LABORATORY REPORTS

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL SCIENCES,

IISER BERHAMPUR

BY

ADITYA PRASAD DASH

ROLL NO-16002
VI SEMESTER
BS-MS DUAL DEGREE
IISER BERHAMPUR
 X RAY DIFFRACTION

Abstract

From their time of dicovery in 1895 by William Rontgen, X Rays have been a topic of extensive
study and and have been used fot various applications such as X Ray Crystallography, radiography,
etc. One of the major features of Xrays are their propagation through different materials which have
been used to study the different regions in a material by passing X Rays through them and
observing the resulting intensity variations in the transimitted beam. In this experiment, we studied
the attenuation of X Rays through a material by varying its nature and thickness.

Theoretical Background

X Rays had been observed by different scientists working on cathode ray tubes as a radiation caused
by the acceleration of the electrons in the tube to such high velocities that they produced Xrays
upon striking the anode or the glass walls. However, Xrays were first formally discovered by
Rongten in 1895 who also discovered its differential propagation in materials with different
desnsities. It won him the first Nobel Prize in physics.

X Rays are a type of electromagnetic radiation having wavelengths in the range of 0.01 to 10nm.
The X-rays having photon energies of greater than 5-10KeV are called hard X-rays whereas those
having energies less than it are called soft Xrays.They can penetrate through visually opaque
objects and are thus extensively used to study these kind of materials including inside of human
body.

Production- X rays are produced when a charged particle of sufficiently high kinetic energy
decelarates and thus give of radiation with energy sufficient for Xrays. Normally they are produced
in Xray tubes in which there is a source of electrons and the electrons are accelerated through a
potential and are made to hit the anode through which its kinetic energy is converted to Xray
radiation.

The rays coming from the target show a characteristic pattern depending on the tube voltage. The
smooth lines are called the continuous spectrum and they are caused as after an electron hits the
energy can also get converted to heat thus increasing the wavelength of the emitted radiation. The
minium wavelength of the radiation(short wavelength limit) occurs when the entire kinetic energy is
converted to Xray ie

which implies

However, sometimes there is a sharp peak in the intensity called the characteristic spectrum. These
are caused when the incident electron from a particular shell. Then another electron from the outer
shell would take its place emitting radiation corresponding to the difference of energy between the
shells. However, the K lines are most useful for diffraction experiments and they require the
incident electron to be of sufficient KE to knock out electron from K shell. Thus K lines cannot
form withour the accompanying L,M etc lines accompanying it. For a K-line the intensity is
approximately given by

where B is a constant, i is the tube current, Vk is the K excitation volatage and n is a constant about
1.5.

However, the wavelength of any particular line

decreases and the atomic number of the emitter
increases, in particular Moseley’s law states that

where v is the line frequency, Z is the atomic number and C and sigma are constants.

When a Xray beam falls on a material, part of it changes direction due to elastic scattering(no
change in wavelength) and inelastic scattering(causes a change in the wavelength). However, in
absorption, the entire energy is transferred to the material as excitation or ionisation energy. Thus
the energy of the incident beam is attenuated. As established by Roengten, the fractional decrease in
intensity is directly proportional to the distance traversed within the material

and thus

= a constant called the linear absorption coefficient

However, the absorption coefficient is proportional to the density of the material and is independent
of its physical state. Thus the equation is written in a more convenient form as

where rho is the density and mu/rho is called the mass absorption coefficient and is constant for a
material.
 [3]
Of Lead
Of Nickel [3]
However, the mass absorption coefficient varies with the wavelength of the radiation. Normally, it
decreases with decreasing wavelength as more energetic rays can penetrate the material more
easily.But, when the wavelength where matches the energy of electrons in a given shell, the
radiation can knock out an electron from that shell and there is a sharp increase in absorption. This
is called the absorption edge(eg. K absorption edge, L absorption edge etc.) Further decrease in
wavelength decreases the absorption as in the previous case. Thus by studying this dependence the
energy level diagram of an atom can be constructed and its characteristic wavelengths can be
determined.

Filters
X Ray diffraction experiments require radiation
which is as monochromatic as possible. However, if
the Xray tube is operated at a voltage above V k, then
there will be peaks at K-alpha and K-beta lines and
thus the radiation will be mostly composed of two
wavelengths corresponding to these. But if we pass
this radiation through a material having K-absorption
edge between the K-alpha and K-beta wavelengths, it
will absorb the K-beta wavelength much more and
thus the transmitted radiation will be composed
mostly of K-alpha radiation. Thus, this can
effectively act as a filter material.

Experimental Setup and Procedure

a=collimator mount
b=sensor holder
c=ribbon cable
d=guide rods
e=sensor seat
f=set of absorbers
 g=target holder

The experiment was carried out using the setup as shown in the figure. The collimator was mounted
on the collimator mount(a). The goniometer was attached to the guide rods and the ribbon cable was
connected to it. The protective cap of the end window counter was removed. The target holder was
demounted and again placed after attaching the set of absorbers. The set of absorbers were placed in
the set one below another at 10 degree angular separation. The angular separation and time of
experiment were set in the instrument and which displayed the counting rate from which the
transmittance was calculated.

Procedure
1. The collimator was mounted in the collimator mount.
2. The Goniometer was attached to the guide rods (d) and the ribbon cable (c) was connected
for controlling the goniometer.
3. The protective cap of the end-window counter was removed, the end-window counter was
placed in the sensor seat (e) and the counter tube cable was connected to the socket in the
experiment chamber marked GM TUBE.
4. The target holder (g) of the goniometer was demounted and the target stage was removed
from the holder.
5. The guide edge of the set of absorbers I (f) was placed in the curved groove of the target
holder and carefully was slided it into the target holder.
6. The tube voltage, emmission current, angular step width, measuring time was set. The
angular positions were set using the adjust knob and the experiment was started using the
scan key. After the measuring time elapsed, the mean counting rate was obtained by pressing
the scan key.

Observation Table and Calculations

U= Applied voltage, ABS= AfterBackground Subtraction, R= Counting Rate, T= Transmittance

Background Radiation
U=0kV I=0mA delT=300s
R(background)=0.433

As a function of thickness

Without Zr Filter(U=21kV I=0.05mA delT=100s) ,

Thickness/mm R/s ABS Transmittance

0 176.7 176.267 1
0.5 76.08 75.647 0.4291
1.0 38.01 37.577 0.2131
1.5 18.66 18.227 0.1034
2.0 10.73 10.297 0.0584
 2.5 6.17 5.737 0.0325
3.0 3.24 2.807 0.0159

With Zr Filter(U=21kV I=0.15mA delT=200s)

Thinkness/mm R/s ABS Transmittance(T)
0 276.6 276.167 1
0.5 117.3 116.867 0.4232
1.0 54.20 53.767 0.1947
1.5 25.62 25.187 0.0912
2.0 13.14 12.707 0.0460
2.5 6.535 6.102 0.0221
3.0 3.46 3.027 0.0109

As a function of Material

Without Zr Filter

Absorber Z I/mA Time of exposure/s R/s ABS T mu

none 0.02 30 665.1 664.667 1
C 6 0.02 30 647.4 646.967 0.9734 0.5392
Al 13 0.02 30 383.7 383.267 0.5766 11.012
Fe 26 1.00 300 68.25 67.817 0.1020 45.656
Cu 29 1.00 300 7.183 6.75 0.0101 91.904
Zr 40 1.00 300 84.43 83.997 0.1264 41.366
Ag 47 1.00 300 18.41 17.977 0.0270 72.238

With Zr Filter

Absorber Z I/mA Time of exposure/s R/s ABS T mu

none 0.02 30 249.3 248.867 1
C 6 0.02 30 236.9 236.467 0.9502 1.021
Al 13 0.02 30 131.1 130.667 0.5250 12.887
Fe 26 1.00 300 22.18 21.747 0.0874 48.74
Cu 29 1.00 300 2.823 2.39 0.0096 92.9198
Zr 40 1.00 300 44.58 44.147 0.1774 34.587
Ag 47 1.00 300 4.283 3.850 0.0155 83.338

Graphs
 Red-Without Zr filter
Blue-With Zr filter

Red-Without Zr filter
Blue-With Zr filter

Slope(attenuation coefficient)= 15.7538+-0.4980 without Zr and 16.32+-0.3014 with Zr filter.

