8) Position
F xy of B- Distances of b & b’ from
9) Position
v T
L xy
10) Distance between End
α
θ 1 Projectors
a
’ LTV ’
NOTE this
X Y θ& α Construct with
LF a’
a
V
1 Ø & β Construct with
Ø a
b’ & b 1’ on same
β
locus.
b & b1 on same
T locus.
T
v L

Also
b b
H. Remember
True Length is never rotated. It’s horizontal
1 component is drawn & it is further rotated to locate
P.
view.
Views are always rotated, made horizontal & further
extended to locate TL, θ & Ø
 GROUP (A)
GENERAL CASES OF THE LINE INCLINED TO BOTH HP & VP
PROBLEM 1) ( based on 10 parameters).
Line AB is 75 mm long and it is 30 0 &
40 0 Inclined to Hp & Vp respectively.
End A is 12mm above Hp and 10 mm b b’
in front of Vp.
Draw projections. Line is in 1 st ’ 1
quadrant. F
SOLUTION STEPS: V T
1) Draw xy line and one projector. L
2) Locate a’ 12mm above xy line
θ
& a 10mm below xy line.
3) Take 30 0 angle from a’ & 40 0 from a
a and mark TL I.e. 75mm on both
lines. Name those points b 1’ and b 1
X’ Y
respectively. a LF
4) Join both points with a’ and a resp. Ø V 1
5) Draw horizontal lines (Locus) from
both points.
6) Draw horizontal component of TL
a b 1 from point b 1 and name it 1.
( the length a-1 gives length of Fv T T
as we have seen already.) V L
7) Extend it up to locus of a’ and
rotating a’ as center locate b’
as shown. Join a’ b’ as Fv.
8) From b’ drop a projector down b b
ward & get point b. Join a & b I.
e. Tv. 1
PROBLEM 2:
Line AB 75mm long makes 45 0 inclination with Vp while it’s Fv makes 55 0 .
End A is 10 mm above Hp and 15 mm in front of Vp.If line is in 1 st quadrant
draw it’s projections and find it’s inclination with Hp.
b b’ LOCUS OF
Solution Steps:- ’ 1 b1 ’
1.Draw x-y line.
2.Draw one projector for a’ & a
3.Locate a’ 10mm above x-y &

F
Tv a 15 mm below xy. T

V
4.Draw a line 45 0 inclined to xy 55 L
from point a and cut TL 75 mm 0
on it and name that point b1
Draw locus from point b1
5.Take 55 0 angle from a’ for Fv a
above xy line.
X ’ y
6.Draw a vertical line from b1
up to locus of a and name it 1.
It is horizontal component of a LF
TL & is LFV. 1
V
7.Continue it to locus of a’ and

Φ
0
rotate upward up to the line

45
of Fv and name it b’.This a’ b’
line is Fv.
8. Drop a projector from b’ on
locus from point b1 and
name intersecting point b.
T

T
Line a b is Tv of line AB. V

L
9.Draw locus from b’ and from
a’ with TL distance cut point b1‘
10.Join a’ b 1’ as TL and measure
it’s angle at a’. LOCUS OF
It will be true angle of line with HP. b b b

1
 PROBLEM 3:
Fv of line AB is 50 0 inclined to xy and measures
55 mm long while it’s Tv is 60 0 inclined to xy line.
If end A is 10 mm above Hp and 15 mm in front of
Vp, draw it’s projections,find TL, inclinations of line
with Hp & Vp. b b’
’ 1

SOLUTION STEPS:
1.Draw xy line and one projector.

F
2.Locate a’ 10 mm above xy and T

V
a 15 mm below xy line. L
3.Draw locus from these points. 50
4.Draw Fv 50 0 to xy from a’ and θ 0

a
mark b’ Cutting 55mm on it.
X ’
5.Similarly draw Tv 60 0 to xy
from a & drawing projector from
y
b’
Locate point b and join a b. a
6.Then rotating views as shown, Φ
60
locate True Lengths ab 1 & a’b 1’ 0
and their angles with Hp and Vp.

T
L

b
b
1
 PROBLEM 4 :-
Line AB is 75 mm long .It’s Fv and Tv measure 50 mm & 60 mm long respectively.
End A is 10 mm above Hp and 15 mm in front of Vp. Draw projections of line AB
if end B is in first quadrant.Find angle with Hp and Vp.
b b’
’ 1

SOLUTION STEPS:
1.Draw xy line and one projector.

F
2.Locate a’ 10 mm above xy and T

V
a 15 mm below xy line. L
3.Draw locus from these points.
4.Cut 60mm distance on locus of a’ θ LTV 1
& mark 1’ on it as it is LTV. a ’
5.Similarly Similarly cut 50mm on
locus of a and mark point 1 as it is LFV.
X ’
Y
6.From 1’ draw a vertical line upward
and from a’ taking TL ( 75mm ) in a LF
1
compass, mark b’ 1 point on it. Φ V
Join a’ b’1 points.
7. Draw locus from b’ 1
8. With same steps below get b1 point
and draw also locus from it.
9. Now rotating one of the components
I.e. a-1 locate b’ and join a’ with it
T

T
V

L
to get Fv.
10. Locate tv similarly and measure
Angles
θ & Φ
b
b
1
 PROBLEM 5 :-
T.V. of a 75 mm long Line CD, measures 50 mm.
End C is in Hp and 50 mm in front of Vp.
End D is 15 mm in front of Vp and it is above Hp.
Draw projections of CD and find angles with Hp and d d’ LOCUS OF d’ &
Vp. ’ 1 d’ 1

SOLUTION STEPS:
TL

FV
1.Draw xy line and one projector.
2.Locate c’ on xy and
c 50mm below xy line.
3.Draw locus from these points.
4.Draw locus of d 15 mm below xy
5.Cut 50mm & 75 mm distances on c’ θ
locus of d from c and mark points X Y
d & d 1 as these are Tv and line CD
d d LOCUS OF d &
lengths resp.& join both with c.
1 d1
6.From d1 draw a vertical line
upward
TL
up to xy I.e. up to locus of c’ and
draw an arc as shown. TV
7 Then draw one projector from d to
meet this arc in d’ point & join c’
d’
8. Draw locus of d’ andθcut&75Φ mm c Φ
on it from c’ as TL
9.Measure Angles
 GROUP (B)
PROBLEMS INVOLVING TRACES OF THE
LINE.

TRACES OF THE LINE:-

THESE ARE THE POINTS OF INTERSECTIONS OF A LINE ( OR IT’S EXTENSION

)
WITH RESPECTIVE REFFERENCE PLANES.

A LINE ITSELF OR IT’S EXTENSION, WHERE EVER TOUCHES H.P.,

THAT POINT IS CALLED TRACE OF THE LINE ON H.P.( IT IS CALLED H.T.)

SIMILARLY, A LINE ITSELF OR IT’S EXTENSION, WHERE EVER TOUCHES V.P.,

THAT POINT IS CALLED TRACE OF THE LINE ON V.P.( IT IS CALLED V.T.)

V.T.:- It is a point on Vp.

Hence it is called Fv of a point in Vp.
Hence it’s Tv comes on XY line.( Here onward named as v )
H.T.:- It is a point on Hp.
Hence it is called Tv of a point in Hp.
Hence it’s Fv comes on XY line.( Here onward named as ’h’ )
 b
’

STEPS TO LOCATE HT.

F
(WHEN PROJECTIONS ARE GIVEN.

V
)
1. Begin with FV. Extend FV up to XY a
line. ’
v h
2. Name this point h’ x ’ y
( as it is a Fv of a point in Hp)
3. Draw one projector from h’. VT’ H
4. Now extend Tv to meet this T a
projector. T
STEPS TOpoint
This LOCATE VT.
is HT V
Observe & note :-
(WHEN PROJECTIONS ARE GIVEN. 1. Points h’ & v always on x-y b
) line.
1. Begin with TV. Extend TV up to XY
line. 2. VT’ & v always on one
2. Name this point v projector.

( as it is a Tv of a point in Vp) 3. HT & h’ always on one

3. Draw one projector from v. projector.
4. Now extend Fv to meet this 4. FV - h’- VT’ always co-linear.
projector.
This point is VT These points are
5. TV - v - HT alwaysto
used co-
linear.
solve next three
PROBLEM 6 :- Fv of line AB makes 45 0 angle with XY line and measures 60 mm.
Line’s Tv makes 300 with XY line. End A is 15 mm above Hp and it’s VT is 10 mm
below Hp. Draw projections of line AB,determine inclinations with Hp & Vp and
locate HT, VT.

b b’
’ 1

a θ
45
0

SOLUTION STEPS:- 1
v ’
Draw xy line, one projector and x 5 h
y
locate fv a’ 15 mm above xy. ’ 30
1
0
Take 45 angle from a’ and H 0
0 T
marking 60 mm on it locate point b’. VT’
Draw locus of VT, 10 mm below xy a ∅
& extending Fv to this locus locate VT.
as fv-h’-vt’ lie on one st.line.
Draw projector from vt, locate v on xy.
From v take 30 0 angle downward as
Tv and it’s inclination can begin with v. b b
Draw projector from b’ and locate b I.e.Tv
point. 1
Now rotating views as usual TL and
it’s inclinations can be found.
Name extension of Fv, touching xy as h’
and below it, on extension of Tv, locate HT.
PROBLEM 7 :
One end of line AB is 10mm above Hp and other end is 100 mm in-front of Vp.
It’s Fv is 45 0 inclined to xy while it’s HT & VT are 45mm and 30 mm below xy respectively.
Draw projections and find TL with it’s inclinations with Hp & VP.
b b’ LOCUS OF b’ &
’ b’ 1 1

FV TL
a 45
θ 0
’
1 v h
X 0 ’ Y
3
4 0
5 VT’ H
SOLUTION STEPS:- T
Draw xy line, one projector and
locate a’ 10 mm above xy. 10
Draw locus 100 mm below xy for points b & b 1 0
a Φ
Draw loci for VT and HT, 30 mm & 45 mm
below xy respectively. TL
Take 45 0 angle from a’ and extend that line backward
to locate h’ and VT, & Locate v on xy above VT. TV
Locate HT below h’ as shown.
Then join v – HT – and extend to get top view end b.
Draw projector upward and locate b’ Make a b & a’b’ b b LOCUS OF b &
dark. 1
b1
Now as usual rotating views find TL and it’s inclinations.
PROBLEM 8 :- Projectors drawn from HT and VT of a line AB
are 80 mm apart and those drawn from it’s ends are 50 mm apart.
End A is 10 mm above Hp, VT is 55 mm below Hp
while it’s HT is 35 mm in front of Vp. Draw projections,
locate traces and find TL of line & inclinations with Hp and Vp.
V
T
b b’
’ 1

5
SOLUTION STEPS:-
FV
1.Draw xy line and two projectors, TL 5
80 mm apart and locate HT & VT ,
35 mm below xy and 55 mm above xy Locus of a θ
respectively on these projectors. a’ ’
2.Locate h’ and v on xy as usual. X 1
0
5
0
v
y
h b
’ b
3.Now just like previous two problems,
Extending certain lines complete Fv & 1

Tv 3 TV
5 TL
And as usual find TL and it’s inclinations.
a Φ
H
T

8
0
 Instead of considering a & a’ as projections of first point,
if v & VT’ are considered as first point , then true inclinations of line with
Hp & Vp i.e. angles θ & Φcan be constructed with points VT’ & V respectively.

b b1
’ ’

FV TL
Then from point v & HT
a
’ angles β & Φ can be drawn.
v &
X Y
Φ From point VT’ & h’
angles α & θ can be drawn.
θ

VT’

THIS CONCEPT IS USED TO

a
SOLVE
TL NEXT THREE PROBLEMS.
TV

b b
PROBLEM 9 :-
Line AB 100 mm long is 30 0 and 450 inclined to Hp & Vp b1
respectively. b
’ ’
End A is 10 mm above Hp and it’s VT is 20 mm below Hp
.Draw projections of the line and it’s HT.
F
V
100
mm
Locus of a & a a1
a1’ ’ ’
SOLUTION STEPS:- 1
v h
Draw xy, one projector 0 X Y
and locate on it VT and V. Φ(45 ’
0

2 )
Draw locus of a’ 10 mm above xy. θ
0
Take 30 0 from VT and draw a line. (300)
Where it intersects with locus of a’ VT’
name it a1’ as it is TL of that part. H
From a1’ cut 100 mm (TL) on it and locate point b1’ T
Now from v take 45 0 and draw a line downwards
a a
& Mark on it distance VT-a 1’ I.e.TL of extension & name it
1
a1
Extend this line by 100 mm and mark point b1.
Draw it’s component on locus of VT’ T 10
m 0
& further rotate to get other end of Fv i.e.b’ V m
Join it with VT’ and mark intersection point
(with locus of a1’ ) and name it a’
Now as usual locate points a and b and h’ and HT.
b b
1
 PROBLEM 10 :-
A line AB is 75 mm long. It’s Fv & Tv make 45 0 and 600 inclinations with X-
Y line resp
End A is 15 mm above Hp and VT is 20 mm below Xy line. Line is in b first b1
quadrant. ’ ’
Draw projections, find inclinations with Hp & Vp. Also locate HT.
F
V
75
mm
Locus of a & a a1
a1’ ’ ’
1
v h
5 X Y
60 ’
2 0 Φ
0 θ
45
0
VT’
SOLUTION STEPS:-
Similar to the previous only change H
is instead of line’s inclinations, T
views inclinations are given. a a
So first take those angles from VT & v 1
Properly, construct Fv & Tv of extension,
then determine it’s TL( V-a 1)
T 75
and on it’s extension mark TL of line m
and proceed and complete it. V m

b b
1
 PROBLEM 11 :- The projectors drawn from VT & end A of line AB are
40mm apart.
End A is 15mm above Hp and 25 mm in front of Vp. VT of line is 20 mm
below Hp.
If line is 75mm long, draw it’s projections, find inclinations with HP & Vp
b b1
’ ’
F
V
m
75
a a1 m
’ ’
1
X v Y
5
2 Φ
2 θ
0 VT’
5
a

T
Draw two projectors for VT & end A 40m V
Locate these points and then m
b b
YES ! 1

YOU CAN COMPLETE IT.

 GROUP (C)
CASES OF THE LINES IN A.V.P., A.I.P. & PROFILE
PLANE.

b Line AB is in AIP as shown in above figure no 1.

’ A.I It’s FV (a’b’) is shown projected on Vp.(Looking in arrow
.
P. direction)
Here one can clearly see that the
a α B Inclination of AIP with HP = Inclination of FV with XY line
’
A
X
α

β
A A.V.
P.

