ao Fs a Manish ShrikhandeDownloaded from www.panchayatrajengineers.wordpress.com Tomy Rs. 425.00 EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT DESIGN OF STRUCTURES Pankaj Agarwal and Manish Shrichande © 2006 by Prentice-Hall, of india Private Limited, New Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from the publisher. ISBN-81-203-2892-2 ‘The export tights of this book are vested solely with the publisher. Third Printing . September, 2006 Published by Ascke K. Ghosh, Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited, M-97, Connaught Circus, New Delhi-110001 and Printed’ by Jay Print Pack Private Limited, New Delhi-110015.Contents rajeni wordpress.com ry Preface .. Contributors .... __Part I EARTHQUAKE GROUND MOTION L._ Engineering Seismology «...s.ssessesseessee 1.1 Introduction .... a 1.2 _Reid’s Elastic Rebound Theory 1.3 _ Theory of Plate Tectonics 1.3.1 _Lithosph 1.4.1 Body Waves.. eA ac Wa TT 1.5 Earthquake Size 1.5.1__Intensity 1.5.2 _Isoseismal Map 1.5.3__ Earthquake Magnitude 1.5.4 Energy Released in an Earthquake .. 1.5.5 Earthquake Frequency .. 1.6__Local Site Effects ....cssssssssssssesee 1.6.2 Lateral Discontinuity Effects 16:3. Bffect: of the Surface ‘Topography vii1.8 Seismotectonics of India. 1.9. Seismicity of Indi 1.10 Classification of Earthquakes DAN Ta i aa ian aaa at caaaassaacaiaias SEF 1.11.1 Tsunami Velocity 1.11.2 Run-up and Inundation Summary Glossary of Earthquake/Seismology References Seismic Zoning Map of India. 2.1 Introduction . 2.2. Seismic Hazard Map 2.3. Seismic Zone Map of 1962 2.4 Seismic Zone Map of 1966 2.4.1 Grade Enhancement 2.4.2. Review of Tectonic. 2.5. Seismic Zone Map of 1970 2.6 Seismic Zone Map of 2002 2.7. Epilogue Summary References Strong Motion Studies in India 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Understanding the Nature of Ground Motions ... 3.2.1 Source Effect 3.2.2 Path Effect.. 3.2.3 Site Effect 3.3. Estimation of Ground Motion Parameters 3.4 The Indian Perspective 3.5 Utilization of Strong Motion Data Summary References42 5. Evaluation of Seismic Design Parameters......... 5.1 5.2 537i 54 5.5 Summary References. 6. Initiation into Structural Dynamics .... Content) QED Terminology of Strong Motion Seismology Amplitude Parameters... Spatial Variation of Earthquake Ground Motion Damage Potential of Earthquakes .. Introduction .. Types of Earthquakes . 5.2.1 Intensity 5.2.2. Magnitude. Fault Rupture Parameters Earthquake Ground Motion Characteristics 5.4.5 Geographical, Geophysics and Geotechnical Data Deterministic Approach Part I STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS ReferenceseaGa: — ) 7. 8. wees 115-128 Dynamics of Single Degree of Freedom Systems... 7.1. Introduction 7.2 __ Free Vibration of Viscous-Damped SDOF Systems Underdamped Case (6 < 1). Critically-damped Case (¢ Overdamped Case (6 > 1) Response of SDOF Systems to Harmonic Excitations Excitation by Base Motion. Response of SDOF Systems to a Finite Duration Excitation Response of SDOF Systems to a Short Duration Impulse 7.3.5 Response of SDOF Systems to General Dynamic Excitation 7.4 Vibration Isolation .. ‘Summary. References Theory of Seismic Pickups... 8.1 Introduction ..... 8.2. The Physics of Operation 8.3 Which Parameter to Measure’ 8.4 _Seismometers..... 8.4.1 Displacement Pickups. 8.4.2 Velocity Pickups .. BORE References Numerical Evaluation of Dynamic Response 9.1 Numerical Solution Based on Interpolation of Excitation 9.2 Numerical Solution ‘Based on Approximation of Derivatives 9.3 Stability and Accuracy Considerations. Summary References 10.2 Fourier Spectra .11. 12. 10.3.4 Smooth Spectrum 10.3.5. Seismic Demand Diagrams Summary References Dynamics of Multi-Degree-of-Freedom Systems ...+..0.