 Green-Without Zr
filter
Red-With Zr filter

Here the attenuation coefficient increases steeply upto about atomic number 40 and then there is a
steep decrease in its value.

Discussion
The dependence of attenuation coefficient vs thickness was negative exponential as expected from
theory. The graph of log(T) vs Thickness was found to be a straight line giving the
slope(attenuation coefficient) to be 15.7538+-0.4980 without Zr and 16.32+-0.3014 with Zr
filter.The attenuation coeffient was found to be slightly smaller in case of unfiltered X-Rays
compared to that obtained by using Zr filter. This could have been because the ulfiltered X-Rays
also have higher energy components, thus they can penetrate more easily throught the same
absorber thickness.

The graph of attenuation vs atomic number increased steeply with atomic number and then showed
a sudden decrease at about atomic number 30-40.Initially as the atomic number increased the
electron clouds of the atoms in the material became more dense due to presence of more electrons
and thus the effective scattering increased. However, the steep decrease after a certain atomic
number may be because at higher atomic number the energy required to excite the K
electrons(energy of a shell is proportional to Z^2) increases and thus at the same X ray wavelength
the radiation is not able to cause ionisation and the contribution to attenuation from this mechanism
gets removed. Thus, the attenuation shows this type of graph. Also the decrease was slightly less in
case of unfiltered X-rays as they also contain the high energy components and thus may still cause
ionisation compared to the filtered rays. However, this dependence can be further studied by using
more materials and different wavelength bands of X-Rays.

Conclusion
The experiment verified the Lambert-Beers law for the attenuation of X-Rays in a material and
studied the dependence of it on the nature of the material. Although the graphs were as expected,
more materials could be used to study it further to know precisely the dependendence on the
absorber material and obtain any emperical equation.

References

1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray
2. Fundamentals of Xray diffraction, BD Cutily, SR Stock
 MAGNETIC MOMENT IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

Abstract

The magnetic properties of materials are of a great practical significance because of their use in
making permanent and electromagnets, data storage devices and Quantum devices such as GMR
and MRAM. Also, the setup of current carrying loops is used in tranformers and motors. Thus, the
magnetic properties of current carrying loops is under intense scientific investigation. In this
experiment, we studied the torque experienced by a current carrying loop in a uniform magentic
field as a function of i) the strength of the magnetic field ii) the angle between the magnetic moment
of the loop iii) The strength of the magnetic moment of the loop(determined by the current, diameter
and number of turns).

Theoretical Background

The magnetic field B is given by the curl of a quantity called the vector potential A such that
and for line currents,

As shown in figure[1], 1/r can be expanded as

As shown in the figure[1], A for the current carrying loop is given by

fig1

where Pn is the nth Legendre Ploynomial and expanding it we get,

The first term vanishes by definition. Thus the dominant contribution comes from the second term
which can also be written as

where m is the magnetic dipole moment defined by

if the loop is in a plane such that the area vectors are all in the same direction.

A magnetic field with flux density B exerts a torque on the loop which is given by
T=m X B. In the experiment, the moment m is given by

where I=current in the loop

n= number of turns of the loop
d=diameter of the loop
A=area of the loop

Thus the torque on the loop is of the form

where alpha= the angle between the moment vector and the
magnetic field direction and c is a constant

Helmholtz Coils
In the experiment there is a need for providing a constant magnetic
field in a fixed direction which is achieved by a Helmholtz coils which
consists of two electromagnets on the same axis. This minimises the
non uniformity of the field at the center. The field at the center is given
by

Experimental Setup [2]

The setup is as shown in the adjacent figure.

Series connection is given to the Helmholtz
coils to ensure same current. The loop upon
which torque is analyzed is the central white loop. This can be replaced by a different loop having
different diameter, number of turns etc. The current in the loop and the Helmholtz coil can be varied
by using respective voltmeters. The angular position can be changed and noted by the use of
marked circular notch from which the central coil is hanged.

Procedure

1. The Helmholtz coils were given series connection to ensure same current
2. The connection wires to the coil carrier were allowed to hang loosely and were twisted
together, so that no additional moment is produced.
3. The torque was noted from the top circular disc in which a pointer pointed towards the value
of the torque
4. The current in the loops and Helmholtz coils, and the loop itself were changed to study the
dependence of the toqrue on these factors.
5. The angle between the coil and the Helmholtz coils was changed by rotating the loop and
noting the notches on the disc from which it was hanged. The notches allowed the angles to
be varied in steps of 45 degree each.

Observation Table

I=Current in the loop, I’=Current in Helmholtz coils, n=Number of turns of coil, d=diameter of coil,
alpha=angle between plane of coil and of the Helmoltz coils

The readings are taken by varying one parameter at a time only.

I' T(Torque) at I=3A(Current in the loop)

1.01 0.7
1.53 1
2.02 1.35
2.56 1.7
2.91 1.9

I T at I'=2(Current in Helmholtz coils)

1.09 0.5
2.02 0.9
3.02 1.3
4.14 1.75
5.00 2.2
5.70 2.5

n T at I=3A, I'=2A,
3 1.25
2 0.87
1 0.4

d T at I=3A, I'=2A
12 0.4
8.5 0.19
60 0.08
alpha(Clockwise) sin(alpha) T at I=3A, I'=2A
90 1 1.1
75 0.9659 0.92
60 0.866 0.7
45 0.707 0.63
30 0.41 0.5 0.41

Graphs
Tabulation

Experiment(Torque vs -) Exponent(fitted for y=A*x^B, B value) Error

Current in Helmholtz coils 0.966377 0.0227858
Current in Loop 1.00007 0.0277875
Number of Loops 0.999295 0.0761072

Interpretation and further scope

The results were as per expectation and the exponents obtained after fitting the graphs with the
standard equation y=A*x^B and thus the experiment verified the dependence of torque on the
different basic parameters. Also, the basic phenomenon of magnetism and the effectiveness of
constant magnetic field through the Helmholtz coil could be easily inferred. It was also an effective
experiment to demonstrate magnetism in the atomic level where simiar magneic fields are produced
by the orbiting electron and the whole interaction of overall matter is an additive over these small
scale interactions.

In the experiment, the readings for the dependence on diameter were taken based only on three
coils. Thus, although the trend was as per expectation, more readings should be taken to further
verify the dependence. Also, the instrument was highly sensitive and thus it might have undergone
some displacement while changing the angle between the Helmholtz and test coils. Thus, the
accuracy can be improved by some alternative method to study the angular dependence. However,
the experiment did verify the basics of torque due to magnetic fields. This setup may also be used
for providing constant magnetic field for some other experiment or making instruments working on
the principle of electromagnetism.