β
Line AB is in AVP as shown in above figure no 2..
a b
It’s TV (a b) is shown projected on Hp.(Looking in arrow
direction)
Here one can clearly see that the
Inclination of AVP with VP = Inclination of TV with XY line
LINE IN A PROFILE PLANE ( MEANS IN A PLANE PERPENDICULAR TO BOTH HP &
VP)
For T.
V.
ORTHOGRAPHIC PATTERN OF LINE IN PROFILE PLANE
V VT P
a P a P
A a
’ Φ ”
’
F LS
V V
b b b
’ ’ θ ” Y
X
HT
a
B For
V. F. T
a V

b
b H
P
Results:-
1. TV & FV both are vertical, hence arrive on one single projector.
2. It’s Side View shows True Length ( TL)
3. Sum of it’s inclinations with HP & VP equals to 900 ( θ + Φ = 90 0
4. It’s HT & VT arrive on same projector and can be easily )
located
From Side View.
OBSERVE CAREFULLY ABOVE GIVEN ILLUSTRATION AND 2 nd SOLVED PROBLEM.
PROBLEM 12 :- Line AB 80 mm long, makes 30 0 angle
with Hp b Locus of b1
’
and lies in an Aux.Vertical Plane 45 0 inclined to Vp. ’ b’
End A is 15 mm above Hp and VT is 10 mm below X-y
line.
Draw projections, fine angle with Vp and Ht.
Locus of a’ & a 1 ’ a a1
’ ’
1 v h
X 5 45 ’ Y
1 0 θ
Φ
0 H
V
T T
a

AVP 45 0 to
VP

Simply consider inclination of AVP Locus of

as inclination of TV of our line,
b b b’
well then?
1
You sure can complete it
as previous problems!
Go ahead!!
 PROBLEM 13 :- A line AB, 75mm long, has one end A in Vp. Other end B is 15 mm
above Hp
and 50 mm in front of Vp.Draw the projections of the line when sum of it’s
Inclinations with HP & Vp is 900, means it is lying in a profile plane.
Find true angles with ref.planes and it’s traces.

V (VT a
aT )
SOLUTION STEPS:- ’ ”
Φ Side View
After drawing xy line and one projector Front ( True
Locate top view of A I.e point a on xy as view Length )

V
P
It is in Vp, b b
Locate Fv of B i.e.b’15 mm above xy as ’a θ ” (HT)
X H Y
it is above Hp.and Tv of B i.e. b, 50 mm
P
below xy asit is 50 mm in front of Vp
Draw side view structure of Vp and Hp top
and locate S.V. of point B i.e. b’’ view
From this point cut 75 mm distance on Vp and
Mark a’’ as A is in Vp. (This is also VT of line.) b
From this point draw locus to left & get a’ HT
Extend SV up to Hp. It will be HT. As it is a Tv
Rotate it and bring it on projector of b.
Now as discussed earlier SV gives TL of line
and at the same time on extension up to Hp & Vp
gives inclinations with those panes.
 APPLICATIONS OF PRINCIPLES OF PROJECTIONS OF LINES
IN SOLVING CASES OF DIFFERENT PRACTICAL SITUATIONS.

In these types of problems some situation in the field

or
some object will be described .
It’s relation with Ground ( HP )
And
a Wall or some vertical object ( VP ) will be given.

Indirectly information regarding Fv & Tv of some line or lines,

inclined to both reference Planes will be given
and
you are supposed to draw it’s projections
and
further to determine it’s true Length and it’s inclinations with ground.

Here various problems along with

actual pictures of those situations are given
for you to understand those clearly. CHECK YOUR
Now looking for views in given ARROW directions, ANSWERS
YOU are supposed to draw projections & find WITH THE SOLUTIONS
answers, GIVEN IN THE END.
Off course you must visualize the situation properly. ALL THE BEST !!
PROBLEM 14:-Two objects, a flower (A) and an orange (B) are within a rectangular compound wall,
whose P & Q are walls meeting at 90 0. Flower A is 1M & 5.5 M from walls P & Q respectively.
Orange B is 4M & 1.5M from walls P & Q respectively. Drawing projection, find distance between
them
T
If flower is 1.5 M and orange is 3.5 M above the ground. Consider suitable scale..
V

B Wall Q

Wall P

F
V
PROBLEM 15 :- Two mangos on a tree A & B are 1.5 m and 3.00 m above ground
and those are 1.2 m & 1.5 m from a 0.3 m thick wall but on opposite sides of it.
If the distance measured between them along the ground and parallel to wall is 2.6
m,
Then find real distance between them by drawing their projections.
T
V

0.3M
A THICK

F
V
PROBLEM 16 :- oa, ob & oc are three lines, 25mm, 45mm
and 65mm
long respectively.All equally inclined and the shortest
is vertical.This fig. is TV of three rods OA, OB and OC
whose ends A,B & C are on ground and end O is 100mm
above ground. Draw their projections and find length of
each along with their angles with ground.

T
V

O
65
mm C
25m
A m

F
45 V
mm

B
PROBLEM 17:- A pipe line from point A has a downward gradient 1:5 and it runs due East-
South.
Another Point B is 12 M from A and due East of A and in same level of A. Pipe line from B runs
20 0 Due East of South and meets pipe line from A at point C.
Draw projections and find length of pipe line from B and it’s inclination with ground.

5
Do
w
1:5 nwar 1
d Gra
N d ien
t
A
12
M
B E

S
PROBLEM 18: A person observes two objects, A & B, on the ground, from a tower, 15 M
high,
At the angles of depression 30 0 & 45 0. Object A is is due North-West direction of observer
and
object B is due West direction. Draw projections of situation and find distance of objects from
observer and from tower also.

O
30
0

45
0
N

A
S

B
W
PROBLEM 19:-Guy ropes of two poles fixed at 4.5m and 7.5 m above ground,
are attached to a corner of a building 15 M high, make 300 and 450 inclinations
with ground respectively.The poles are 10 M apart. Determine by drawing their

projections,Length of each rope and distance of poles

T from building.
V
C

15
M

A 30
0

4.5
M

45
0

F 10 7.5
V M M
PROBLEM 20:- A tank of 4 M height is to be strengthened by four stay rods from each
corner
by fixing their other ends to the flooring, at a point 1.2 M and 0.7 M from two adjacent
walls respectively,
as shown. Determine graphically length and angle of each rod withT flooring.
V

4
M

1.2
M

0.
7
M F
V
PROBLEM 21:- A horizontal wooden platform 2 M long and 1.5 M wide is supported by four chains
from it’s corners and chains are attached to a hook 5 M above the center of the platform.
Draw projections of the objects and determine length of each chain along with it’s inclination with ground.

T
V Hoo H
k

5
M

A C

2
M 1 .5
F M
V B
PROBLEM 22.
A room is of size 6.5m L ,5m D,3.5m high.
An electric bulb hangs 1m below the center of ceiling.
A switch is placed in one of the corners of the room, 1.5m above the flooring.
Draw the projections an determine real distance between the bulb and switch.

Ceilin
g

T
V
Bul
b all
w
Side
Front
wall

Switc
h

D
L

Obser
v
er
PROBLEM 23:-
A PICTURE FRAME 2 M WIDE AND 1 M TALL IS RESTING ON HORIZONTAL WALL RAILING
MAKES 35 0 INCLINATION WITH WALL. IT IS ATTAACHED TO A HOOK IN THE WALL BY TWO STRINGS.
THE HOOK IS 1.5 M ABOVE WALL RAILING. DETERMINE LENGTH OF EACH CHAIN AND TRUE ANGLE BETWEEN THEM

T
V

35 0
1.5
M

1
M

F
V
2
M
Wall
railing
 PROBLEM NO.24
T.V. of a 75 mm long Line CD, measures 50 mm.
SOME CASES OF THE LINE End C is 15 mm below Hp and 50 mm in front
IN DIFFERENT QUADRANTS. of Vp.
End D is 15 mm in front of Vp and it is above
REMEMBER: Hp.
BELOW HP- Means- Fv below xy
BEHIND V p- Means- Tv above Draw projections of CD and find angles with
d d’ LOCUS OF d’ &
xy. Hp and Vp.
’ 1 d’ 1

TL

FV
X Y
θ d d LOCUS OF d &
c’
1
d1

TL

TV

c Φ
PROBLEM NO.25
End A of line AB is in Hp and 25 mm behind
Vp.
End B in Vp.and 50mm above Hp.
Distance between projectors is 70mm.
Draw projections and find it’s inclinations
with Ht, Vt. LOCUS OF b’ &
b b’b’1
’ 1

FV

a TL
Φ

TV TL
X a θ b b Y
’ 1LOCUS OF b&
b1

7
0
PROBLEM NO.26
End A of a line AB is 25mm below Hp and 35mm
behind Vp.
Line is 300 inclined to Hp.
There is a point P on AB contained by both HP & VP.
Draw projections, find inclination with Vp and
traces.

a Φ
b b’ LOCUS OF b’ &
’ b’1
FV
1
3 TL
5

p p
X ’ p’
y
1
2
5
θ=30 TL
TV

a 0

’
LOCUS OF b &
b b b1

1
PROBLEM NO.27
End A of a line AB is 25mm above Hp and end B is 55mm
behind Vp.
The distance between end projectors is 75mm.
If both it’s HT & VT coincide on xy in a point,
b b
35mm from projector of A and within two projectors,
Draw projections, find TL and angles and HT, VT. 1

TV
5
a TL
θ
2 ’
5
X V Y
tHt

FV
TL
Φ
a
3 b b’
5 ’ 1

7
5
 PROJECTIONS OF
PLANES
In this topic various plane figures are the objects.

What is usually asked in the

problem?
To draw their projections means F.V, T.V. & S.V.

What will be given in the

problem?
1. Description of the plane
figure.
2. It’s position with HP and
In which manner it’s VP.position with HP & VP will be
described?
1.Inclination of it’s SURFACE with one of the reference planes will be
given.
2. Inclination of one of it’s EDGES with other reference plane will be given
(Hence this will bethe
Study a case of an showing
illustration object inclined to both reference Planes.)
surface & side inclination given on next
page.
 CASE OF A RECTANGLE – OBSERVE AND NOTE ALL STEPS.

SURFACE PARALLEL TO HP SURFACE INCLINED TO HP ONE SMALL SIDE INCLINED TO VP

PICTORIAL PRESENTATION PICTORIAL PRESENTATION PICTORIAL PRESENTATION

For T.
For T.

V.
For
Tv
V.

For
For Fo
Fv rF
F
V. . V. .

ORTHOGRAPHI ORTHOGRAPHIC ORTHOGRAPHIC

C FV- Inclined to XY FV- Apparent
TV-True Shape TV- Reduced Shape
FV- Line // to xy Shape d V TV-Previous Shape
V V
c’ P d1 c1
P P
’ ’ ’
a d a1 b1
b’ c’’ a
b’ ’ ’
’ ’ d
a d a d 1

1 1
c
1
b c b c a
H A H
1 1
B H
1
C
b
P P P 1
 PROCEDURE OF SOLVING THE PROBLEM:
IN THREE STEPS EACH PROBLEM CAN BE SOLVED:( As Shown In Previous Illustration )
STEP 1. Assume suitable conditions & draw Fv & Tv of initial position.
STEP 2. Now consider surface inclination & draw 2nd Fv & Tv.
STEP 3. After this,consider side/edge inclination and draw 3rd ( final) Fv & Tv.

ASSUMPTIONS FOR INITIAL POSITION:

(Initial Position means assuming surface // to HP or VP)
1.If in problem surface is inclined to HP – assume it // HP
Or If surface is inclined to VP – assume it // to VP
2. Now if surface is assumed // to HP- It’s TV will show True Shape.
And If surface is assumed // to VP – It’s FV will show True Shape.
3. Hence begin with drawing TV or FV as True Shape.
4. While drawing this True Shape –
keep one side/edge ( which is making inclination) perpendicular to xy line
( similar to pair no. A on previous page illustration ).

Now Complete STEP 2. By making surface inclined to the resp plane & project it’s other view.
(Ref. 2 nd pair B on previous page illustration )

Now Complete STEP 3. By making side inclined to the resp plane & project it’s other view.
(Ref. 3 nd pair C on previous page illustration )

APPLY SAME STEPS TO SOLVE NEXT ELEVEN PROBLEMS

Problem 1: Read problem and answer following
Rectangle 30mm and questions
50mm sides is resting on 1. Surface inclined to which plane? -------
HP on one small side HP
which is 300 inclined to VP, 2. Assumption for initial position? ------// to
while the surface of the HP
plane makes 450 3. So which view will show True shape? ---
inclination with HP. Draw TV
it’s projections.
Surface // to 4. Which
Surface side will be vertical? ---One
inclined to
Hp Hp
d’c’small side. c’1 d’1
Hence begin with TV, draw rectangle
c’d’ below X-Y
ab drawing one small side vertical.
’ ’ b
a 450 b’ a’ 1 Y
X ’ 30 0
’ 1
a a1 d1

a1
d Side
Incline
d

b
to Vp
b c b c11

d1
1

c1
Problem 2: Read problem and answer following questions
A 30 0 – 60 0 set square of longest side 1 .Surface inclined to which plane? ------- VP
100 mm long, is in VP and 30 0 inclined 2. Assumption for initial position? ------// to VP
to HP while it’s surface is 45 0 inclined 3. So which view will show True shape? --- FV
to VP.Draw it’s projections 4. Which side will be vertical? ------longest side.

( Surface & Side inclinations directly

Hence begin with FV, draw triangle above X-Y
given)
keeping longest side vertical .
a’ a’
1
c’ c’ 1
side inclined to
c’Hp
1

a’
1

b’
b’
b 1
’ 1 300
X a
b 450 a b1 Y
a c 1
b c
c 1

Surface // to Surface inclined to

Vp Vp
Problem 3: Read problem and answer following questions
A 30 0 – 60 0 set square of longest side 1 .Surface inclined to which plane? ------- VP
100 mm long is in VP and it’s surface 2. Assumption for initial position? ------// to VP
45 0 inclined to VP. One end of longest 3. So which view will show True shape? --- FV
side is 10 mm and other end is 35 mm 4. Which side will be vertical? ------longest side.
above HP. Draw it’s projections

(Surface inclination directly given. Hence begin with FV, draw triangle above X-Y
Side inclination indirectly given) keeping longest side vertical .

First TWO steps are similar to previous problem.