References
1. Introduction to Electrodynamics by David J Griffiths
2. Physics Lab Manual BS-MS Dual Degree, VI Semester
 ELECTRON DIFFRACTION

Abstract

Electron diffraction is one of the most succesful applications of the pehnomenon of wave particle
duality. Thus, electrons which were considered as particles in the 18th Century are now known to
have a wave nature and thus they show diffraction. Also, the crystals of various materials exhibit
different planes of symmetry and upon throwing an electon beam, it acts as if reflected by these
planes. Thus by using electrons of a specific momentum and using the wave particle duality, we can
determine the interplanar spacings of a given crystal. Also due to the comparatively smaller de-
Broglie wavelength of electrons, electron diffraction is extensively used to study the short range
order of amorphous solids and the geometry of gaseous molecules. In this experiment we studied
electron diffraction through graphite crystals and compare the de-Broglie wavelength with the
experimentally obtained Bragg wavelengths. The wavelengths measured experimentally agreed
quite well with the theoretical values.

Theoretical Background

The question of whether light is a particle or wave had been a debatable one and Newton had
proposed that light must be composed of particles as it reflects from a surface just like particles.
However, Huygens and Frensel demonstrated that refraction of light could be explained if light
were a wave and had a medium dependent propagation. Maxwells equations also supported the
wave viewpoint. However, the spectrum of Black body radiation and photoelectric effect again
required the particulate nature of light. To resolve this apparent paradox, de-Broglie proposed that
all particles are associated with a wave whose wavelength is given by-

where h=a constant called the Planck’s constant

p=momentum of the particle

This hypothesis works quite well and was one of the major factors which led to the whole branch of
quantum mechanics.

Thus electrons are also associated with waves depending on their momementum according to the
De-Broglie condition. In the experiment if we accelerate the electron beam with a potential U then

and thus p=

Thus their de-Broglie wavelength is

Some basics of Crystallography

Crystals are the solids whose constituent particles are arranged in a highly ordered fashion. The
array of points describing this arrangement is called a lattice.
However, the whole crystal structure can be
recreated by the repeated translation of a certain
portion of it along fixed directions. The smallest
such cell is called the unit cell and thus the whole
crystal can be recreated by translating it along its
principal axes. The unit cell can be characterised
by the lengths and angles between the sides which
are called the lattice parameters.

However, the lattice points may lie along a plane which is

essential for studying diffraction. The planes are characterised by
the inverses of their intercepts on the basis vectors of the
lattice(along the principal axes and taken after multiplying with
the least integer such that the indices become integers). These
indices are called the Miller indices. e.g. in the adjoining figure,
the intercepts of the plane are (3,2,2), taking the reciprocals gives
(1/3,1/2,1/2) and thus the Miller indices are (2,3,3).

Basics of Diffraction
Diffractionis referred to as the various phenomena that occurs when a wave encounters an obstactle
or slit of dimensions close to the wavelength of the wave. It can be analysed by the Huygens-
Frensel principle which states that each point in a wavelet is a collection of individual spherical
wavelets and the superposition principle which states that the net amplitude at a point due to two
superimposing waves is the sum of their individual amplitudes. Thus as the intensity depends on the
square of the amplitude and the superposition depends on the relative orientation(or phase) of the
two waves, a diffraction pattern with succesive crests and troughs is formed.

Diffraction by the planes of a crystal

The diffraction pattern formed by crystal can be analysed by the Bragg’s law. A wave diffracted by
the crystal behaves as if reflected by the planes of the
crystal. Thus, as shown in the figure,

Path differnce between the waves reflected by the two

planes= 2*d sin(theta) where theta is the angle made by
incident with on the upper plane. (1)

Constructive interfernce occurs when 2*d

Sin(theta)=n*lambda where n is an integer
[4]
Thus the intensity is high only at certain angles producing a diffraction pattern

Diffraction through single crystals

 [4]
Diffraction pattern from a The pattern also rotates
single crystal[5] upon rotating the crystal[5]

In case of single crystals, the spots of high intensities are formed along particular directions due to
the relection from the various planes. The spots give the orders of diffraction and the distance
between them can be used to calculate the distance between the planes.

Diffraction through Polycrystals

Polycrystalline materials are made up of many tiny single crystals

oriented along random directions. Thus, during the diffraction
experiment, there will always be a crystal oriented at angle such
that its plane statifies the Bragg’s condition. Thus a circular
diffraction pattern is obtained. We used polycrystalline graphite
during this experiment and thus obtained circular diffraction
patterns.

Diffraction patten from a

polycrystalline material[5]
Graphite Structure

[2]
[2]

Graphite is composed stacked layers of carbon atoms,

arranged in a hexagonal pattern in each layer, in which each
atom is bonded to three other atoms in the same plane. The
planes(called graphene) are stacked together to form a crystal with hexagonal lattice structure(more
stable) or rombohedral structure(thermodynamically less stable). In the hexagonal structure, the
layer structure is repeated after one layer while the layers are repeated after two intervening layers
in the rombohedral structure. The layers are held together by weak van der Walls forces and thus
can slide over each other upon applying stress.

In each layer, there are two lattice planes corresponding to the lattice plane distances 123pm and
213 pm. Thus, the electron diffraction(bragg reflection) can take place through both these layers and
we get the emergent beams in two diffrent directions corresponding to these planes.

d1=123pm, d2=213pm [3]

Experimental Setup and Procedure

In the experiment the electrons were produced from an oxide coated metal can cathode through
thermionic emmision and were accelerated by the voltage U. The beam was then allowed to fall on
polycrystalline graphite and as explained in the theory circular diffraction patterns were obtained on
the screen of the bulb coated with a flouroscent material

Fig3

Procedure
 1. The electron diffraction tube was pushed into the tubeholder ensuring that the contact pins
of the tube engaged with the correct holes of the holder.
2. Sockets of the tube holder were connected to the heater voltage output terminals of the 5 kV
high-voltage power supply.
3. The negative output terminal of the 5 kV high-voltage power supply was connected to one
socket of the tube holder and the positive output terminal to another socket, and the safety
earth terminals were connected.
4. A voltage of 5000 V was applied and the diameters of the two diffraction rings on the curved
fluorescent screen were measured.
5. The voltage was reduced in steps of 500 V and measure the diffraction rings in each case
were measured.

Observation Table

1st Set

U=2kV A=0.029mA
Sl Inner_Dia Out_dia Avg/cm sintheta lambda
Msr Vc Final Msr Vc Final
1 3 3 3.03 3.5 8 3.58 3.305 0.06326 26.9524
2 5.5 8 5.58 6.2 9 6.29 5.935 0.1125 27.6668

U=2.5kV A=0.036mA
Sl Inner_Dia Out_dia
Msr Vc Final Msr Vc Final
1 2.7 1 2.71 3.2 6 3.26 2.995 0.0574 24.4444
2 4.7 3 4.73 5.7 8 5.78 5.255 0.0999 24.5751

U=3kV A=0.044mA
Sl Inner_Dia Out_dia
Msr Vc Final Msr Vc Final
1 2.4 8 2.48 2.8 9 2.89 2.685 0.0514 21.903
2 4.5 2 4.52 5.0 9 5.09 4.805 0.0915 22.5133

U=3.5kV A=0.050mA
Sl Inner_Dia Out_dia
Msr Vc Final Msr Vc Final
1 2.3 3 2.33 2.6 3 2.63 2.48 0.0475 20.2649
2 4.3 1 4.31 4.7 6 4.76 4.535 0.0864 21.2707