Note the manner in which side inclination is given.
a’ a’ End A 35 mm above Hp & End B is 10 mm above Hp.
1
So redraw 2 nd Fv as final Fv placing these ends as said.
c’ c’ 1
c’ 1

a’
1

35
b’
b’
b
X ’ 1
1 1 Y
a a
0
b 450 b1
a c 1
b c
c 1
Problem 4: Read problem and answer following
A regular pentagon of 30 mm sides questions
is resting on HP on one of it’s sides 1. Surface inclined to which plane? ------- HP
with it’s surface 450 inclined to HP. 2. Assumption for initial position? ------ // to
Draw it’s projections when the side HP
in HP makes 300 angle with VP 3. So which view will show True shape? ---
SURFACE AND SIDE INCLINATIONS TV
ARE DIRECTLY GIVEN. 4. Which side will be vertical? -------- any
side.d d’
’
c’e’Hence begin1 with TV,draw pentagon
belowe’ c’ 1

b a
X-Y 1line, taking one side vertical .
X b a c’e’ d 45 b’ Y
’ ’ a’
’ ’ ’ 0
a 1
e e 1 30
0
1
1 e
a a 1 b
1 1
d
d
1
d c
b b 1 1
1
c c
1
Problem 5: Read problem and answer following
A regular pentagon of 30 mm sides is questions
resting 1. Surface inclined to which plane? -------
on HP on one of it’s sides while it’s HP
opposite 2. Assumption for initial position? ------ //
vertex (corner) is 30 mm above HP. to HP
Draw projections
SURFACE INCLINATIONwhen side in HPGIVEN
INDIRECTLY is 3. So which view will show True shape? -
300SIDE
inclined to VP. DIRECTLY GIVEN:
INCLINATION -- TV
4. Which side will be vertical? --------
ONLY CHANGE is any side.
the manner in which surface inclination is described: Hence begin with TV,draw pentagon
One side on Hp & it’s opposite corner 30 mm above Hp. d d’
Hence redraw 1 st Fv as a 2 nd Fv making above
below
’
c’e’ one side verticalc’.
1
arrangement. X-Y line, taking
3 e’ 1
Keep a’b’ on xy & d’ 30 mm above xy.
0 1

X b a c’e’ d a
a’ b’ Y
’ ’ ’ ’
b’ 30 1
e 1
a0
e
1 e 1
a a 1 b
1 1

d d
1
d c
b b 1 1

1
c c
1
 Problem 6: A rhombus of diagonals 40 c’ c’ 1
mm and 70 mm long respectively has one
end of it’s longer diagonal in HP while that d b’
b
diagonal is 35 0 inclined to HP. If the top- ’ d’
bd ’ 1
view of the same diagonal makes 40 0 X a c’ 0 a’ Y
’ ’ a 45 1

inclination with VP, draw it’s projections. ’ 30

d ’ d 1
a0 d
1
1 1
Read problem and answer following a c a c
b c
questions b
1
b
1
1 1
1. Surface inclined to which plane? ------- 1
HP The difference in these two problems is in step 3
only.
2. Assumption for initial position? ------ // In problem no.6 inclination of Tv of that diagonal is
to HP given,It could be drawn directly as shown in 3 rd step.
3. So which view will show True shape? --- While in no.7 angle of diagonal itself I.e. it’s TL, is
TV given. Hence here angle of TL is taken,locus of c 1
4. Which diagonal horizontal? ---------- Is drawn and then LTV I.e. a1 c1 is marked and
Problem 7: A rhombus of diagonals 40 final TV was completed.Study illustration carefully.
Longer
mm and 70 mm long respectively having c’ c’ 1
Hence
one end begin withdiagonal
of it’s longer TV,draw rhombus
in HP while
below 0 d b’
that diagonal is 35 inclined to HP and b
’ d’
makes 40 0 inclination
X-Y line, taking longer
with VP. diagonal
Draw it’s // to a bd ’ 1

projections. X c’ a 450 a’ 1
Y
X-Y ’ ’ ’ 300
’ 1a1
d d d
Note the difference in a c a
1
c
1
T
construction of 3rd step 1
b L c
b
1
b c 2

in both solutions. 1
1
1
 c c’1
d ’ b’1
Problem 8: A circle of 50 mm diameter is a b d c b ’
resting on Hp on end A of it’s diameter ’ ’ ’ ’ a 300’ a’1 d’1 Y
X
AC ’ 45
d d1 0 a d
which is 30 0 inclined to Hp while it’s Tv 1 1

is 45 0 inclined to Vp.Draw it’s projections.

a ca c1
1

b c1
Read problem and answer following 1

questions b b1
1. Surface inclined to which plane? -------
HP The difference in these two problems is in step 3
2. Assumption for initial position? ------ // only.
to HP In problem no.8 inclination of Tv of that AC is
3. So which view will show True shape? --- given,It could be drawn directly as shown in 3 rd step.
TV While in no.9 angle of AC itself i.e. it’s TL, is
given. Hence here angle of TL is taken,locus of c 1
4. Which diameter horizontal? ---------- Is drawn and then LTV I.e. a1 c1 is marked and
ACProblem 9: A circle of 50 mm diameter is final TV was completed.Study illustration carefully.
resting on
Hence Hp onwith
begin end ATV,draw
of it’s diameter
rhombus
AC c c’1
below
which is 30 0 inclined to Hp while it makes d ’ b’1
a b d c b ’
X-Y
45 0 line, taking
inclined longer
to Vp. Draw diagonal // to ’
it’s projections. ’ a ’ d’1
’ ’ a’1
X-Y d ’ d1 d
a 30
1
1
Note the difference in 0
T
a ca c1
construction of 3rd step 1 L
c1
b
in both solutions. 1
b b1
 Read problem and answer following
Problem 10: End A of diameter AB of a circle is in HP questions
A nd end B is in VP.Diameter AB, 50 mm long is 1. Surface inclined to which plane? -------
0 0
30 & 60 inclined to HP & VP respectively. HP
Draw projections of circle. 2. Assumption for initial position? ------ //
to HP
3. So which view will show True shape? ---
TV
The problem is similar to previous problem of circle – no.9.
4. Which diameter horizontal? ----------
But in the 3 rd step there is one more change.
Like 9th problem True Length inclination of dia.AB is AB definitely expected
but if you carefully note - the the SUM of it’s inclinationsHence
with HPbegin
& VPwith
is TV,draw CIRCLE
0
90 . below
Means Line AB lies in a Profile Plane. X-Y line, taking DIA. AB // to X-Y
Hence it’s both Tv & Fv must arrive on one single projector.
So do the construction accordingly AND note the case carefully ..

30 0
X Y
60
0 SOLVE SEPARATELY
ON DRAWING SHEET
T GIVING NAMES TO VARIOUS
L

POINTS AS USUAL,
AS THE CASE IS IMPORTANT
 Problem 11: Read problem and answer following
A hexagonal lamina has its one side in HP and questions
Its apposite parallel side is 25mm above Hp
1. Surface inclined to which plane? -------
and
In Vp. Draw it’s projections. HP
Take side of hexagon 30 mm long. 2. Assumption for initial position? ------ //
to HP
3. So which view will show True shape? ---
ONLY CHANGE is the manner in which surface inclination TV
is described: 4. Which diameter horizontal? ----------
One side on Hp & it’s opposite side 25 mm above Hp. AC
Hence redraw 1 st Fv as a 2 nd Fv making above
arrangement.
Hence begin with TV,draw rhombus
Keep a’b’ on xy & d’e’ 25 mm above xy. below
X-Ye line,e’taking
1 d’ 1longer diagonal // to
d ’
X-Yf ’
2 c ’ f’ 1 c1’
’ Y
X a’b cf de
5
b a’ 1 b’ 1
’ a’ ’
f’ ’ ’ ’ f1 e d
f1 1 1 c1
a e a e
1 1 a b As 3 rd step
1
b d b d 1 redraw 2 nd Tv
1
c1
1 keeping
c
side DE on xy line.
Because it is in VP
as said in problem.
 FREELY SUSPENDED
CASES. IMPORTANT
1.In this case the plane ofPOINTS
the figure always remains
Problem 12: perpendicular to Hp.
An isosceles triangle of 40 mm 2.It may remain parallel or inclined to Vp.
long 3.Hence TV in this case will be always a LINE view.
base side, 60 mm long altitude Is 4.Assuming surface // to Vp, draw true shape in suspended
freely suspended from one corner position as FV.
of (Here keep line joining point of contact & centroid of fig. vertical )
Base side.It’s plane is 45 0 inclined
to 5.Always begin with FV as a True Shape
Vp. Draw it’s projections. a’1 but in a suspended
position. a
C AS shown ’ in 1 st FV.

b’1
b g g’1
’ ’
H
G c c’1
X ’ Y
H/
3
A B b
c
a,
b a,g g 45
First draw a given triangle c
0

With given dimensions,

Locate it’s centroid position
And Similarly solve next
join it with point of problem
suspension. of Semi-circle
 IMPORTANT
Problem 13 1.In this case the plane ofPOINTS
the figure always remains
:A semicircle of 100 mm diameter perpendicular to Hp.
is suspended from a point on its 2.It may remain parallel or inclined to Vp.
straight edge 30 mm from the 3.Hence TV in this case will be always a LINE view.
midpoint 4.Assuming surface // to Vp, draw true shape in suspended
of that edge so that the surface makes position as FV.
an angle of 45 0 with VP. (Here keep line joining point of contact & centroid of fig. vertical )
Draw its projections.
5.Always begin with FV as a True Shape but in a suspended
position.
A AS shown in 1 st FV.
a
20 ’
mm p’
P

G b
’
C g’
G
c
’
e
d ’
X Y
’
0.414

b
e
c
R

First draw a given semicircle

a
With given diameter,
b c a p,g d

p,
Locate it’s centroid position

g
And e

d
join it with point of suspension.
 To determine true shape of plane figure when it’s projections are given.
BY USING AUXILIARY PLANE METHOD
WHAT WILL BE THE PROBLEM?
Description of final Fv & Tv will be given.
You are supposed to determine true shape of that plane figure.

Follow the below given steps:

1. Draw the given Fv & Tv as per the given information in problem.
2. Then among all lines of Fv & Tv select a line showing True Length (T.L.)
(It’s other view must be // to xy)
3. Draw x 1-y1 perpendicular to this line showing T.L.
4. Project view on x 1-y1 ( it must be a line view)
5. Draw x 2-y2 // to this line view & project new view on it.
It will be the required answer i.e. True Shape.

The facts you must know:-

If you carefully study and observe the solutions of all previous
problems,
You will find
IF ONE VIEW IS A LINE VIEW & THAT TOO PARALLEL TO XY LINE,
THEN AND THEN IT’S OTHER VIEW WILL SHOW TRUE SHAPE:

NOW FINAL VIEWS ARE ALWAYS SOME SHAPE, NOT LINE VIEWS:
SO APPLYING ABOVE METHOD: Study Next
WE FIRST CONVERT ONE VIEW IN INCLINED LINE VIEW .(By using x1y1 aux. Four
plane)
THEN BY MAKING IT // TO X2-Y2 WE GET TRUE SHAPE.
Cases
 Problem 14 Tv is a triangle abc. Ab is 50 mm long, angle cab is 300 and angle cba is 650.
a’b’c’ is a Fv. a’ is 25 mm, b’ is 40 mm and c’ is 10 mm above Hp respectively. Draw
projections
of that figure and find it’s true shape.
As per the procedure-
1.First draw Fv & Tv as per the data.
2.In Tv line ab is // to xy hence it’s other view a’b’ is TL. So draw x 1y1 perpendicular to it.
3.Project view on x1y1.
a) First draw projectors from a’b’ & c’ on x 1y1.
b) from xy take distances of a,b & c( Tv) mark on these projectors from x1y1. Name points a1b1 &
c1.
c) This line view is an Aux.Tv. Draw x 2y2 // to this line view and project Aux. Fv on it.
for that from x 1y1 take distances of a’b’ & c’ and mark from x2y= on new projectors.
4.Name points a’ 1 b’ 1 & c’ 1 and join
Y1 them. This will be the required true shape.
a1b1 Y2

90
b 0 b’1
15 TL ’
a
’
1
C1
5
10 C X1
X ’ X2 a’1
Y
c c’1 TRUE
SHAPE
ALWAYS FOR NEW FV TAKE
DISTANCES OF PREVIOUS FV
30 0 65 0 AND FOR NEW TV,
a DISTANCES OF PREVIOUS TV
b
50 REMEMBER!!
mm
 Problem 15: Fv & Tv of a triangular plate are shown.

Determine it’s true shape.

USE SAME PROCEDURE STEPS 5
OF PREVIOUS PROBLEM: 2 0
BUT THERE IS ONE DIFFICULTY : 5 c
1 ’
NO LINE IS // TO XY IN ANY VIEW. 5 a
MEANS NO TL IS AVAILABLE. ’ 1
2 ’
IN SUCH CASES DRAW ONE LINE 0 b
// TO XY IN ANY VIEW & IT’S OTHER 1
X ’ Y
VIEW CAN BE CONSIDERED AS TL 10
x1
FOR THE PURPOSE. 5 a c
TL
HERE a’ 1’ line in Fv is drawn // to xy. 4 90
HENCE it’s Tv a-1 becomes TL. 1 0 c’1
0
a’1 y2
b
THEN FOLLOW SAME STEPS AND
DETERMINE TRUE SHAPE. c1
b’1
(STUDY THE ILLUSTRATION) y1
x2

ALWAYS FOR NEW FV TAKE b1

DISTANCES OF PREVIOUS FV
AND FOR NEW TV, TRUE d1
DISTANCES OF PREVIOUS TV SHAP
REMEMBER!! E
 PROBLEM 16: Fv & Tv both are circles of 50 mm diameter. Determine true shape of an elliptical
plate.
ADOPT SAME PROCEDURE .
a c is considered as line // to xy.
Then a’c’ becomes TL for the purpose.
Using steps properly true shape can
50 y1
be b
Easily determined. D b1 y2
’

Study the illustration.

T ac1 1
a c b’1
’ L ’ c’1
d d
X1 1
’
X d Y
X2

ALWAYS, FOR NEW FV

a’1
TAKE DISTANCES OF d’1
PREVIOUS FV AND a c TRUE
FOR NEW TV, DISTANCES SHAPE
OF PREVIOUS TV
REMEMBER!! 50 b
D.
 Problem 17 : Draw a regular pentagon of
30 mm sides with one side 30 0 inclined to
xy.
This figure is Tv of some plane whose Fv is TR
SH UE
A line 45 0 inclined to xy. b1 A
Determine it’s true shape. PE
a1
c1
IN THIS CASE ALSO TRUE LENGTH
IS NOT AVAILABLE IN ANY VIEW. X1

BUT ACTUALLY WE DONOT REQUIRE

TL TO FIND IT’S TRUE SHAPE, AS a e1 d1
ONE ’
VIEW (FV) IS ALREADY A LINE VIEW. b
SO JUST BY DRAWING X1Y1 // TO THIS ’
e
VIEW WE CAN PROJECT VIEW ON IT
’ Y1
AND GET TRUE SHAPE: c
’ d
STUDY THE ILLUSTRATION.. X ’ 45
0 Y
30
0
e

d
ALWAYS FOR NEW FV a
TAKE DISTANCES OF
PREVIOUS FV AND FOR
NEW TV, DISTANCES OF
PREVIOUS TV c
REMEMBER!! b
 SOLID
To understand and remember
S various solids in this subject properly,
those are classified & arranged in to two major groups.
Group A Group B
Solids having top and base of Solids having base of some
and just a point as a top,
same shape shape
called apex.

Cylind Con
er e
Pris Pyrami
ms ds

Triangular Square Pentagonal Triangular Square Pentagonal

Hexagonal Hexagonal
Cub Tetrahed
(eA solid ( A solid having
ron
having Four triangular
six square faces)
 SOLID
DimensionalSparameters of
different solids.
Square Square Cylind Cone
Prism Pyramid
Ape er Ape
To x x
Rectangulp Slan
ar t Triangul
Longe
Face Bas Edg ar Bas Bas
e Bas
e e
r Face e
e
Edge
Corner of Edg Edg Corner of
Generators
base e e base
Imaginary lines
of of
generating curved
Bas Bas
surface
e e
of cylinder & cone.

Sections of solids( top & base not Frustum of cone & pyramids.
parallel) ( top & base parallel to each
other)
 STANDING ON H. RESTING ON H.P LYING ON H.P
P On one point of base On one
On
(Axis it’s base.
perpendicular (Axis circle.
inclined to generator.
(Axis inclined to
to Hp Hp Hp
And // to Vp.) And // to Vp) And // to Vp)

F.V. F.V. F.V.

X Y
While observing Fv, x-y line represents Horizontal
Plane. (Hp)

X While observing Tv, x-y line represents Vertical Y

Plane. (Vp)

T.V. T.V. T.V.

STANDING ON V.P RESTING ON V.P LYING ON V.P

On it’s base. On one point of base On one
Axis perpendicular Axiscircle.
inclined to generator.
Axis inclined to
to Vp Vp Vp
And // to Hp And // to Hp And // to Hp
 STEPS TO SOLVE PROBLEMS IN
SOLIDS Problem is solved in three steps:
STEP 1: ASSUME SOLID STANDING ON THE PLANE WITH WHICH IT IS MAKING INCLINATION.
( IF IT IS INCLINED TO HP, ASSUME IT STANDING ON HP)
( IF IT IS INCLINED TO VP, ASSUME IT STANDING ON VP)
IF STANDING ON HP - IT’S TV WILL BE TRUE SHAPE OF IT’S BASE OR TOP:
IF STANDING ON VP - IT’S FV WILL BE TRUE SHAPE OF IT’S BASE OR TOP.
BEGIN WITH THIS VIEW:
IT’S OTHER VIEW WILL BE A RECTANGLE ( IF SOLID IS CYLINDER OR ONE OF THE
PRISMS):
IT’S OTHER VIEW WILL BE A TRIANGLE ( IF SOLID IS CONE OR ONE OF THE
PYRAMIDS):
DRAW FV & TV OF THAT SOLID IN STANDING POSITION:
STEP 2: CONSIDERING SOLID’S INCLINATION ( AXIS POSITION ) DRAW IT’S FV & TV.
STEP 3: IN LAST STEP, CONSIDERING REMAINING INCLINATION, DRAW IT’S FINAL FV & TV.
GENERAL PATTERN ( THREE STEPS ) OF
SOLUTION: GROUP B GROUP A
GROUP B GROUP A
SOLID. SOLID. SOLID. SOLID.
AXIS AXIS
CONE CYLINDER CONE INCLINED CYLINDERINCLINED
AXIS AXIS
AXIS AXIS VERTICAL INCLINED HP HP
VERTICAL INCLINED HP
HP

e e
AXIS AXIS AXIS AXIS
INCLINED AXIS r TO VP INCLINED
AXIS
r TO VP INCLINED
VP INCLINED
VP VP VP
Three steps Three steps Three steps Three steps
If solid is inclined If solid is inclined If solid is inclined If solid is inclined
to Hp Study to Hp to Vp to Vp
Next Twelve Problems and Practice them
 CATEGORIES OF ILLUSTRATED
PROBLEMS!
PROBLEM NO.1, 2, 3, 4 GENERAL CASES OF SOLIDS INCLINED TO HP & VP

PROBLEM NO. 5 & 6 CASES OF CUBE & TETRAHEDRON

PROBLEM NO. 7 CASE OF FREELY SUSPENDED SOLID WITH SIDE

VIEW.

PROBLEM NO. 8 CASE OF CUBE ( WITH SIDE VIEW)

PROBLEM NO. 9 CASE OF TRUE LENGTH INCLINATION WITH HP & VP.

PROBLEM NO. 10 & 11 CASES OF COMPOSITE SOLIDS. (AUXILIARY PLANE)

PROBLEM NO. 12 CASE OF A FRUSTUM (AUXILIARY PLANE)

 Solution Steps :
Problem 1. A square pyramid, 40 Triangular face on Hp , means it is lying on Hp:
mm base sides and axis 60 mm long, 1.Assume it standing on Hp.
2.It’s Tv will show True Shape of base( square)
has a triangular face on the ground 3.Draw square of 40mm sides with one side vertical Tv &
and the vertical plane containing the taking 50 mm axis project Fv. ( a triangle)
4.Name all points as shown in illustration.
axis makes an angle of 450 with the 5.Draw 2 nd Fv in lying position I.e.o’c’d’ face on xy. And project it’s Tv.
VP. Draw its projections. Take apex 6.Make visible lines dark and hidden dotted, as per the procedure.
nearer to VP 7.Then construct remaining inclination with Vp
( Vp containing axis ic the center line of 2 nd Tv.Make it 45 0 to xy as
shown take apex near to xy, as it is nearer to Vp) & project final Fv.

’ ’
’ b’

ab
a’
1 1

Y
X ab c’d ’ d’ c’1
o’
d
c’d

’ ’
’

’ a o 1 1o
1
a d d a

a
1

1
1
1 1
o d c
o 1 1
b c
1
b b
c b (APEX

c 1 1 (APEX o
For dark and dotted lines
1
1
NEARER AWAY
1
1 TO V.P) . FROM V.P.)
1.Draw proper outline of new view DARK. 2. Decide direction of an
observer.
3. Select nearest point to observer and draw all lines starting from
 A cone 40 mm diameter and 50 Solution Steps:
mm axis Resting on Hp on one generator, means lying on Hp:
1.Assume it standing on Hp.
is resting on one generator on Hp 2.It’s Tv will show True Shape of base( circle )
3.Draw 40mm dia. Circle as Tv &
which makes 30 0 inclination with taking 50 mm axis project Fv. ( a triangle)
4.Name all points as shown in illustration.
Vp 5.Draw 2 nd Fv in lying position I.e.o’e’ on xy. And
Draw it’s
For dark andprojections.
dotted lines
project it’s Tv below xy.
1.Draw proper outline of new
6.Make visible lines dark and hidden dotted,
vie
as per the procedure.
DARK.
2. Decide direction of an
7.Then construct remaining inclination with Vp
observer. ( generator o 1e1 30 0 to xy as shown) & project final Fv.
3. Select nearest point to
observer o

’
’ a’

a
and draw all lines starting
h’ b’

’
from 1

h’b
it-dark. 1
1
4. Select farthest point to

c
g’ 1

’g’
observer
and draw all lines
’
d’f
(remaining) f’ c’ 1
X a hb c’ g f d e o d’ Y o
’

from it- dotted. e’ 1

e

’ 3
’ ’ ’ ’ ’ ’ ’ 1 1
g g1 1 0
g1 o
h f f1 h h 1
1 f1 1
a1
a e e1 a1 o
1 e1 b

b d d b 1

d
c 1
c1
1 c1
1
Problem 3: Solution Steps:
A cylinder 40 mm diameter and 50 Resting on Vp on one point of base, means inclined to Vp:
1.Assume it standing on Vp
mm axis is resting on one point of 2.It’s Fv will show True Shape of base & top( circle )
a base circle on Vp while it’s axis 3.Draw 40mm dia. Circle as Fv & taking 50 mm axis project Tv.
( a Rectangle)
makes 45 0 with Vp and Fv of the 4.Name all points as shown in illustration.
0
axis 35 with Hp. Draw projections.5.Draw 2 nd Tv making axis 45 0 to xy And project it’s Fv above xy.
. 6.Make visible lines dark and hidden dotted, as per the procedure.
7.Then construct remaining inclination with Hp
( Fv of axis I.e. center line of view to xy as shown) & project final Tv.

4
4d d ’
4
’ ’ ’ ’ d 3
’ ’
3
1a c’ c’ 3 c’ 1
’ a 1 ’
’ ’ ’ ’ ’
a 2
’ ’
2 b
X a ’ b’d
b
’
2
’
35
0
b Y
45 ’c
c 0
d
d

1
b
b

1
1
a
3
a

1
c

4
4

1 24 2
2

3
1
1
 Solution Steps :
1.Assume it standing on Hp but as said on apex.( inverted ).
Problem 4:A square pyramid 30 mm 2.It’s Tv will show True Shape of base( square)
3.Draw a corner case square of 30 mm sides as Tv(as shown)
base side
Showing all slant edges dotted, as those will not be visible from top.
and 50 mm long axis is resting on it’s
4.taking 50 mm axis project Fv. ( a triangle)
apex on Hp,
5.Name all points as shown in illustration.
such that it’s one slant edge is vertical 6.Draw 2 nd Fv keeping o’a’ slant edge vertical & project it’s Tv
and a 7.Make visible lines dark and hidden dotted, as per the procedure.
triangular face through it is 8.Then redrew 2 nd Tv as final Tv keeping a 1 o 1 d 1 triangular face
perpendicular to Vp. perpendicular to Vp I.e.xy. Then as usual project final Fv.
Draw it’s projections.
a a’
a bd c’ ’ bd
’ ’ ’ d’ b’
’ ’ c’
1

1
c’1
1

X o o o’ Y
d’ ’ d 1

d
1
1
c
a bo c a
o b c 1

1
1 1
1
a b
o1
 Solution Steps:
Problem 5: A cube of 50 mm 1.Assuming standing on Hp, begin with Tv,a square with all
long edges is so placed on Hp sides
on one corner that a body equally inclined to xy.Project Fv and name all points of FV & TV.
diagonal is 2.Draw a body-diagonal joining c’ with 3’( This can become // to
parallel to Hp and xy)
perpendicular to 3.From 1’ drop a perpendicular on this and name it p’
Vp Draw it’s projections. 4.Draw 2nd Fv in which 1’-p’ line is vertical means c’-3’
diagonal
mustabe horizontal. .Now as usual project
a’ Tv..
’
6.In final Tv draw same diagonal is perpendicular
1 to Vp as said
bd d’
in problem.
’’ d’
a bd c’ Then as usual project final1 FV.
p c’ 1
’ ’’ 3
p ’ ’
’ c’ 1

3 1 1
X 1
’ Y

c
’

1
d ’ d ’
1

b
1

1
a c a c
1 1

a
1
b b
1
Problem 6:A tetrahedron of 50 mm Solution Steps
long edges is resting on one edge on As it is resting assume it standing on Hp.
Hp while one triangular face Begin with Tv , an equilateral triangle as side case
containing this edge is vertical and 450 as shown:
inclined to Vp. Draw projections. First project base points of Fv on xy, name those &
axis line.
IMPORTANT: From a’ with TL of edge, 50 mm, cut on axis line &
Tetrahedron is mark o’
a (as axis is not known, o’ is finalized by slant edge
special type length)
of triangular Then complete Fv.
pyramid in In 2 nd Fv make face o’b’c’ vertical as said
o’ in
which o problem. o 1
And like all previous’ problems solve completely.
base sides & T ’
slant edges are L a a’
equal in length. ’ 90 1
X a b b c’ 0 b’
Solid of four Y
’c’
c’
’ ’ 45 0 1
faces. 1

c c
Like cube it is c
also 1 1

described by a o a o o
One 1 1
1

dimension only. b
1
. b b a
Axis length 1 1
 FREELY SUSPENDED SOLIDS:
Positions of CG, on axis, from base, for different solids are
shown below.

H
CG

H/ CG
2 H/
4
GROUP A SOLIDS GROUP B SOLIDS
( Cylinder & ( Cone &
Prisms) Pyramids)
 Solution Steps:
Problem 7: A pentagonal In all suspended cases axis shows inclination with Hp.
pyramid 1.Hence assuming it standing on Hp, drew Tv - a regular pentagon,
30 mm base sides & 60 mm long corner case.
axis, 2.Project Fv & locate CG position on axis – ( ¼ H from base.) and
is freely suspended from one name g’ and
corner of Join it with corner d’
base so that a plane containing 3.As 2 nd Fv, redraw first keeping line g’d’ vertical.
it’s axis 4.As usual project corresponding Tv and then Side View looking
remains parallel to Vp. from. LINE d’g’ VERTICAL
Draw it’s three views. d
o d
”
’ ’
c’e e c
’ ” ”
FOR SIDE
g’
H VIEW
ab
’ ’ a b
g’ ” ”
H/ o
IMPORTANT: b c’ e d Y
X 4 a ”
When a solid is ’ ’ ’ ’ e
e
freely 1 a
suspended from a a
d 1
corner, then line o do
1
joining point of b 1
b
contact & C.G. c c 1

remains vertical. 1
( Here axis shows
inclination with
Hp.)
So in all such
cases, assume
Solution Steps: Problem 8:
1.Assuming it standing on Hp begin with Tv, a square of
A cube of 50 mm long edges is so
corner case.
placed
2.Project corresponding Fv.& name all points as usual in
on Hp on one corner that a body
both views.
diagonal
3.Join a’1’ as body diagonal and draw 2 nd Fv making it
through this corner is
vertical (I’ on xy)
perpendicular to Hp
4.Project it’s Tv drawing dark and dotted lines as per the
and parallel to Vp Draw it’s three
procedure.
views.
5.With standard method construct Left-hand side view.
( Draw a 45 0 inclined Line in Tv region ( below xy). a’’

a
Project horizontally all points of Tv on this line and

’
reflect vertically upward, above xy.After this, draw
horizontal lines, from all points of Fv, to meet these
lines. Name points of intersections and join properly. d’’ b’’

bd
For dark & dottedalines bd c’

’’
locate observer on’ left side ’of’ Fv as shown.)

c’
c’’
X 1
1 Y
’
d ’ d 1’
1

a c a c
1 1

b b
Problem 9: A right circular This case resembles to problem no.7 & 9 from projections of planes
cone, topic.
40 mm base diameter and nd
In previous all cases 2 inclination was done by a parameter not
60 mm showing TL.Like
long axis is resting on Hp on Tv of axis is inclined to Vp etc. But here it is clearly said that the axis is
one 40 0 inclined
point of base circle such to Vp. Means here TL inclination is expected. So the same construction
that it’s done in those
axis makes 45 0 inclination Problems is done here also. See carefully o’ the final Tv and inclination
with o taken there.

o
Hp and 40 0 inclination’ with 1

’
So assuming it standing on HP begin as usual. a’
Vp. h’

a
1
b’
’
Draw it’s projections.
1

h’b
1
’ g’1 c’
c’g 1
’ f’ d’
X a hb c’ g’ f d e
45 d’f y
’
0

’ ’ ’ ’ ’ ’ e 1
e’ 1
Axis True
g g1 o1 40
’

1 Length
0
h f h1 f1
Axis Tv d1 c1
a e a1 1 e1 Length
o1 e1
Locus
f1 1 b1 of
b1 d1 Center
b d
1
c c1 g1 a1
Axis Tv h1
Length
Problem 10: A triangular prism,
40 mm base side 60 mm axis
is lying on Hp on one rectangular
face
with axis perpendicular to Vp. F.V.
One square pyramid is leaning on
it’s face
centrally with axis // to vp. It’s base
side is
30 mm & axis is 60 mm long resting X Y

y
on Hp
45

1
on one
Steps : edge of base.Draw FV & TV

)
0

Vp
of
Draw Fv of lying prism

to
45 0
both solids.Project
( an equilateral another FV
Triangle)
on an FvAVP
of a45
0
inclined to VP. T.V.