U=4kv A=0.057mA
Sl Inner_Dia Out_dia
Msr Vc Final Msr Vc Final
1 2.1 1 2.11 2.5 3 2.53 2.32 0.0445 18.9636
2 4 0 4.0 4.5 5 4.55 4.275 0.0815 20.0704

U=4.5kv A=0.065mA
Sl Inner_Dia Out_dia
Msr Vc Final Msr Vc Final
1 1.9 6 1.96 2.4 3 2.43 2.195 0.0421 17.946
2 3.6 6 3.66 4.2 1 4.21 3.935 0.0804 19.7698

U=5kv A=0.071mA
Sl Inner_Dia Out_dia
Msr Vc Final Msr Vc Final
1 1.9 4 1.94 2.8 7 2.87 2.405 0.0461 19.6551
2 3.5 8 3.58 4.0 0 4.00 3.790 0.0724 17.8225

2nd Set

Sl Inner_Dia Out_dia Avg/cm sintheta lambda

U=2kV A=0.029mA
Msr Vc Final Msr Vc Final
1 3 3 3.03 3.5 8 3.58 3.305 0.0633 26.9525
2 5.5 8 5.58 6.2 9 6.29 5.937 0.1123 27.6665

U=2.5kV A=0.037mA
Sl Inner_Dia Out_dia
Msr Vc Final Msr Vc Final
1 2.6 8 2.68 3.1 0 3.10 2.89 0.0554 23.5935
2 4.8 2 4.82 5.4 9 5.49 5.15 0.0979 24.0951

U=3kV A=0.042mA
Sl Inner_Dia Out_dia
Msr Vc Final Msr Vc Final
1 2.4 9 2.49 2.9 3 2.93 2.71 0.0520 22.1333
2 4.5 4 4.54 5.1 6 5.16 4.85 0.0923 22.72

U=3.5kV A=0.050mA
Sl Inner_Dia Out_dia
Msr Vc Final Msr Vc Final
1 2.3 0 2.30 2.7 3 2.73 2.515 0.0482 20.5494
2 4.1 6 4.16 4.7 9 4.79 4.475 0.0853 20.994

U=4kv A=0.059mA
Sl Inner_Dia Out_dia
Msr Vc Final Msr Vc Final
1 2.1 2 2.12 2.6 1 2.61 2.365 0.0453 19.3297
2 3.9 9 3.99 4.4 8 4.48 4.235 0.0808 19.8854

U=4.5kv A=0.065mA
Sl Inner_Dia Out_dia
Msr Vc Final Msr Vc Final
1 2.0 1 2.01 2.4 1 2.41 2.21 0.0424 18.0682
2 3.8 2 3.82 4.2 2 4.22 4.02 0.0769 18.8899

U=5kv A=0.071mA
Sl Inner_Dia Out_dia
Msr Vc Final Msr Vc Final
1 2.0 2 2.02 2.9 1 2.91 2.465 0.0473 20.143
2 3.6 6 3.66 4.1 1 4.11 3.885 0.0742 18.2636

Comparision Between De-Broglie and Bragg Wavelengths

U/V De-Broglie Bragg Wavelength from Bragg Wavelength Average Bragg

Wavelength Set 1 from Set 2 Wavelength
Plane1 Plane2 Plane1 Plane2 Plane1 Plane2
2000 27.50 26.9524 27.6668 26.9525 27.66652 26.9525 27.6665
2500 24.6 24.4444 24.5751 23.5935 24.0951 24.0189 24.3351
3000 22.4 21.903 22.5133 22.1333 22.72 22.0181 22.6166
3500 20.8 20.2649 21.2707 20.5494 20.994 20.4094 21.1323
4000 19.4 18.9636 20.0704 19.3297 19.8854 19.1466 19.9779
4500 18.3 17.946 19.7698 18.0682 18.8899 18.0071 19.3298
5000 17.4 19.6551 17.8225 20.143 18.2636 19.8990 18.0430

Graphs

Red=Plane1
Blue=Plane2

Red=Plane1
Blue=Plane2
Violet line-y=x curve
Interpretation and further scope
From the experiment it was found that the electron beam after falling on polycrystalline graphite
showed circular diffraction patterns. In fact, there were two circular diffraction patterns which were
as expected as there are two diffracting planes in graphite and polycrystalline materials form
circular diffraction patterns as explained in the theoretical background section.

The bragg wavelength was found to decrease with increase in the voltage which is accordance to the
De-broglie hypothesis. Also there was an excellent match of the De-Broglie wavelengths from
theoretical calculations to the Bragg wavelengths calculated in the experiment thus verifying the
De-Broglie hypothesis. Also, one of the most interesting features of wave-particle duality was also
verified through this experiment as the electrons which were initially considered as particles were
found to show wave nature.

We could thus also have used this experiment to calculate the interplanar spacing in the graphite
crystals(assuming De-Broglie wavelength is equal to the Bragg wavelength). We can also use this
type of setup to calculate the interplanar spacings of other crystals. We can also use a similar setup
to predict the wave nature of other particles such as neutrons or bucky balls. However, the
dimensions of the apparatus used there would have to be of a different scale. But, this experiment
could demonstrate the possibility of such further experiments.

Overall, in the experiment we observed diffraction of electrons through polycrystalline graphite,

calculated the Bragg wavelengths from the diameters of the observed circular diffraction rings and
then compared them to the wavelengths obtained from the De-Broglie hypothesis. The results were
in excellent agreement and thus the experiment satisfactorily matched the theory.

References
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave%E2%80%93particle_duality
2. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/269035537_Layered_Nanomaterials-A_Review
3. Physics Lab Manual
4. http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/quantum/bragg.html
5. Electron Diffraction Tube - Welch Scientific Co. Cat. No. 2639
 INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT

Abstract
The properties of light and especially the phenomena of interference(when light from two or more
sources fall on the same point) and diffraction(when light encounters obstacles with dimensions
similar to its wavelength) and the resulting patterns has been an area of study for a very long time.
Moreover, these effects are used even today in buiding highly sensitive interferometers (such as in
LIGO and in modern astronomical instruments). Thus it is very useful to have a good knowledge of
these effects. In this experiment we studied diffraction through a single slit, combined interference
and diffraction through a double slit and the pattern arising from multiple beam interference
through a diffraction grating and calculated the slit widths in each case. The results agreed quite
well with the theoretical expectations.

Theoretical Background
Light is an electromagnetic wave, i.e. it consists of synchronised oscillations of electric and
magnetic fields which propagate at the speed of light in vacuum. In a homogenous, isotropic
medium, the electric and magnetic fields and the direction of propagation of the wave are mutually
perpendicular to each other. Thus, light shows wave character(it also has particle properties due to
wave particle duality and is associated with quantised particles called photons, but the wave nature
is responsible for the interference effect we studied in this experiment). Thus the electric field at a
point at position r due to an em wave propagating in the z direction is represented by-

Ex and Ey - magnitudes in x and y direction

k=2*pi/lambda.
Omega= angular frequency
phix and phiy are the phases in x and y directions

The magnetic field thus would also be in the xy plane but would be at right angle to the electric
field.
 Image of Em waves[1]

Interference is a phenomenon in which two or more waves superpose at a given point to give a net
resultant wave. The prrinciple of superposition states that when two or more wave of the same
type(elcectric or magnetic etc.) are incident at the same point, the resultant amplitude at that point is
given by the vector sum of the individual amplitudes. Thus constructive interference occurs when
the waves are in phase(the maximas and minimas of both waves are at the same places) and
destructive interference occurs when they are out of phase(the position of maxima of one wave
coincides with the minima of the other).

N slit Interference

As shown in this
figure light is
incident on N slits
from the left and
produced an interference pattern. We wish to calculate the net intensity at an arbitraty point P on the
screen. We make the following assumptions-
1. D>>d ie the distance of the slits to the screen is much larger than the interslit distance.
However, this relation would hold in the multiplicative sense, we would not neglect |D-d| in
cases where it occurs in combination with the wavelength of light, which is also small
2. The angle of the ray from each slit with the horizontal (theta) is same for all the slits.
In this assumption, we find that the path of each succesive slit is longer from the slit above it by
Thus the vectors from the slit to P take the form

Thus the net intensity due to all the waves at P is given by

However the summation is a geometric series with multiplicative factor d sintheta. Thus, its sum is
given by

The net wave is then

However, at theta=0, the amplitude(real part of the field) is just N times the field due to single slit as
can be seen by using L’Hospitals rule. Thus for the pattern we obtain

The intensity is just the square of the amplitude. Thus the intesity will be zero at the points where
N*alpha/2=m*pi. But, if at these points alpha/2 is also zero, the function attains 0/0 form and
instead gives value of 1(maxima).

One slit diffraction

In the above figure light is incident from the left at a slit with width a and we wish to calculate the
net intensity of light an arbitraty point P.
The problem can be solved by taking the slit in y axis and taking its centre to be the origin. Then as
the light emerging from the slit at a distance y from the slit requires y sin(theta) lesser distance to
reach P than that from P, the net amplitude(assuming the intensities from all the parts of the slit is
almost equal) would be given by

The intensity resembles the sinc function in the sense that

where

The intensity profile has zeros when beta/2=2*pi. Also

we can observe that it has one large peak at beta=0 and
the intensity reduced drastically when we move to higher
order peaks. This is characteristic of diffraction. What is
interesting is that there is a spread in the light after
passing through the slit which is an indication of the
wave nature of light.

Combined interference and diffraction

In this case the amplitude due to light from

each slit can be found by a similar method
for the grating. However, if we take the
lowest point of the lowest grating as origin,
the integral would run only for the
coordinates through which light can pass.

Thus, if we approximate the intensity to

remain same for all the waves, the net
amplitude is given by

By changing variables to

,
Or,

Thus, we see that the intensity due to multiple wide slits is a product of the functions for the
interference and diffraction patterns. However as nd>a, the second term oscillates faster, the net
result is the interference pattern being modulated (ie. In an envelope of the one width diffraction
pattern). The minimas would occur when any of the two functions goes to zero. As the width, a,
increases, the pattern becomes narrower.

Experimental Setup
In the experiment a laser beam was allowed to fall on an optical component(interference slits or
diffraction grating etc.) and the image was formed on a screen placed about two meters away. The
distances were measured with measuring tape and the laser and slit holding apparatus were fixed to
the optical bench.

Procedure
1. The laser pointer and the slit holding plates were screwed to the optical bench and the screen
was placed 1.5 meteres in line with the laser and the optical comonent holder.
2. The laser pointer was swichted on and the focussing lens was used to obtain a sharp image.
3. The optical component was mounted on the holder and the screen postion was adjusted to
get a clear image.
4. The distances of the mth order minima(in case of diffraction) and mth order maxima(in case
of interference) from the central maxima were noted by placing a graph paper on the screen
noting the coordinates of the corresponding maxima and minima.
5. The slit width was calculated in both cases using the theoretical formulas.

Results and Calculations

For Single Slit (thick)
Distance of screen from slit=D=128cm
Order(m) Ym(mm) sinθm*10-3 Slit Width(μm) Average ‘a’
(θm=tan-1(Ym/D)) a=mλ/sinθm (μm)
1 4.25 3.32 196
2 8.5 6.64 196 196
3 12.75 9.96 196
4 16.75 13.08 198

Single Slit (Thin)

Distance of screen from slit=D=104cm
Order Ym(mm) sinθm*10-3 Slit Width(μm) Average ‘a’
(θm=tan-1(Ym/D)) a=mλ/sinθm (μm)
1 7.75 7.45 87.2
2 15.5 14.9 87.2 86.6
 3 23.75 22.83 85.4

Double Slit (Thin)

Distance of screen from slit=D=160.5cm
Order Ym(mm) sinθm*10-3 d=mλ/sinθm Average d
(θm=tan-1(Ym/D)) (μm)
1 3.00 1.87 347
2 5.75 3.58 362 363
3 8.25 5.14 379

Double Slit (Thick)

Distance of screen from slit=D=154.7cm
Order Ym(mm) sinθm*10-3 d=mλ/sinθm Average d
(θm=tan-1(Ym/D)) (μm)
1 1.50 0.93 695
2 3.00 1.87 695 695

Diffraction Grating
Order of D Ym (mm) sinθm*10-3 d=mλ/sin Average N
-1
maxima(m) (cm) (θm=tan (Ym/D)) θm (μm) d(μm) (number
of lines
per mm)
Grating 1 1 165.0 21.5 13.02 49.8
2 165.0 43.0 26.05 49.9 49.8 20.06
Grating 2 164.2 11.0 6.69 97
164.2 21.5 13.09 99 98 10.18
Grating 3 1 164.2 8.5 5.17 125 125 7.96
Grating 4 1 165.0 4.5 2.72 238 238 4.19

Discussion
The experiment verified a lot of properties of light and the phenomenon of interference and
diffraction apart from the calculation the slit widths from the pattern on the screen.

In case of diffraction in a single slit, the was a high intensity central peak and the intensity reduced
drastically upon moving to the side. However we could still infer the position of the minimas upto
4th order. We further used this data and by plugging to the theory we found out the average slit
widths to be 196μm for the thicker slit and 86.6μm for the thinner slit.

In the case of double slit, we could observe both interference and diffraction. The pattern seemed to
be like that of interference in an envelope for the pattern for diffraction. By calculating the distance
of the mth order maxima from the central maxima, we found out the slit width(the distance berween
the slits) to be 363μm for the thinner slits and 695μm for the thicker slit.

In case of the diffraction grating, the pattern was symmetric along both x and y axis(perpendicular
to the optical axis and parallel to the dividing lines of the grating). This verified the phenomenon of
multiple slit interference and the number of lines per unit length in the grating was found by
matching with the formula for the mth order maxima from the central maxima. The number of lines
per mm were found to be 20.16, 10.18, 7.96, 4.19 for the gratings in decreasing order of density of
lines per mm.

This experiment gave evidence of the wave nature of light and the phenomenon of
superpostion(which states that the net amplitude at a given point due to two or more sources is
given by the sum of their individual amplitudes) as the results matched with the predictions of the
theory. The experiment can be further improved by the use of cylindrical screen (so that the distance
of screen from the slit is same at all points), improving the focussing quality of laser and by using
light of different frequencies. However, the experiment provided ample information and was an
excellent demonstration of the phenomenon of interference and diffraction of light by division of
wavefronts of the light arising from a single source. The phenomnenon of combined interference
and diffraction was also seen. This experiment is of utmost importance in studying the behaviour of
light beams which is also economically significant in designing various optical devices.