VP
And leaning

(A
pyramid.
Project Tv of both solids.
Draw x 1y1 45 0 inclined to Aux.F.
xy V.
and project aux.Fv on it.
Mark the distances of
first FV
from first xy for the
distances
of aux. Fv from x 1y1 line.
1
X

Note the observer’s

directions
Shown by arrows and
further
steps carefully.
Problem 11:A hexagonal prism of
base side 30 mm longand axis 40 mm
long,
is standing on Hp on it’s base with
one base edge // to Vp.
A tetrahedron is placed centrally
on the top of it.The base of tetrahedron is
a triangle formed by joining alternate o
corners ’
of top of prism..Draw projections of both T
STEPS:
solids. L
Draw aanregular
Project hexagon
auxiliary as Tv
Tv on AIP 45 0of
inclined
standing toprism
Hp. With one side // to
Y1
xy a d

to
b f c’ e

50
and name the top points.Project it’s ’ ’ ’ ’ ’

Hp IP 4
Fv – F

(A
)
a rectangle and name it’s top.
v
Now join it’s alternate corners
X Y Aux.Tv
a-c-e and the triangle formed is e o
base 45 0
1
of a tetrahedron as said. f e 1
f d
Locate center of this triangle 1 1
& locate apex o
Extending it’s axis line upward T a o d a c
mark apex o’ v 1 1
By cutting TL of edge of b
tetrahedron 1
b c
equal to a-c. and complete Fv
of tetrahedron. X1
Draw an AIP ( x1y1) 45 0 inclined to
xy
And project Aux.Tv on it by using
similar
Problem 12: A frustum of regular hexagonal pyramid is standing on
it’s larger base
On Hp with one base side perpendicular to Vp.Draw it’s Fv & Tv.
Project it’s Aux.Tv on an AIP parallel to one of the slant edges showing
TL.
Base side is 50 mm long , top side is 30 mm long and 50 mm is height
of frustum. F
v AIP // to slant
1’ 2’5’ Y1 edge
3’4’ Showing true
length
4 1’
i.e. a’-
5 3
T
L

1 2

X a’ b’ e’ c’ Y Aux.
d’
e d Tv
c
d e 1
T 5 1
1

v 4 X1 a b
a 1
1 1
3
2
c

b
ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS
OF
THE PRINCIPLES
OF
PROJECTIONS OF SOLIDES.

1. SECTIONS OF
SOLIDS.
2. DEVELOPMENT.
3. INTERSECTIONS.
STUDY CAREFULLY
THE ILLUSTRATIONS GIVEN ON
NEXT SIX PAGES !
 SECTIONING A SOLID. The action of cutting is
An object ( here a solid ) is cut by called
some imaginary cutting plane SECTIONING a solid
to understand internal details of &
that object. The plane of cutting is
Two cutting actions means section planes are recommended. called
SECTION PLANE.
OBSERVER
ON
A) Section Plane perpendicular to Vp and inclined to ASSUME
UPPER ECT NE
S LA V.
Hp. PART
P
IN
F
REMOVED
( This is a definition of an Aux. Inclined Plane i.e. A.I. (A
P.) )
NOTE:- This section plane appears
as a straight line in FV.

B) Section Plane perpendicular to Hp and inclined to

Vp. (B)
( This is a definition of an Aux. Vertical Plane i.e. A.V.
P.) ASSUME
LOWER SE
C
PL TON
NOTE:- This section plane appears PART
REMOVED OBSERVER
IN
AN
TV
E

as a straight line in TV.

.

Remember:-
1. After launching a section plane
 For
ILLUSTRATION SHOWING TV Fo
IMPORTANT TERMS Sh r T
IN SECTIONING. ap ru
e e

SECTION

PLANE
TRUE
SHAPE
Of SECTION
x y

Apparent
Shape
of section
SECTION
LINES
(450 to XY)

SECTIONAL T.V.
Typical Section Planes
&
Typical Shapes
Of
Sections. Triangl Section Plane Ellips
Section Through
e e
Plane Generators
Through Apex

l
abo
Par
a
Section Plane Section Plane Hyperbol
Parallel Parallel to a
to end generator. Axis.
Ellips Trapezium
e

Cylinder Sq. Pyramid

through through
generators. all slant edges
DEVELOPMENT OF SURFACES OF SOLIDS.
MEANING:-
ASSUME OBJECT HOLLOW AND MADE-UP OF THIN SHEET. CUT OPEN IT FROM ONE SIDE
AND
UNFOLD THE SHEET COMPLETELY. THEN THE SHAPE OF THAT UNFOLDED SHEET IS
CALLED
LATERLAL SURFACE
DEVELOPMENT IS THE SURFACE
OF LATERLAL EXCLUDING
SUEFACES OF THATSOLID’S TOPSOLID.
OBJECT OR & BASE.

ENGINEERING APLICATION:
THERE ARE SO MANY PRODUCTS OR OBJECTS WHICH ARE DIFFICULT TO MANUFACTURE
BY
CONVENTIONAL MANUFACTURING PROCESSES, BECAUSE OF THEIR SHAPES AND SIZES.
THOSE ARE FABRICATED IN SHEET METAL INDUSTRY BY USING
DEVELOPMENT TECHNIQUE. THERE IS A VAST RANGE OF SUCH OBJECTS.

EXAMPLES:-
Boiler Shells & chimneys, Pressure Vessels, Shovels, Trays, Boxes & Cartons, Feeding Hoppers,
Large Pipe sections, Body & Parts of automotives, Ships, Aeroplanes and many more.
WHAT IS
To learn methods of development of
OUR OBJECTIVE
surfaces of
IN THIS TOPIC ? different solids, their sections and
frustums.
1. Development is different drawing than PROJECTIONS.
But before going 2. It is a shape showing AREA, means it’s a 2-D plain drawing.
ahead, 3. Hence all dimensions of it must be TRUE dimensions.
note following 4. As it is representing shape of an un-folded sheet, no edges can
remain hidden
Important points. And hence DOTTED LINES are never shown on development.
Study illustrations given on next page
 Development of lateral surfaces of
different solids.
Cylinder: A Rectangle (Lateral surface is the surface excluding
Cone: (Sector of Pyramids : (No.of
top & base) triangles)
S
circle)
H S

L L
πD
D θ
H= Height D= base
diameter R=Base circle
Prisms: No.of Rectangles L= Slant edge.
radius. S = Edge of
R height.
θ =
L=Slant
L 0
360 base

+
H

S S H= Height S = Edge of
base Cube: Six
Squares.
Tetrahedron: Four Equilateral
Triangles

All sides
equal in
length
 FRUSTUM
DEVELOPMENT S DEVELOPMENT OF
OF FRUSTUM OF SQUARE
FRUSTUM OF PYRAMID Base
CONE side
Top
side

L L
L L
1
1
θ

R 360
θ = L 0
+

R= Base circle radius of

cone L= Slant edge of
L= Slant height of cone pyramid
L1 = Slant height of cut L1 = Slant edge of cut
part. part.

STUDY NEXT NINE PROBLEMS OF

SECTIONS & DEVELOPMENT
 Problem 1: A pentagonal prism , 30 mm base side & 50 mm axis Solution Steps:for sectional views:
is standing on Hp on it’s base whose one side is perpendicular to Vp. Draw three views of standing prism.
It is cut by a section plane 45 0 inclined to Hp, through mid point of axis. Locate sec.plane in Fv as described.
Draw Fv, sec.Tv & sec. Side view. Also draw true shape of section and Project points where edges are getting
Development of surface of remaining solid. Cut on Tv & Sv as shown in illustration.
C
Join those points in sequence and
B
show
UE E Section lines in it.
TR AP D
SH Y1 Make remaining part of solid dark.

A A B C D
E E A
c’ d c
” ”
X1 e’ b
b’ e
” ”
a’
X d’ a
” Y
e DEVELOPMEN
d T
For True Shape: a For Development:
Draw x 1y1 // to sec. plane
Draw development of entire solid. Name
Draw projectors on it from c
from
cut points.
b cut-open edge I.e. A. in sequence as shown.
Mark distances of points
Mark the cut points on respective edges.
of Sectioned part from Tv,
Join them in sequence in st. lines.
on above projectors from
Make existing parts dev.dark.
x1y1 and join in sequence.
Draw section lines in it.
It is required true shape.
Problem 2: A cone, 50 mm base diameter and 70 mm axis is Solution Steps:for sectional views:
standing on it’s base on Hp. It cut by a section plane 45 0 inclined Draw three views of standing cone.
to Hp through base end of end generator.Draw projections, Locate sec.plane in Fv as described.
sectional views, true shape of section and development of Project points where generators are
surfaces getting Cut on Tv & Sv as shown in
of remaining solid. illustration.Join those points in
sequence and show Section lines in
F
it.
O Make remaining part of solid dark.
E Y1 A
AP SECTIONAL S.
S H
E ON o V B
U I

IO
TR ECT ’

N ECT

E
S

AN
DEVELOPMEN

S
C

PL
T
D

X1 E
X a hb c’ g’ f d e Y
’ ’ ’ ’ ’ g” h”f” a”e” b”d” F
g ’ c”
For True Shape: h f G
Draw x 1y1 // to sec. plane
Draw projectors on it from For Development: H
cut points. a e
Draw development of entire solid.
Mark distances of points Name from cut-open edge i.e. A. A
of Sectioned part from Tv, in sequence as shown.Mark the
on above projectors from b d
cut points on respective edges.
x1y1 and join in sequence. c Join them in sequence in
Draw section lines in it. SECTIONAL T.V curvature. Make existing parts dev.
It is required true shape. dark.
 Problem 3: A cone 40mm diameter and 50 mm axis is resting on one generator on Hp( lying on
Hp) which is // to Vp.. Draw it’s projections.It is cut by a horizontal section plane through it’s base
center. Draw sectional TV, development of the surface of the remaining part of cone.

Follow similar solution steps for Sec.views - True shape – Development as per previous
problem!
o DEVELOPMEN
T A

’
’

a
B

’
h’b
HORIZONTAL

c’g
SECTION C

’
’ PLANE
d’f D
X a hb c’ g’ f d e o Y
’
e

’ ’ ’ ’ ’ ’ ’ O E
g g1
h f f1 h1 F

a e e1 a1 o G
O
1
H
b d d1 b1
c A
c1
SECTIONAL T.V
(SHOWING TRUE SHAPE OF
SECTION)
 Note the steps to locate Problem 4: A hexagonal prism. 30 mm base side &
Points 1, 2 , 5, 6 in sec.Fv: 55 mm axis is lying on Hp on it’s rect.face with axis
// to Vp. It is cut by a section plane normal to Hp
Those are transferred to and
a b c’ f d e 1 st TV, then to 1 st Fv and 30 0 inclined to Vp bisecting axis.
’ ’ ’ ’ ’ Then on 2 nd Fv. Draw sec. Views, true shape & development.
3
SECTIONAL F.V.
4
Use similar steps for sec.views & true shape.

a b
’ ’
NOTE: for development, always cut open object from
2 5 From an edge in the boundary of the view in which
sec.plane appears as a line.

c’ f
Here it is Tv and in boundary, there is c1 edge.

’
6
Hence
1
X Y it is opened from c and named C,D,E,F,A,B,C.

d e
’ ’
8 7
f
1,2 f
5,6 3,
8 1
e ae
a 1 1
A.V.P30 0 inclined to Vp
Through mid-point of
b d
4,7 bd axis.
1 1
AS SECTION PLANE IS IN T.V.,
c X1 c CUT OPEN FROM BOUNDRY EDGE C 1 FOR
8 DEVELOPMENT.
1 1
C D E F A B C

2 7

Y1
TR 3 6
SE UE S
CT H
IO AP
N EO
F
4 5

DEVELOPMENT
 Problem 5:A solid composed of a half-cone and half- hexagonal
3 pyramid is
UE 2 shown in figure.It is cut by a section plane 45 0 inclined to Hp,
TR APE 4
SH passing through
Y1 mid-point of axis.Draw F.v., sectional T.v.,true shape of section
5 and
1 O’ development of remaining part of the solid. Note:
6 ( take radius of cone and each sideAof hexagon Fv & TVlong
30mm 8f two solids
and
axis 70mm.) sandwiched

N
ME
B Section lines style in
7

P
both:

LO
4

VE
Development of

DE
3 ’ half cone & half pyramid:
C

T
X1 ’5 F.V.
2 6 ’ 4 2
3
’ ’

1 1 D
7
’ ’
X Y
d’e c’f g’b’ a O
’ ’f ’
E
g 7
6
e 5
SECTIONA 7 4 5 6
4
L a
TOP VIEW.
1 3 F
d 2 b G

c
A
Problem 6: Draw a semicircle 0f 100 mm diameter and inscribe in it a TO DRAW PRINCIPAL
largest VIEWS FROM GIVEN
circle.If the semicircle is development of a cone and inscribed circle is some DEVELOPMENT.
curve on it, then draw the projections of cone showing that curve.