References
1. https://byjus.com/physics/characteristics-of-em-waves/
2. Physics Lab Manual, 7th Semester, IISER Berhampur

ABBE REFRACTOMETER

Abstract
The propagation of light through different optical media has been an area of intense scientific
investigation and it has become an integral part to charterise materials based on their optical
properties. In this experiment, we investigated the refractive indices of different liquid samples
using the Abbe Refractometer. The refractive index were aslo studied as a function of the
concentration of the samples. The results were as per expectations and the refractive index was
found to slightly increase upon increasing the concentration of the solution.
Theoretical Background
The speed of light is different in different media. This gives rise to a number of phenomenon
including refraction, dispersion, total internal reflection and so on. Thus, the refractive index
material is defined to be

where c is the velocity of light in vacuum(universal constant)

v= phase velocity of light in the given medium

When, light is incident on a sufrace separting two media, the path of light may change and is
governed by the snell’s law which states that

where theta1= angel of incidence, theta2= angle of refraction

n1 and n2=refractive indices of material 1 and 2 respectively
v1 and v2= velocity of light in medium 1 and 2 respectively

However, when light is incident on a rarer medium (having lower refractive index) from a denser
medium(having higher refractive index), there is a certain angle of incidence at which the angle of
refraction becomes 90 degree. Beyond this angle of incidence, the light wave undergoes total
internal reflection and thus light is reflected back into the initial medium. Abbe refractometer works
on this principle.

Image of TIR and critical angle[2]

Abbe Refractometer Design

In the refractometer, the sample is put between two prisms(measuring and illuminating) having
refractive indices higher than that of the sample. Light enters the sample from the illuminating
prism. The surface of the illuminating prism is matted so that the light enters the sample at all
possible angles. It then enters the measuring prism from which it goes to the telescope. However, if
the angle of incidence is more than the critical angle, then the light wont propagate forward and
instead reflect back. This forms a dark area on the upper part of the field of view. In the experiment,
we can observe the dark area at the bottom as the telescope reverts the image.
However, this has some limitations. The refractive index of a material is a function of the
wavelength of the light(some equation) and thus the border of dark and white regions would be
different for different colours of light and thus the measurement of refractive index would be
difficult and faulty.

However, this can be overcome by using tow Amici prisms inside the telescope. The prisms
function to reunite the different colours of light and thus a sharp edge is obeserved in the final
image. Also, instead of rotating the telescope or the sample position, there is a mirror between the
sample and telescope which rotates to give the view of the different regions.
 Procedure
1. The upper part of the obeserving window(through the telescope) shows the sample surface
and the lower part shows the refrative index and concentration of the substrate.
2. The border between the dark and bright regions is set on a crosswire in the upper part and is
focussed such the the border is free from any dispersion effects.
3. The reading in the lower part after focussing gives the refractive index of the sample and the
concentration of the substrate.

Results
The refractive indices of the samples obtained through the experiment are given below

Sample Solution Refractive Index

Toluene 1.492
Benzene 1.497
2-propanol 1.374
0.06M sugar solution 1.333
0.12M sugar solution 1.337
0.18M sugar solution 1.3395

Discussion
This experiment gave insights into many aspects of light, the phenomenon of refraction and the
refractive indices of samples. First of all, the experiment showed the phenomenon as exactly
predicted by theory, there were two distinct regions(dark and bright) and the dark area was observed
below the bright region. There was a clear straight line demarcating the regions as excpected from
the shape and symmetry of the prism.
Secondly, initially different colours of light were slightly apart from each other which could be
focussed into a single line. This gives clear indication of the difference in refractive index for the
different colours of light.
Third, this experiment is an excellent demonstration of the phenomenon of total internal reflection
and the existense of a specific critical angle beyond which it takes place(the two regions were
completely distinct and thus after the cricital angle no light was observed to get transmitted to the
telescope).
Finally, it was seen that the refractive index of solutions(in the present case for sugar solutions)
increases with increasing concentration. This was expected as the presence of sugar molecules
makes the solution more dense and thus make the propagation of light more slower in the medium.
We can also this setup to find the refractive index of other materials and also to study the optical
properties of newly synthesised liquid samples. We can also exploit the temperature dependence of
the refractive index as the instrument also has a probe to indicate temperature.

Thus the experiment was as per expectations and we obtained the refractive indices of six different
samples upto the third decimal place through this experiment.
Reference
1. http://www.refractometer.pl/Abbe-refractometer
2. https://www.miniphysics.com/total-internal-reflection-2.html
3. Physics Lab Manual, VII Semester, IISER Berhampur

DIELECTRIC CONSTANTS OF MATERIALS

Abstract
The study of the electrical properties of matter is highly significant as it plays a major role in
designing various electronic devices. In this experiment we calculated the dielectric constant of
various samples(in the shape of thin discs) by comparing the ratio of the capacitance of a parallel
plate with vacuum and this material as its dielectric. The experiment gave widely different values of
the dielectric constants for different materials such as plywood and PZT. The capacitance of a
liquid sample was also calculated by using benzene as the standard liquid.

Theoretical Background
The conductivity of electricity is a mateial dependent property and thus mateials can be
characterised based on their conduction properties. A dielectric is a material having low electrical
conductivity, though it can get polarised when placed in an electric field. We can define dielctric
constant of a material as the ratio of the capacitance of a capacitor having this material as the
dielctric to the capacitance where vacuum is the dielctric. Thus materials having high dielectric
constants confer higher capacitance in comparision low dielectric constant materials keeping
physical dimensions of the capacitor unchanged.

Parallel Plate Capacitor

It consists of two oppositely charged parallel

having area A and at a separation distance d.
The material between them can be a dielctric.
The capacitance of such a configuration is
given by

where vaccum acts as a dielectric.

However, in case of another dielectric

medium, the capactitance is given by

where epsilon represents the

electric permitivity of the material.

Thus the ratio of the capacitances with and without the material as dielctric indeed gives the
dielctric constant.
Experimental Apparatus
In the experiment a LC Circuit is used to determine the capacitance of a given capacitor from which
the dielectric constant can be calculated.

Here DC= Dielectric Cell

SC= Standard Capacitor
L= Inductor
X=Sample

The audio oscillator is fixed inside the instrument. If Csc and Cdc are the capacitances of the
standard and dielectric cells and if Vsc and Vdc are the corresponding voltages across them,
Vsc/I =I/(w*Csc) . Also, as the same current passes through the dielectric, Vdc/I= 1/(w*Cdc). Thus,

Cdc=Csc*Vsc/Vdc .

Also, if the dielectric cell has vacuum as its dielectric material, then the capacitance is given by

C0=r2/(36*d) nf where r represents the radius of the disk and d represents the thickness of the
sample in meters.

For Liquids
In this case a dielectric cell is formed by taking two circular discs of 25mm diameter(made of
stainless steel). The cell is first standardised by considering a pure liquid such as benzene as a
standard liquid. Then the dielectric constant of an unkown liquid can be measured by determining
the capacitance in air, the standard liquid(benzene) and the liquid whose dielctric constant is to be
measured. The relation is

where εr= dielectric constant of the reference liquid(benzene)=2.26

In this experiment, a special function generator chip acts as an oscillator. As the frequency of
vibration depends on the values of the Resistor and Capacitor, the capacitance can be inferred by
keeping the resistance constant, which inturn would give the dielctric constant of the dielectric used
in the capacitor. The frequency of the oscillator is realted to the resistance and capacitance as
f=1/RC.
Procedure
For Solid Dielctrics
1. The CRO was connected to the terminals on the front panel of the main unit. The Cal was
adjust to get a distinct wavefront.
2. The dielectric cell assembly was connected to the main unit and the sample was inserted in
between the SS plates avoiding high pressure on the sample. The unit was switched on.
3. With the help of switch S2, the standard capacitor was chosen(SC1 for materials having low
dielctric constant such as Bakelite Glass and Plywood samples and SC2 for high dielectric
constant samples such as PZT)
4. The switch S1 was switched to DC to measure voltage across the dielectric cell and to AC to
measure voltage across the standard capacitor. The capacitance was calculated using the
relation C=Vsc/Vdc * Csc
5. The thickness and radius of the plates were measured using vernier calliper and the value of
C0(air) was calculated.
6. The dielectric constant was determined by the realtion
ε = C/C0(air)

For Liquid Dielectrics

1. The lower part of the dilectric cell was thoroughly rinsed with acetone and was allowed to
dry untill the acetone evaporated.
2. The shielded cable was connected to the main unit and dielectric cell assembly and the
assembly was put within the empty beaker.
3. The main unit was switched on and the frequency was measured. The capacitance in free air
was calculated as C0=1/Rf
4. The reference liquid was poured in the beaker upto 40ml. The dielctric cell assembly was
inserted from the top and the frequency was measured. The capacitance was measured using
the realtion Cr=1/Rfr
5. The BNC cable was removed, it was rinsed with acetone and was allowed to dry
6. The test liquid was poured into the beaker and the dielectric cell was inserted into it. The
frequency and hence the capacitance were measured using the realtion CX=1/RfX.
7. The dielctric constant was calculated using the formula given in theory. The process was
repeated for different samples.

Results and Calculations

For Solid Samples

Sample SC(pf Vsc Vdc C(pf) thickness(cm) radius(cm) C0(air)(pf) ε=C/C0

Black Glass 55.5 2.56 3.12 45.5 0.45 3.75 8.68 5.25

transparent glass 55.5 2.31 2.45 52.33 0.445 3.75 8.68 6.03

plywood(small) 55.5 2.57 2.90 49.184 0.25cm 1.25 1.736 28.332

plywood(large) 55.5 1.87 2.61 39.76 0.13 3.75 30.05 1.32

pzt,green 11 0.37 3.47 1.17 0.19 1.25 0.00218 540

 pzt orange 11 0.70 3.14 2.45 0.2cm 1.25 0.00217 1130

For Liquid Sample

Reistance(R) =10KOhm
Freq without sample=501.3kHz
Liquid Sample Frequency
No Sample 501.3kHz (f0)
Benzene 487.5kHz (fr)
Sample Solution 305.1kHz (fx)

Dielctric Constant= εr =1+fr//fx[(f0-fx)/(f0-fr))] =28.6235

Discussion
The experiment provided significant insights into the differential electricity carrying properties of
different materials. As the capacitance of a capacitor depends on the dielctric constant and the same
dielectric constant appears in the equations describing a lot of other electrical properties of the
material, the calculation of the dielctric constant is an important step in characterising the material.

In the experiment, we used different materials as dielectric. Each of them were in cylindrical shape
with small thickness across which a voltage was applied and the effective capacitance was
calculated. By comparing this capacitance with the capactiance that would have been present if
vacuum was present in place of the material (which just depends on the geometrical parameters), we
found out the dielectric constant of the material.

The dielctric constants showed a large variation: For glass it was the minimum, followed by the two
types of plywood and was significantly larger for the PZT material. In case of liquids, we found that
the frequeny of oscillation of the dielectric cell reduced by replacing the medium of air by benzene.
It further reduced by replacing the medium by the sample solution. By equating the values to their
standard formulas we found out the dielectric constant of the sample solution to be 28.6235.

This experiment can be further improved by having a temperature sensitive probe to check the
dielctric constants at different temperatures and by designing an appartus to check the samples of
different shapes. This is required as often test samples come in a variety of shapes and the devices
in which they are used operates at different temperatures. However, the experiment did provide
significant knowledge of the differences in electrical properties of matter and a method in which it
can be quantitatively measured.

Reference
1. https://www.examfear.com/notes/Class-12/Physics/Capacitance/893/Parallel-Plate-
Capacitor.htm
2. Physics Lab Manual,VII Semester, IISER Berhampur
 ATOMIC FORCE MICROSCOPY

Abstract
The development of electronic devices at smaller and smaller scales has made it necessary to study
the sample topography at the highest resolution possible. The magnification that can be acheived
by the optical and electronic microscopes is limited by their wavelength. However Atomic Force
Microscopy is a novel way to study the surface topography at atomic resolution by measuring the
strength of the force on a highly pointed tip as it moves over the sample. In this experiment we
reviewed the basic principles of AFM and used it to study the surface topography a sample grid and
calculated its pitch and step height.

Introduction
For a long time, optical and electron microscopes were the only available devices to observe and
identify samples. However, due to the uncertainty principle due to which the photos and electrons
also show wave character, their resolution was limited(The magnification of optical microscopes is
generally X1000 whereas that of electron microscopes is X100,000). However, modern day
experiments require precision at the atomic level. This was possible through the inventionof a new
type of instrument called the Scanning Tunneling Microscope(STM) by Binning and Rohrer in 1981
for which they got the Nobel Prize in 1986. This instrument can provide resolution of 0.01 nm
allowing the imaging and manipulation of individual atoms or molecules in a given sample.

STM works due to the tunneling effect. A voltage difference is induced between a sharp tip and the
sample surface over which it scans. If the distance between the surface and the tip is small(a few
atomic diameters), the electrons would flow due to tunneling and as this current depends
exponentially on the tip-surface distance, the analysis of the current as a function of the location of
the tip over the sample provides the surface topography.

However, STM works only for conducting or semi-conducting samples. To overcome this a new
class of instruments were developed called Scanning Probe Microscopes(SPM) which includes
Atomic Force Microsopy(AFM). This is similar to STM but in this case, a particular force between
the sample and the tip is measured and is converted to an electrical signal. Thus, in addition to
imaging the topography, AFMs can image via a number of different mechanisms including
frictional force, phase contrast, amplitude, adhesion and elasticity and can map their strength over
the sample surface.

Structure of AFM
In AFM, a scanning probe is used to scan across a
sample sutface. The probe consists of a sharp tip at the
end of the flexible cantelever that is attached to a holder
plate at one end called the holder chip. The tip is
generally pyramidal or conical in shape which is sharp
and whose end is supposed to consist of a single atom.
The cantilever is around 100 to 200micrometer long.
The AFM probe is usually made of silicon or silicon
nitride and the cantilever spring constants are about 0.05
to50N/m. The probe or the sample is placed on a
piezoelectric scanner which can also move in the x,y,z
directions and thus provide a 3D scan image. To
measure the movement of the cantilever as it moves
across the surface, a laser beam is made to fall on it
whose reflection from the cantilever is detected using a [1]
photodiode. A feedback mechanism is put in place to
maintain either a constant force or a constant deflection between the tip and the sample surface
depending on the mode of operation.

Mode of Operation
The cantilever experiences two types of forces: One due to its interaction with the surface and the
other due to spring nature of the catilever which opposes the motion according to Hook’s Law. The
interplay gives the required displacement.

Contact Mode- In this method, the probe scans at a very small distance from the surface and a
feedback loop maintains a constant repulsive force between the tip and surface. Thus, the upward
and downward motion of the cantilever provides a very high resolution surface topography.
However, cannot be used for soft substances and biological samples as the very close contact may
damage the sample surface.