E
D F
o R=Base circle 4
’ radius. 3 5
R height.
360 C G
θ =
L=Slant
L 0

+
1’
L 7’ 2 6
B H
6’
2’
1 7
3’ 5’ 4’
θ
X a hb c’ g’ d’f’ Y
’ ’ ’ e’ A A
O
g L
6
h f Solution Steps:
5
Draw semicircle of given diameter, divide it in 8 Parts and inscribe in
it
a 7 a largest circle as shown.Name intersecting points 1, 2, 3 etc.
o 4 e Semicircle being dev.of a cone it’s radius is slant height of cone.( L )
1
Then using above formula find R of base of cone. Using this data
draw Fv & Tv of cone and form 8 generators and name.
b 3 d Take o -1 distance from dev.,mark on TL i.e.o’a’ on Fv & bring on o’b’
2
and name 1’ Similarly locate all points on Fv. Then project all on Tv
c on respective generators and join by smooth curve.
Problem 7:Draw a semicircle 0f 100 mm diameter and inscribe in TO DRAW PRINCIPAL
it a largest VIEWS FROM GIVEN
rhombus.If the semicircle is development of a cone and rhombus DEVELOPMENT.
is some curve
on it, then draw the projections of cone showing that curve.
Solution Steps:
o Similar to
’ previous
E
D F Problem:
3
C 5 G
7
2 6
1
2’ 6’
B 4 H
3’ 5’
a h b c’ g’ f d e θ
X ’ ’ ’1’ 7’ Y
’ ’ 4’
’
g A A
O L
7 6
h f
5
R=Base circle
radius.
R height.
a
4 e θ =
L=Slant
L 0
360

+
b 3
d
2
1
c
 Problem 8: A half cone of 50 mm base diameter, 70 mm axis, is standing on it’s half base on HP
with it’s flat face
parallel and nearer to VP.An inextensible string is wound round it’s surface from one point of
base circle and
brought
TO DRAW back to the same
A CURVE ON point.If the string is of shortest length, find it and show it on the
projections of the cone.
PRINCIPAL VIEWS
FROM DEVELOPMENT. Concept: A string wound
from a point up to the same
o Point, of shortest length
’ A Must appear st. line on it’s
Development.
B
Solution steps:
Hence draw development,
1 C Name it as usual and join
A to A This is shortest
2 3 4 D Length of that string.
1 ’ ’ ’ 2 Further steps are as usual.
’ On dev. Name the points of
3
Intersections of this line with
X Y 4 E Different generators.Bring
a b c’ d e
O Those on Fv & Tv and join
’ ’ ’ e’
a o 4 by smooth curves.
Draw 4’ a’ part of string
3 dotted
1 2 As it is on back side of cone.
b d
c

A
Problem 9: A particle which is initially on base circle of a cone,
standing
on Hp, moves upwards and reaches apex in one complete turn
around the cone.
Draw it’s path on projections of cone as well as on it’s
development. It’s a construction of curve
Take base circleo diameter 50 mm and axis 70 mm long. Helix of one turn on cone:
7’ ’ DEVELOPMEN Draw Fv & Tv & dev.as usual
HELIX CURVE
6’ T On all form generators & name.
A Construction of curve Helix::
5’
4’ B Show 8 generators on both views
3’ Divide axis also in same parts.
2’ 1
Draw horizontal lines from those
1’ C points on both end generators.
2 1’ is a point where first horizontal
X Y
a hb c’ gg’ f d e D Line & gen. b’o’ intersect.
3
’ ’ ’ ’ ’ ’ 2’ is a point where second horiz.
h f O 4 E Line & gen. c’o’ intersect.
7 In this way locate all points on Fv.
6 6 5
5
7 Project all on Tv.Join in curvature.
a e F
O 4 For Development:
Then taking each points true
3 G Distance From resp.generator
b 1
2
d from apex, Mark on development
c H & join.

A
 INTERPENETRATION OF
WHEN ONE SOLIDS
SOLID PENETRATES ANOTHER SOLID THEN THEIR SURFACES
INTERSECT
AND
AT THE JUNCTION OF INTERSECTION A TYPICAL CURVE IS FORMED,
WHICH REMAINS COMMON TO BOTH SOLIDS.

THIS CURVE IS CALLED CURVE OF INTERSECTION

AND
IT IS A RESULT OF INTERPENETRATION OF SOLIDS.
PURPOSE OF DRAWING THESE CURVES:-
WHEN TWO OBJECTS ARE TO BE JOINED TOGATHER, MAXIMUM SURFACE CONTACT BETWEEN BOTH
BECOMES A BASIC REQUIREMENT FOR STRONGEST & LEAK-PROOF JOINT.
Curves of Intersections being common to both Intersecting solids,
show exact & maximum surface contact of both solids.

Study Following Illustrations Carefully.

Minimum Surface
Contact. (Maximum Surface
( Point Contact) Lines of Curves of
Contact)
Intersections. Intersections.

Square Circular Square Circular

Pipes. Pipes. Pipes.
 SOME ACTUAL OBJECTS ARE SHOWN, SHOWING CURVES OF INTERSECTIONS.

BY WHITE ARROWS.

A machine component An Industrial Dust Intersection of a

having collector. Cylindrical
two intersecting Intersection of two main and Branch Pipe.
cylindrical cylinders.
surfaces with the axis at
acute angle to each
other.

Pump lid having

Two shape of a
A Feeding Forged End
Cylindrical hexagonal Prism and
Hopper of a
surfaces. Hemi-sphere
In industry. Connecting
 FOLLOWING CASES ARE COMMON SOLUTION STEPS
SOLVED. One solid will be standing on HP
REFFER ILLUSTRATIONS
Other will penetrate
AND
NOTE THE COMMON horizontally.
CONSTRUCTION Draw three views of standing
FOR ALL solid.
1.CYLINDER TO CYLINDER2. Name views as per the
illustrations.
2.SQ.PRISM TO CYLINDER Beginning with side view draw
three
3.CONE TO CYLINDER
Views of penetrating solids also.
4.TRIANGULAR PRISM TO CYLNDER
On it’s S.V. mark number of
points
5.SQ.PRISM TO SQ.PRISM And name those(either letters
or nos.)
6.SQ.PRISM TO SQ.PRISM The points which are on
( SKEW POSITION) standard
7.SQARE PRISM TO CONE ( from top ) generators or edges of standing
solid,
8.CYLINDER TO CONE
( in S.V.) can be marked on
respective
Note: generators in Fv and Tv. And
other
Incase cone is penetrating solid Side view is not
necessary.
points from SV should be
Similarly in case of penetration from top it is
 Problem: A cylinder 50mm dia.and 70mm axis is completely CASE 1.
penetrated CYLINDER STANDING
by another of 40 mm dia.and 70 mm axis horizontally Both &
axes intersect CYLINDER
& bisect each other.2Draw projections showing curves of 1 3 PENETRATING
1 4 3 4 2
intersections.
’ ’ ’ ’ ” ” ” ”

a a
’ h ” b
b
’h’ ” ”
c’g’ g c
” ”
d’f f d
’ a ” e ”
X ’ ”
Y

1 3

2
Problem: A cylinder 50mm dia.and 70mm axis is completely CASE 2.
penetrated CYLINDER STANDING
by a square prism of 25 mm sides.and 70 mm axis, &
horizontally. Both axes SQ.PRISM
Intersect & bisect each
24
other. All
3
faces of prism are
4
equally1 3 2 PENETRATING
1
inclined to ’Hp. ’ ’ ’ ” ” ” ”
Draw projections
a showing curves of intersections.
a a
’ ’ ”

b d b
d’ b’ ” ”
’ d’
c’ c’
c
X ” Y

1 3

2
Problem: A cylinder of 80 mm diameter and 100
CASE 3.
mm axis CYLINDER STANDING
is completely penetrated by a cone of 80 mm &
diameter and CONE PENETRATING
120 mm long axis horizontally.Both axes intersect
& bisect
each other. Draw projections showing curve7 of
’
intersections. 6’
8’

1’
5’

2’
4’
3
X ’ Y

2
8

3
7

4
6
5
Problem: A sq.prism 30 mm base sides.and 70mm axis is CASE 4.
completely penetrated SQ.PRISM STANDING
by another square prism of 25 mm sides.and 70 mm axis, &
horizontally. Both axes SQ.PRISM
Intersects & bisect each other. All faces of prisms are equally PENETRATING
inclined to Vp.
Draw projections
1 showing
24 curves
3 of intersections.
4 13 2
’ ’ ’ ’ ” ” ” ”
a a a
’ ’ ”
b b d b
d’ d’ ” ”
’ ’
c’ c’
c
X ” Y
4

1 3

2
Problem: A cylinder 50mm dia.and 70mm axis is completely
penetrated
by a triangular prism of 45 mm sides.and 70 mm axis,
horizontally.
One flat face of prism is parallel to Vp and Contains axis of
cylinder.
CASE 5. CYLINDER
Draw projections STANDING
showing curves & TRIANGULAR PRISM
of intersections.
PENETRATING1 24 3 4 13 2
’ ’ ’ ’ ” ”” ”
a a a

b b
b c
c
d
e e d
e
f f f
X Y
4

1 3

2
Problem: A sq.prism 30 mm base sides.and 70mm CASE 6.
axis is SQ.PRISM STANDING
completely penetrated by another square prism of 25 &
mm side SQ.PRISM
s.and 70 mm axis, horizontally. Both axes Intersect & PENETRATING
bisect 1 24 3 1 3(30 0 SKEW
2 POSITION)
4
each other.Two faces of penetrating
’ ’ ’ prism’ are 300 ” ”” ”
inclined to Hp. a a
’ f f
Draw projections showing curves of intersections.
’ ” ”
e
e
’ ”
b
b ”
’ c’
d d c
”
X
’
30 ” Y
0
4

1 3

2
 CASE 7.
CONE STANDING & SQ.PRISM
PENETRATING
(BOTH AXES VERTICAL)
2’

1’

3’

5’

4’
6’
X a’ b’h’ c’g’ d’f’ Y
e’
g

h 8
f
9 7
1 Problem: A cone70 mm base diameter and 90
6
a 1 0
e mm axis
2
is completely penetrated by a square prism
3 5 from top
4
with it’s axis // to cone’s axis and 5 mm away
b d
from it.
c a vertical plane containing both axes is
5 mm OFF- parallel to Vp.
SET Take all faces of sq.prism equally inclined to
Problem: A vertical cone, base diameter 75 mm and axis 100 CASE 8.
mm long, CONE STANDING
is completely penetrated by a cylinder of 45 mm diameter. &
The axis of the CYLINDER PENETRATING
o Hp and Vp and intersects axis of the
cylinder is parallel to o
cone at a point ’ ”
28 mm above the base. Draw projections showing curves of
intersection.

1 1
2 82 8 1
2
,
7 3
3 3
7
4 , 64 6 4
5 5 5
X a’ b’h’ c’g’ d’f’ g” g”h” a”e” b”d” Y
e’ c”
g

h f

a e

b d

c
 ISOMETRIC TYPICAL
DRAWING
IT IS A TYPE OF PICTORIAL PROJECTION IN THIS 3-D DRAWING OF AN OBJECT,
CONDITION.
IN WHICH ALL THREE DIMENSIONS OF ALL THREE DIMENSIONAL AXES ARE
AN OBJECT ARE SHOWN IN ONE VIEW AND MENTAINED AT EQUAL INCLINATIONS
IF REQUIRED, THEIR ACTUAL SIZES CAN WITH EACH OTHER.( 120 0)
BE
MEASURED DIRECTLY FROM IT.

3-D DRAWINGS CAN BE DRAWN NOW OBSERVE BELOW GIVEN DRAWINGS.

IN NUMEROUS WAYS AS SHOWN BELOW. ONE CAN NOTE SPECIFIC INCLINATION
ALL THESE DRAWINGS MAY BE CALLED AMONG H, L & D AXES.
3-DIMENSIONAL DRAWINGS, ISO MEANS SAME, SIMILAR OR EQUAL.
OR PHOTOGRAPHIC HERE ONE CAN FIND
OR PICTORIAL DRAWINGS. EDUAL INCLINATION AMONG H, L & D AXES.
HERE NO SPECIFIC RELATION EACH IS 120 0 INCLINED WITH OTHER TWO.
AMONG H, L & D AXES IS MENTAINED. HENCE IT IS CALLED ISOMETRIC DRAWING

H
H H
PURPOSE OF ISOMETRIC DRAWING IS TO UNDERSTAND
OVERALL SHAPE, SIZE & APPEARANCE OF AN OBJECT PRIOR TO IT’S
 SOME IMPORTANT TERMS:

ISOMETRIC AXES, LINES AND PLANES:

The three lines AL, AD and AH, meeting at point A and making
1200 angles with each other are termed Isometric Axes.
A
The lines parallel to these axes are called Isometric Lines.

The planes representing the faces of of the cube as well as

other planes parallel to these planes are called Isometric Planes.
H
ISOMETRIC SCALE:
When one holds the object in such a way that all three dimensions
are visible then in the process all dimensions become proportionally
inclined to observer’s eye sight and hence appear apparent in lengths.

This reduction is 0.815 or 9 / 11 ( approx.) It forms a reducing scale which

Is used to draw isometric drawings and is called Isometric scale.

In practice, while drawing isometric projection, it is necessary to convert

true lengths into isometric lengths for measuring and marking the sizes.
This is conveniently done by constructing an isometric scale as described
on next page.
 TYPES OF ISOMETRIC
DRAWINGS

ISOMETRIC ISOMETRIC PROJECTION

Drawn by using True
VIEW Drawn by using Isometric
scale scale
( True dimensions ) ( Reduced dimensions )

D
4

H 2 C H
R UE HS 4
T GT
L EN
1 3

2
O M. S CONSTRUCTION OF ISOM.SCALE.
0 I S
G TH
1 N From point A, with line AB draw 30 0 and
LE 450 inclined lines AC & AD resp on AD.
45 Mark divisions of true length and from
0 30 0
A 0
B each division-point draw vertical lines
upto AC line.
Isometric scale [ Line AC ]
The divisions thus obtained on AC
required for Isometric give lengths on isometric scale.
Projection
1 SHAPE Isometric view if the Shape
ISOMETRIC
OF is
PLANE FIGURES H F.V. D or T.V.
RECTANGLE D
A D A L
AS THESE ALL ARE L
2-D FIGURES C D C
WE REQUIRE ONLY A
TWO ISOMETRIC AXES.
B C B B
IF THE FIGURE IS B
FRONT VIEW, H & L H
AXES ARE REQUIRED. TRIANGL 3 B
1 E L 3
B 1
L
IF THE FIGURE IS TOP A D A
VIEW, D & L AXES ARE 3
REQUIRED. 1
2 A 2 2
Shapes containing 4
Inclined lines should PENTAGO H E
be enclosed in a 1 N E
4 1 D 4
rectangle as shown. D
Then first draw isom. A D A
E
D
of that rectangle and L 1
L
3
then inscribe that 3 A C
C
shape as it is. 2 3 B B
B C 2 2
 STUDY 2
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS

DRAW ISOMETRIC VIEW OF A

CIRCLE IF IT IS A TV OR FV.

FIRST ENCLOSE IT IN A SQUARE.

IT’S ISOMETRIC IS A RHOMBUS WITH
D & L AXES FOR TOP VIEW.
THEN USE H & L AXES FOR ISOMETRIC

B
WHEN IT IS FRONT VIEW.
FOR CONSTRUCTION USE RHOMBUS
METHOD SHOWN HERE. STUDY IT.
2

C
4
A B

3 4

3
A

1
D C

D
1
 3
STUDY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
25
R
DRAW ISOMETRIC VIEW OF THE FIGURE
SHOWN WITH DIMENTIONS (ON RIGHT SIDE)
CONSIDERING IT FIRST AS F.V. AND THEN T.V.
50
MM
IF FRONT
VIEW

100
MM
IF TOP VIEW
 ISOMETRIC SHAPE IF F.V. IF T.V. 4
OF
PLANE FIGURES HEXAGO
N

AS THESE ALL ARE

2-D FIGURES
WE REQUIRE ONLY
TWO ISOMETRIC
AXES. CIRCLE

IF THE FIGURE IS
FRONT VIEW, H & L
AXES ARE REQUIRED.