Tapping Mode- In this method, the cantilever vibrates up and down rapidly at or near its resonane
frequency due to the vibrations of the piezoeletric materail and thus comes into relatively close
contact only at the bottom of its oscillation. The force due the sample depends on its distance form
the tip and is reflected in the changes in the vibration of the cantilever. However, the changes are
smaller than that in case of contact mode. However, it is the most commony used method for soft
samples and biological molecules as it prevents sample damage.

Non-Contact Mode- This operates in the attractive regime of the force-distance curve(>10nm).
However, in this case the resolution is smaller than in the Contact and Tapping modes.

[3]
Some terminologies realted to Tapping Mode-
Drive Amplitude- The amplitude of the piezo vibration
Drive frequency- Frequency of piezo vibration. It is usualy set near resonance to achieve significant
cantilever deflection
Target Tapping Signal- It is the amplitude of the cantilever oscillation in free air
Phase- It is the phase shift between the piezo vibration and cantilever oscillation
Input gain- It is the gain applied to cantilever signal. Higher gain indicates smaller amplitude of
vibration

Data Display and Artifacts

Genrally the data is displayed as a false colour image as a
function of the sample’s x and y coordinates. This data can be
of the tunneling current(in case of STM), force between
sample and tip, height to maintain a certain force etc.
Generally the higher values are assigned lighter colours in
the image.

Tip Convolution- This occurs whent the radius of

curvature of tip is similar or larger than the width of the [3]
feature being scanned. Here as the influence of the

[3]
feauture is noticable even befoe the centre of the tip comes in contact with it, the dimensions of the
features are magnified.

Thermal Drift- This refers to the distortion caused due to the changes in temperature or the probe
sample environment. This may result in the sample being loose and thus due to this the features may
appear smaller or longer in one direction than they actually are.

Tip Artifacts- Sometimes the tip may get worn out or contaminated resulting in distortions.
Contaminations may induce strange repeating shapes whereas if due to contamination two sharp
points formin the tip, there will be doubling of surface features called a double tip.

Due to contamination Double Tip

Scanner Artifacts- The sensitivity of the scanner may be different at different voltages (non
linearity) which may result in the image appearing stretched or contracted at some places and also
some linear features may appear curved. The piezoelectric material may also show some anomalies
such as tracing a hysteresis as the voltage on it changes. The response of the scanner to the different
voltage in the surface takes some time. The scanner moves the majority of the distance quickly but
the last part of the movement is slow. Thus, this may result in distortions when there are sudden
changes in the voltage.

Non- Linearity Scanner Creep

Procedure
In the experiment Bruker Innova AFM was used in the tappin mode and the images were obtained
throught the Nano Drive software.

Step 1- The PC setup and Controller were switched on. Tapping mode was selected and the
Experiment was loaded.

Step 2-Laser Alignment- The probe setup was elevated and the laser beam was adjusted such that
the camtilever blocked the laser beam. The setup was put in place and the tip was focussed using
the focussing microscope. The laser beam was placed exactly on the edge of the cantilever using the
rotating knobs.

Step 3- Position Sensitive Photodetector(PSPD) Alignment- The laser alignment dialog was opened
and the PSPD alignment knobs were rotated to get maximum sum of voltage on the
photodetector(by taking it to the centre of the dialog box) till the color of the spot in the window
turned pink.

Step 4- Approaching the Sample- The motor Control Dialog was opened and the stage was brought
downward. The stage was brought to a position such that both the cantilever and the sample could
be seen by a small rotation of the focussing knob. The stage was covered with lid.

Step 5- Cantilever Tuning- The Tune Cantilever Dialog was opened was the resonant frequency was
set to about 300Hz. The Auto tune option was selected and the various options for Drive amplitude,
drive frequency, target tapping signal(around 3V), input gain(X4) and phase were set.
The start icon was pressed. After the program was run, the Tune Cantilever Dialog was closed.

Step 6- Engaging the tip- The camera was focussed on the sample and Engage the tip icon was
pressed after which the Scanning Control window appeared.

Step 7- Taking Tapping mode image- The channels option was clicked from the Additional Controls
window and the desired display channels were selected from the Acquire window (we used Height-
Forward and Backward (to check surface topography) and Tapping Amplitude- Forward and
Backward channels (to check the change in amplitude of oscillation)). The Imaging options button
was selected in the Image Panel and Auto was selected for all channels.

In the Scanning Controls window the following were set-

A. Sample Lines(number of data points acquired while scanning in X-Y direction)- 512 was
selected
B. Scan Rate(in X direction)- It was set to 1kHz.
C. Scan Range(the area to be scanned)- It was set to 5micronX 5micron
D. The rotation and X-Y Offset were set to zero.

N the scanning Controls window, the play icon was clicked. To obtained better quality images the
setpoint(the reduced amplitude of oscillation after succesful engagement of the tip) and PID loop
(Proportional(P), Integral(I) and Derivative(D)) parameters were changed untill the image quality
was good.

To scan a particular region, scan area option was selected in the Scanning control section and the
desired image was dragged on to the screen. Option was selected from Image Processing tools,
and a square was drawn around the region of interest. At centre, play option was selcted by
right click.
Closing the software- The Scanning Controls Window was closed, the tip was withdrawn. The stage
was brought upward using the Motor Controls dialog and then the Nanodrive application was
closed.

Results
The AFM images of the sample obtained after the experiment are

Whole Area TopographyScan(fwd) Whole Area Topography Scan(bkd)

Tapping Amplitude(fwd) Tapping Amplitude(bkd)

 Tapping Amplitude(fwd) Tapping Amplitude(bkd)

Analysing Pitch and Step Height

Discussion
The handling of the instrument required very high delecacy and perfection as it is highly sensitive to
external vibrations. Also, the loading of the cantelliver and its mounting had to be very carefully
done ensuring it did not touch any foreign material. This is required as the sticking of any foreign
material on the tip can significantly alter the accuracy of the vibration frequency of the tip and alter
the measurement of the sample topography. Moreover, the laser alignment had to be carefully done
to ensure that the proper beam and not one of the reflected beams fell on the tip of the cantelever.
The rest of the procedure such as the engaging and disengaging the tip was also carefully done to
prevent any kind of damage to the tip.

After engaging, initially the images were not very sharp. However, the gain value, scan rate, drive
amplitude, drive frequency, target tapping signal were changed slightly untill we got a good quality
image. The image was analysed using the software and we got the scanned image of the sample in
terms of tapping amplitude(forward and backward) and topography(height forward and backward).
The pitch(horizontal distance between succesive crests and troughs) was found to be 1.068μm in
forward scan(1.031μm in backward scan) and the step height vertical distance at a crest was found
to be 110.903nm in foward scan (113.706nm in backward scan).

The experiment provided an introduction to the experimental procedure to analyse the geometrical
features of a sample. This instrument can also be used to measure other features such as the strength
of a particular force across the surface of a sample (by measuring its effect as the tip moves over the
surface), the presense of distortions or impurities on a sample, to verify the presence of newly added
features on a sample such as nanotubes etc. Thus, the experiment was informative, interesting as
well as an exposure to the experimental AFM laboratory.

References
1. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Schematic-illustration-of-the-principles-of-AFM-The-
scanner-is-composed-of-three-piezo_fig1_221927184
2. https://www.nanoscience.com/techniques/atomic-force-microscopy/
3. https://myscope.training/
4. Physics Lab Manual, VII Semester, IISER Berhampur