IF THE FIGURE IS
TOP VIEW, D & L For Isometric of Circle/Semicircle use Rhombus method.
AXES ARE REQUIRED. Construct Rhombus
of sides equal to Diameter of circle always. ( Ref. topic ENGG.
SEMI
CURVES.)
For Isometric of CIRCLE
Circle/Semicircle
use Rhombus method.
Construct it of sides
equal
to diameter of circle
 5
STUDY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS ISOMETRIC VIEW OF
PENTAGONAL PYRAMID
STANDING ON H.P.
(Height is added from center of
pentagon)
ISOMETRIC VIEW OF BASE OF
PENTAGONAL PYRAMID
STANDING ON H.P.

4
4
D
D E
E
D L D
L
1 3 1 3
A C
A C
B
2
B
2
 6
STUDY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
ISOMETRIC VIEW OF
PENTAGONALL
PRISM
LYING ON H.P.

4
H E
1 D

A
L
3
C
B
2
ISOMETRIC VIEW OF
HEXAGONAL
PRISM
STANDING ON H.P.
 7
STUDY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
CYLINDER STANDING ON H.
P.

CYLINDER LYING ON H.
P.
 8
STUDY
Z HALF CYLINDER
ILLUSTRATIONS
STANDING ON H.P.
( ON IT’S SEMICIRCULAR
BASE)

HALF CYLINDER
LYING ON H.P.
( with flat face // to
H.P.)
 9
ISOMETRIC VIEW OF
STUDY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
A FRUSTOM OF SQUARE PYRAMID
STANDING ON H.P. ON IT’S LARGER
BASE.

6
0 F
V

X Y

4 2
0 0

TV
 1
STUDY
0
ILLUSTRATION

PROJECTIONS OF FRUSTOM OF ISOMETRIC VIEW

PENTAGONAL PYRAMID ARE GIVEN. OF
FRUSTOM OF PENTAGONAL PYRAMID
DRAW IT’S ISOMETRIC VIEW.

SOLUTION STEPS:
6 6
F 0 0
FIRST DRAW ISOMETRIC

2
V

0
OF IT’S BASE.

x y THEN DRAWSAME SHAPE

AS TOP, 60 MM ABOVE THE
E
1 4 BASE PENTAGON CENTER.
A
THEN REDUCE THE TOP TO
20 MM SIDES AND JOIN WITH
T 4 2 D THE PROPER BASE CORNERS.
V 0 0

4
2

0
3
C
 ISOMETRIC VIEW OF 1
STUDY A FRUSTOM OF CONE 1
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS STANDING ON H.P. ON IT’S LARGER
BASE.

6
0 F
V

X Y

4 2
0 0

TV
 1
PROBLEM: A SQUARE PYRAMID OF 30 MM BASE SIDES AND
STUDY 50 MM LONG AXIS, IS CENTRALLY PLACED ON THE TOP OF A
2
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS CUBE OF 50 MM LONG EDGES.DRAW ISOMETRIC VIEW OF THE PAIR.

5
0

3
0

5
0
 1
STUDY 3
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS

c
PROBLEM: A TRIANGULAR PYRAMID
OF 30 MM BASE SIDES AND 50 MM a
LONG AXIS, IS CENTRALLY PLACED o
ON THE TOP OF A CUBE OF 50 MM p a
LONG EDGES. b
DRAW ISOMETRIC VIEW OF THE PAIR.
o c
p

SOLUTION HINTS.
TO DRAW ISOMETRIC OF A CUBE IS SIMPLE. DRAW IT AS USUAL.

BUT FOR PYRAMID AS IT’S BASE IS AN EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE,

IT CAN NOT BE DRAWN DIRECTLY.SUPPORT OF IT’S TV IS REQUIRED.

SO DRAW TRIANGLE AS A TV, SEPARATELY AND NAME VARIOUS POINTS AS SHOWN.

AFTER THIS PLACE IT ON THE TOP OF CUBE AS SHOWN.
THEN ADD HEIGHT FROM IT’S CENTER AND COMPLETE IT’S ISOMETRIC AS
SHOWN.
 1
STUDY PROBLEM: 4
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
A SQUARE PLATE IS PIERCED THROUGH CENTRALLY
BY A CYLINDER WHICH COMES OUT EQUALLY FROM BOTH FACES
OF PLATE. IT’S FV & TV ARE SHOWN. DRAW ISOMETRIC VIEW.

F 3
V 0
1
0
3
0

30
D

5 +
0

5
0
TV
 1
STUDY PROBLEM: 5
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS A CIRCULAR PLATE IS PIERCED THROUGH CENTRALLY
BY A SQUARE PYRAMID WHICH COMES OUT EQUALLY FROM BOTH FACES
OF PLATE. IT’S FV & TV ARE SHOWN. DRAW ISOMETRIC VIEW.

F 3
V 0

1
0

3
0

40
SQUARE

60
TV
D
 1
STUDY 6
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
F.V. & T.V. of an object are given. Draw it’s isometric view.

1
0

2
0 4
0

F
V

4
0
X Y

TV

50 30
D D
 STUDY 1
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS ISOMETRIC PROJECTIONS OF SPHERE & HEMISPHERE
7

45 r
R 0

n
r 30 R r

io
ct
0

Di o-
r

re
Is
Isom.
Scale P

C
r r
R C
R TO DRAW ISOMETRIC PROJECTION
R OF A HEMISPHERE
P r
P Adopt same procedure.
C = Center of Sphere. Draw lower semicircle only.
Then around ‘C’ construct
P = Point of contact Rhombus of Sides equal
R = True Radius of to
Sphere Isometric Diameter.
For this use iso-scale.
r = Isometric Radius. TO DRAW ISOMETRIC PROJECTION OF A SPHERE Then construct ellipse in
1. FIRST DRAW ISOMETRIC OF SQUARE PLATE. this Rhombus as usual
2. LOCATE IT’S CENTER. NAME IT P. And Complete
3. FROM PDRAW VERTICAL LINE UPWARD, LENGTH ‘ r mm’ Isometric-Projection
AND LOCATE CENTER OF SPHERE “C” of Hemi-sphere.
4. ‘C’ AS CENTER, WITH RADIUS ‘R’ DRAW CIRCLE.
THIS IS ISOMETRIC PROJECTION OF A SPHERE.
 1
PROBLEM:
8 STUDY
A HEMI-SPHERE IS CENTRALLY PLACED
ON THE TOP OF A FRUSTOM OF CONE. Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
DRAW ISOMETRIC PROJECTIONS OF THE
ASSEMBLY.

r
50
D R r
30
D
r
5
0
P

50
D
FIRST CONSTRUCT ISOMETRIC SCALE.
USE THIS SCALE FOR ALL
DIMENSIONS
IN THIS PROBLEM.

45
R 0

r 30
0
 1
STUDY A SQUARE PYRAMID OF 40 MM BASE SIDES AND 60 MM AXIS 9
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
IS CUT BY AN INCLINED SECTION PLANE THROUGH THE MID POINT
OF AXIS AS SHOWN.DRAW ISOMETRIC VIEW OF SECTION OF PYRAMID.

3’ 4’

3 1’2’

X Y
1 a d
1
4

2
o

3
b 2 c
 2
0
STUDY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
F.V. & T.V. of an object are given. Draw it’s isometric view.

5
0

O
X Y

2
0

2
5

O
2 2
5 0
 2
STUDY 1
F.V. & T.V. of an object are given. Draw it’s isometric view.
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS

3
F 5
V

3
5
1
x 0
y
O

1 2 3
0 0 0

4
0
7
0
TV
O
 2
STUDY 2
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
F.V. & T.V. and S.V.of an object are given. Draw it’s isometric view.

F
V
3 1 3 S
0 0 0 V
3
0

1
0
3
0
x y

ALL VIEWS
TV IDENTICAL
 2
STUDY 4
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
F.V. & T.V. and S.V.of an object are given. Draw it’s isometric view.

ALL VIEWS
IDENTICAL
F S
V V

x y

1
0 4 6
0 0

4
0 TV
6
0
 2
STUDY F.V. & T.V. and S.V.of an object are given. Draw it’s isometric view. 5
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
ALL VIEWS
IDENTICAL
F S
V V

x y
1
0

4 6
0 0

4 TV
0
6
0
2
6 STUDY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
F.V. & T.V. and S.V.of an object are given. Draw it’s isometric view.

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

FRONT L.H.SIDE
VIEW VIEW
2
0
2
0
2
x 0 y
O 5
0
2
0

3
0
O
2 2 2
0 0 0
TOP
VIEW
 2
STUDY 7
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
F.V. and S.V.of an object are given.
Draw it’s isometric view.

30
SQUARE
4 2
0 0

5
0

2
1 0
0
O 3
60
F.V. 0
S.
V.
O
 2
STUDY 8
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
F.V. & T.V. of an object are given. Draw it’s isometric view.

FV
4
0

1
O 0
30 4
D 5

1
5
0
0
O

8
0
TV
 2
STUDY F.V. & T.V. of an object are given. Draw it’s isometric view. 9
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS

4
F
0
V
X O 1 Y
0
10
1 0
0 2
5
TV
1 3 1
0 2
0 0
5
30 O
R 20
D
 3
STUDY F.V. & T.V. of an object are given. Draw it’s isometric view. 0
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS

3
0

F
V RECT.
SLOT

1 5
3 0 0
5

1
X 0 Y
O
20
D

TV

60
D 30
D
O
 3
STUDY 1
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
F.V. and S.V.of an object are given. Draw it’s isometric view.

1
0

2 1
5 5

2
4 5
1
0 0
2
5

2
5
O O
8 2
0 5
F.V. S.
V.
 3
STUDY F.V. & T.V. of an object are given. Draw it’s isometric view. 2
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS

45
0

3
0 F
V

4
0

X Y
O
30
D

4 T
0 V

1
4 5
O 0
 3
STUDY 3
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
F.V. and S.V.of an object are given.
Draw it’s isometric view.

HEX
PART
3
2
0
0
2
0
4
0 2
0
O 5
2 0
0 1
5
O 3
10 06
0 0
 3
STUDY F.V. & T.V. of an object are given. Draw it’s isometric view. 4
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
2 4
0 0

F.V.
3
0

1
X 0 Y
O

1
0

3
0
1
0
3
0
O 8
0
T.V.
 F.V. and S.V.of an object are given. 3
Draw it’s isometric view. 5

STUDY
1
0
1
0
1
5 Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
2
5

2
X 5 Y
O 5 1
F 0 0
LSV
V

3
6
NOTE THE SMALL CHZNGE IN 2 ND FV & SV.

DRAW ISOMETRIC ACCORDINGLY.

1
0

X Y
O F LSV
V
 3
STUDY 7
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS

F.V. and S.V.of an object are given.

Draw it’s isometric view.

3 2 1 2
0 0 0 0
1
1 5
0
1
5
O
1
3 5
0
1
X5 O Y
5
0
F.V. LEFT S.
V.
 3
STUDY 8
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
F.V. and S.V.of an object are given.
Draw it’s isometric view.

3 1
0 0

6
0

3
O 0

O 4 4
0 0
F.V. S.
V.
 EXERCISES:

PROJECTIONS OF STRAIGHT LINES

1. A line AB is in first quadrant. Its ends A and B are 25mm and 65mm in
front of VP respectively. The distance between the end projectors is 75mm.
The line is inclined at 30 0 to VP and its VT is 10mm above HP. Draw the
projections of AB and determine its true length and HT and inclination with
HP.
2. A line AB measures 100mm. The projections through its VT and end A are
50mm apart. The point A is 35mm above HP and 25mm in front VP. The VT is
15mm above HP. Draw the projections of line and determine its HT and
Inclinations with HP and VP.
3. Draw the three views of line AB, 80mm long, when it is lying in profile
plane and inclined at 350 to HP. Its end A is in HP and 20mm in front of VP,
while other end B is in first quadrant. Determine also its traces.
4. A line AB 75 mm long, has its one end A in VP and other end B 15mm above
HP and 50mm in front of VP. Draw the projections of line when sum of
inclinations with HP and VP is 900 . Determine the true angles of inclination
and show traces.
5. A line AB is 75mm long and lies in an auxiliary inclined plane (AIP) which
makes an angle of 45 0 with the HP. The front view of the line measures 55mm.
The end A is in VP and 20mm above HP. Draw the projections of the line AB
and find its inclination with HP and VP.
6. Line AB lies in an AVP 50 0 inclined to Vp while line is 30 0 inclined to Hp.
APPLICATIONS OF LINES
Room , compound wall cases
7) A room measures 8m x 5m x4m high. An electric point hang in the center of
ceiling and 1m below it. A thin straight wire connects the point to the switch in
one of the corners of the room and 2m above the floor. Draw the projections of the
and its length and slope angle with the floor.
8) A room is of size 6m\5m\3.5m high. Determine graphically the real distance
between the top corner and its diagonally apposite bottom corners. consider
appropriate scale
9) Two pegs A and B are fixed in each of the two adjacent side walls of the
rectangular room 3m x 4m sides. Peg A is 1.5m above the floor, 1.2m from the
longer side wall and is protruding 0.3m from the wall. Peg B is 2m above the floor,
1m from other side wall and protruding 0.2m from the wall. Find the distance
between the ends of the two pegs. Also find the height of the roof if the shortest
distance between peg A and and center of the ceiling is 5m.
10) Two fan motors hang from the ceiling of a hall 12m x 5m x 8m high at heights
of 4m and 6m respectively. Determine graphically the distance between the
motors. Also find the distance of each motor from the top corner joining end and
front wall.
11) Two mangos on a two tree are 2m and 3m above the ground level and 1.5m
and 2.5m from a 0.25m thick wall but on apposite sides of it. Distances being
measured from the center line of the wall. The distance between the apples,
measured along ground and parallel to the wall is 3m. Determine the real distance
between the ranges.
POLES,ROADS, PIPE LINES,, NORTH- EAST-SOUTH WEST, SLOPE AND GRADIENT CASES.
12)Three vertical poles AB, CD and EF are lying along the corners of equilateral triangle
lying on the ground of 100mm sides. Their lengths are 5m, 8m and 12m respectively.
Draw their projections and find real distance between their top ends.
13) A straight road going up hill from a point A due east to another point B is 4km long
and has a slop of 25 0 . Another straight road from B due 30 0 east of north to a point C is
also 4 kms long but going downward and has slope of 15 0 . Find the length and slope of
the straight road connecting A and C.
14) An electric transmission line laid along an uphill from the hydroelectric power
station due west to a substation is 2km long and has a slop of 300 . Another line from the
substation, running W 45 0 N to village, is 4km long and laid on the ground level.
Determine the length and slope of the proposed telephone line joining the the power
station and village.
15) Two wire ropes are attached to the top corner of a 15m high building. The other end
of one wire rope is attached to the top of the vertical pole 5m high and the rope makes
an angle of depression of 45 0 . The rope makes 300 angle of depression and is attached to
the top of a 2m high pole. The pole in the top view are 2m apart. Draw the projections
of the wire ropes.
16) Two hill tops A and B are 90m and 60m above the ground level respectively. They
are observed from the point C, 20m above the ground. From C angles and elevations for
A and B are 45 0 and 30 0 respectively. From B angle of elevation of A is 450 . Determine
the two distances between A, B and C.
PROJECTIONS OF PLANES:-
1. A thin regular pentagon of 30mm sides has one side // to Hp and 30 0 inclined to Vp while its
surface is 450 inclines to Hp. Draw its projections.
2. A circle of 50mm diameter has end A of diameter AB in Hp and AB diameter 300 inclined to
Hp. Draw its projections if
a) the TV of same diameter is 450 inclined to Vp, OR b) Diameter AB is in profile plane.
3. A thin triangle PQR has sides PQ = 60mm. QR = 80mm. and RP = 50mm. long respectively. Side
PQ rest on ground and makes 30 0 with Vp. Point P is 30mm in front of Vp and R is 40mm above
ground. Draw its projections.
4. An isosceles triangle having base 60mm long and altitude 80mm long appears as an
equilateral triangle of 60mm sides with one side 30 0 inclined to XY in top view. Draw its
projections.
5. A 30 0-60 0 set-square of 40mm long shortest side in Hp appears is an isosceles triangle in its TV.
Draw projections of it and find its inclination with Hp.
6. A rhombus of 60mm and 40mm long diagonals is so placed on Hp that in TV it appears as a
square of 40mm long diagonals. Draw its FV.
7. Draw projections of a circle 40 mm diameter resting on Hp on a point A on the circumference
with its surface 30 0 inclined to Hp and 45 0 to Vp.
8. A top view of plane figure whose surface is perpendicular to Vp and 60 0 inclined to Hp is regular
hexagon of 30mm sides with one side 30 0 inclined to xy.Determine it’s true shape.
9. Draw a rectangular abcd of side 50mm and 30mm with longer 35 0 with XY, representing TV of a
quadrilateral plane ABCD. The point A and B are 25 and 50mm above Hp respectively. Draw
a suitable Fv and determine its true shape.
10.Draw a pentagon abcde having side 50 0 to XY, with the side ab =30mm, bc = 60mm, cd =50mm, de
= 25mm and angles abc 1200, cde 1250. A figure is a TV of a plane whose ends A,B and E are 15, 25
and 35mm above Hp respectively. Complete the projections and determine the true shape of the
plane figure.0
PROJECTIONS OF SOLIDS
1. Draw the projections of a square prism of 25mm sides base and 50mm long axis.
The prism is resting with one of its corners in VP and axis inclined at 30 0 to VP and
parallel to HP.
2. A pentagonal pyramid, base 40mm side and height 75mm rests on one edge on its
base on the ground so that the highest point in the base is 25mm. above ground.
Draw the projections when the axis is parallel to Vp. Draw an another front view on
an AVP inclined at 30 0 to edge on which it is resting so that the base is visible.
3. A square pyramid of side 30mm and axis 60 mm long has one of its slant edges
inclined at 450 to HP and a plane containing that slant edge and axis is inclined at 30 0
to VP. Draw the projections.
4. A hexagonal prism, base 30mm sides and axis 75mm long, has an edge of the base
parallel to the HP and inclined at 45 0 to the VP. Its axis makes an angle of 60 0 with the
HP. Draw its projections. Draw another top view on an auxiliary plane inclined at 50 0
to the HP.
5. Draw the three views of a cone having base 50 mm diameter and axis 60mm long
It is resting on a ground on a point of its base circle. The axis is inclined at 40 0 to
ground and at 30 0 to VP.
6. Draw the projections of a square prism resting on an edge of base on HP. The axis
makes an angle of 30 0 with VP and 45 0 with HP. Take edge of base 25mm and axis
length as 125mm.
7. A right pentagonal prism is suspended from one of its corners of base. Draw the
projections (three views) when the edge of base apposite to the point of suspension
0
 CASES OF COMPOSITE
9SOLIDS.
. A cube of 40mm long edges is resting on the ground with its vertical faces
equally inclined to the VP. A right circular cone base 25mm diameter and height
50mm is placed centrally on the top of the cube so that their axis are in a straight
line. Draw the front and top views of the solids. Project another top view on an
AIP making 45 0 with the HP
10.A square bar of 30mm base side and 100mm long is pushed through the center
of a cylindrical block of 30mm thickness and 70mm diameter, so that the bar
comes out equally through the block on either side. Draw the front view, top view
and side view of the solid when the axis of the bar is inclined at 30 0 to HP and
parallel to VP, the sides of a bar being 45 0 to VP.
11.A cube of 50mm long edges is resting on the ground with its vertical faces
equally inclined to VP. A hexagonal pyramid , base 25mm side and axis 50mm long,
is placed centrally on the top of the cube so that their axes are in a straight line
and two edges of its base are parallel to VP. Draw the front view and the top view
of the solids, project another top view on an AIP making an angle of 45 0 with the
HP.
12.A circular block, 75mm diameter and 25mm thick is pierced centrally through
its flat faces by a square prism of 35mm base sides and 125mm long axis, which
comes out equally on both sides of the block. Draw the projections of the solids
when the combined axis is parallel to HP and inclined at 30 0 to VP, and a face of
the prism makes an angle of 30 0 with HP. Draw side view also.
 SECTION &
DEVELOPMENT
1) A square pyramid of 30mm base sides and 50mm long axis is resting on its base in HP. Edges of
base is equally inclined to VP. It is cut by section plane perpendicular to VP and inclined at 450 to HP.
The plane cuts the axis at 10mm above the base. Draw the projections of the solid and show its
development.
2) A hexagonal pyramid, edge of base 30mm and axis 75mm, is resting on its edge on HP which is
perpendicular toVP. The axis makes an angle of 300to HP. the solid is cut by a section plane
perpendicular to both HP and VP, and passing through the mid point of the axis. Draw the projections
showing the sectional view, true shape of section and development of surface of a cut pyramid
containing apex.
3) A cone of base diameter 60mm and axis 80mm, long has one of its generators in VP and parallel to
HP. It is cut by a section plane perpendicular HP and parallel to VP. Draw the sectional FV, true shape
of section and develop the lateral surface of the cone containing the apex.
4) A cube of 50mm long slid diagonal rest on ground on one of its corners so that the solid diagonal is
vertical and an edge through that corner is parallel to VP. A horizontal section plane passing through
midpoint of vertical solid diagonal cuts the cube. Draw the front view of the sectional top view and
development of surface.
5) A vertical cylinder cut by a section plane perpendicular to VP and inclined to HP in such a way that
the true shape of a section is an ellipse with 50mm and 80mm as its minor and major axes. The
smallest generator on the cylinder is 20mm long after it is cut by a section plane. Draw the
projections and show the true shape of the section. Also find the inclination of the section plane with
HP. Draw the development of the lower half of the cylinder.
6) A cube of 75mm long edges has its vertical faces equally inclined to VP. It is cut by a section plane
perpendicular to VP such that the true shape of section is regular hexagon. Determine the inclination
of cutting plane with HP.Draw the sectional top view and true shape of section.
7) The pyramidal portion of a half pyramidal and half conical solid has a base ofthree sides, each
30mm long. The length of axis is 80mm. The solid rest on its base with the side of the pyramid base
8) A hexagonal pyramid having edge to edge distance 40mm and height 60mm has its base in
HP and an edge of base perpendicular to VP. It is cut by a section plane, perpendicular to VP
and passing through a point on the axis 10mm from the base. Draw three views of solid when
it is resting on its cut face in HP, resting the larger part of the pyramid. Also draw the lateral
surface development of the pyramid.
9) A cone diameter of base 50mm and axis 60mm long is resting on its base on ground. It is
cut by a section plane perpendicular to VP in such a way that the true shape of a section is a
parabola having base 40mm. Draw three views showing section, true shape of section and
development of remaining surface of cone removing its apex.
10) A hexagonal pyramid, base 50mm side and axis 100mm long is lying on ground on one of
its triangular faces with axis parallel to VP. A vertical section plane, the HT of which makes
an angle of 300 with the reference line passes through center of base, the apex being retained.
Draw the top view, sectional front view and the development of surface of the cut pyramid
containing apex.
11) Hexagonal pyramid of 40mm base side and height 80mm is resting on its base on ground.
It is cut by a section plane parallel to HP and passing through a point on the axis 25mm from
the apex. Draw the projections of the cut pyramid. A particle P, initially at the mid point of
edge of base, starts moving over the surface and reaches the mid point of apposite edge of
the top face. Draw the development of the cut pyramid and show the shortest path of particle
P. Also show the path in front and top views
12) A cube of 65 mm long edges has its vertical face equally inclined to the VP. It is cut by a
section plane, perpendicular to VP, so that the true shape of the section is a regular hexagon,
Determine the inclination of the cutting plane with the HP and draw the sectional top view
and true shape of the section.
 PROBLEM 14:-Two objects, a flower (A) and an orange (B) are within a rectangular compound
wall,
whose P & Q are walls meeting at 90 0. Flower A is 1.5M & 1 M from walls P & Q respectively.
Orange B is 3.5M & 5.5M from walls P & Q respectively. Drawing projection, find distance between
them If flower is 1.5 M and orange is 3.5 M above the ground. Consider suitable scale..
b b’
’
1

3,5 TL wer)
s
M a (an
’
1.5
x M y
Wall B Wall
P P
1.5
M a
3.6
1
M
M A
Wall
b Q
5.5
Wall M F.V.
Q
PROBLEM 15 :- Two mangos on a tree A & B are 1.5 m and 3.00 m above ground
and those are 1.2 m & 1.5 m from a 0.3 m thick wall but on opposite sides of it.
If the distance measured between them along the ground and parallel to wall is 2.6
m,
Then find real distance between them by drawing their projections.

T
b b1 V
’ ’
B
3.00
m
a
’
1.5 A
m 0.3M
WAL
(GL L THICK
X Y
)
b
0.3 1.5
m
m
Wall FV
thickness
1. 2
m
a
2.6
m
REAL DISTANCE
BETWEEN
MANGOS A & B IS = a’ b 1’
 PROBLEM 16 :-
oa, ob & oc are three lines, 25mm, 45mm and
T
65mm
v
long respectively.All equally inclined and the
shortest
is vertical.This fig. is TV of three rods OA, OB and
OC O
whose ends A,B & C are on ground and end O is
100mm o
above ground. Draw their ’ projections and find C
length of
each along with their angles with ground. A

TL TL
10
0
TL

2 1
3

F
b1 b a a1 c’ c1 v
x y
’ ’ ’ ’ ’
a B
2
5

o Answers:
4 6 TL 1 TL 2 & TL 3
b 5
5
c
 PROBLEM 17:- A pipe line from point A has a downward gradient 1:5 and it runs due South -
East.
Another Point B is 12 M from A and due East of A and in same level of A. Pipe line from B runs
15 0 Due East of South and meets pipe line from A at point C.
Draw projections and find length of pipe line from B and it’s inclination with ground.

12
a 5 m b
Do
’ 1 ’ w
1:5 nwar 5
TL d Gra
d ien 1
F an ( t
sw
er)
V
N
A 12
c c’1 c’2 M
B E
x ’ y
N

W b
a 45 EAS
0
T
C
15
0

T S
V
TL ( answer) = a’ c’ 2
c D
E A UE
ST SO = Inclination of pipe line
U TH
- BC

SOUT
H
PROBLEM 18: A person observes two objects, A & B, on the ground, from a tower, 15 M high,
At the angles of depression 30 0 & 45 0. Object A is is due North-West direction of observer
and
object B is due West direction. Draw projections of situation and find distance of objects
from o
observer and from tower also. ’
30
45 0
0

15
M O
a’1 a b 30
0
’ ’ 45
0

a N

N
W E A
b o S
Answers: B
Distances of
objects W
from observe
o’a’1 & o’b’ S
From tower
oa & ob
 PROBLEM 19:-Guy ropes of two poles fixed at 4.5m and 7.5 m above ground,
are attached to a corner of a building 15 M high, make 30 0 and 450 inclinations
with ground respectively.The poles are 10 M apart. Determine by drawing their

projections,Length of each rope and distance of poles from building.

c 1’ c c’2 T
’
V
C
30 0
b
a ’ 15
45 0 M
’ 15
7.5 M
4.5 M
M 30
A 0
4.5
M 45
12 0
M B
a b F
10
V M
7.5
M

c
Answers:
Length of Rope BC=
b’c’ 2
Length of Rope AC=
a’c’ 1
Distances of poles from building = ca & cb
PROBLEM 20:- A tank of 4 M height is to be strengthened by four stay rods from each
corner
by fixing their other ends to the flooring, at a point 1.2 M and 0.7 M from two adjacent
walls respectively,
as shown. Determine graphically length and angle of each rod with flooring.
F
V a
’

T
True Length
V
Answers:
Length of each rod
= a’b’ 1
Angle with Hp.
A
=
X b’ 1 Y
b
’ 4
M
a
B 1.2
M

0.
0.7

7
M
M
b F
1.2
V
M

T
V
PROBLEM 21:- A horizontal wooden platform 2 M long and 1.5 M wide is supported by four
chains
from it’s corners and chains are attached to a hook 5 M above the center of the platform.
Draw projections of the objects and determine length of each chain along with it’s inclination
with ground. h
’

T
H V Hoo
T 5 k
L M

5
d’1
M
x a’d b’c y (GL
’ ’ )

d c
D
1.5
h M
A C
a b
2 2 M
Answers: M M 1 .5
Length of each FV
chain B
= a’d’ 1
Angle with Hp.
=
 PROBLEM 22.
A room is of size 6.5m L ,5m D,3.5m high.
An electric bulb hangs 1m below the center of ceiling.
A switch is placed in one of the corners of the room, 1.5m above the flooring.
Draw the projections an determine real distance between the bulb and switch.

6.5 Ceilin
m g
T
1 b b’ V
Bul
m ’ 1 b Side
3.5 Front wall
m a wall
’
1. H
x 5 y Switc
h
a
L D

Obser
v
er
5 b
m
B- Bulb
A-Switch
Answer :- a’
b’ 1
PROBLEM 23:-
A PICTURE FRAME 2 M WIDE AND 1 M TALL IS RESTING ON HORIZONTAL WALL RAILING
MAKES 35 0 INCLINATION WITH WALL. IT IS ATTAACHED TO A HOOK IN THE WALL BY TWO STRINGS.
THE HOOK IS 1.5 M ABOVE WALL RAILING. DETERMINE LENGTH OF EACH CHAIN AND TRUE ANGLE BETWEEN THEM

h
’ T
(chains V
)

a’b 1.5
’ M A 35 0
1.5
M
1 B
M 1
M

c’d (wall D
’ railing) FV
X Y
a1 a 2
d M C Wall
(frame railing
)

(chains
) Answers:
Length of each chain= hb 1
b1 b True angle between chains
=
c