+ 157-188 11.1, Introduction 157 11.2. System Property Matrices 158 11.3 Dynamics of Two Degree of Freedom Systems. 159 11.4. Free Vibration Analysis of MDOF Systems 162 11.4.1 Orthogonality Conditions 163 115 Determination of Fundamental Frequency .. 165 11.5.1 Rayleigh Quotient 165 11.5.2. Stodola Method 165 11.5.3 Converging to Higher Modes . 166 11.6 Forced Vibration Analysis. 169 11.6.1. Mode-superposition Method 11.6.2 Excitation by Support Motior 11.6.3 Mode Truncation . 11.6.4 Static Correction for Higher Mode Respons: 11.7 Model Order Reduction in Structural Dynamics 171 175 177 11.8 Analysis for Multi-Support Excitation 178 11.9. Soil-Structure Interaction Effects. 181 11.9.1 Dynamic Analysis including SSI Effects .. 182 Summary * 187 References 187 Part I CONCEPTS OF EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BUILDING Earthquake and Vibration Effect on Structures: Basic Elements of Earthquake Resistant Design .. «0 191-206 12.1 Introduction 191 12.2. Static and Dynamic Equilibrium. 192 12.3 Structural Modelling .. 194 12.3.1 Structural Models for Frame Building... 194ED Gatun ) 13. 14. 12.4 Seismic Methods of Analysis. 12.4.1 Code-based Procedure for Seismic Analysis 12.5 Seismic Design Methods .... 12.5.1 Code-based Methods for Seismic Design. 12.6 Response Control Concepts... 12.7 trofitting 12.7.1 Methods for Seismic Evaluation . 12.7.2 Methods for Seismic Retrofitting 12.8. Seismic Test Methods 128.1 Methods for Seismic Testing Summary References Identification of Seismic Damages in RC Buildings 13.1. Introduction ... 13.2. Reinforced Concrete Building Construction Practices 13.3 Identification of Damage in RC Buildings .. 13.3.1 Soft Storey Failure 13.3.2 Floating Columns . 133.3 Plan and Mass Irregularity 13.3.4 Poor Quality of Construction Material and Corrosion of Reinforcement .. 214 13.3.5 Pounding of Buildings.. 215 13.3.6 Inconsistent Seismic Performance of Buildings .. 13.4 Damage to Structural Elements .. 13.5 Damage to Non-Structural Panel Elements 13.5.1, Damage to Infill Walls.. 13.5.2 Damage to Exterior Walls 13.6 Damage to Water Tank and Parapets 13.7 13.7.2 Damage to Elevator 13.8 Effect of Earthquake on Code Designed Structures 13.9 Lessons Learnt from Damages of RC Buildings... Summary References Effect of Structural Irregularities on the Performance of RC Buildings during Earthquakes .......cseccsrsssseeessersse 226-238, 14.1 Introduction ...15. Contents) GT 14.2 Ventcal Inegularities... 227 14.2.1 Vertical Discontinuities in Load Path 14.2.2 Inegularity in Strength and Stiffness 14.2.3 Mass Irregularities 14.2.4 Vertical Geometric Irregularity . 14.2.5 Proximity of Adjacent Buildings 143° Plan Configuration Problems 14.3.1 Torsion Irregularities 14.3.2 Re-entrant Corners. 14.3.3 Non-parallel Systems 14.3.4 Diaphragm Discontinuit 144 Recommendations tse stetssssessscnnnssnnnnnsnnncsnsnnssnsssnesnnnemnnsnssnnnse DIT Summary References Seismoresistant Building Architecture 15.1 Introduction ..... 15.2 Lateral Load Resisting Systems 15.2.1 Moment Resisting Frame 15.2.2 Building with Shear Wall or Bearing Wall System 15.2.3 Building with Dual System .... 15.3_ Building Configurat 15.3.1_Problems and Solutions ......00 15.4 Building Characteristics 15.4.1 Mode Shapes and Fundamental Period 15.4.2 Building Frequency and Ground Period 15.4.3 Damping 15.4.4 Ductility 15.4.5. Seismic Weight 15.4.6 Hyperstaticity/Redundancy 15.4.7_Non-structural Elements. 15.4.8 Foundation Soil/Liquefaction 15.4.9 Foundation: 15.5 Quality of Construction and Material 15.5.1 Quality of Concrete. 15.5.2 Construction Joints .. 15.5.3 General Detailing Requirements Summary References 246 248 . 248GD Contenes ) Part IV SEISMIC ANALYSIS AND MODELLING OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BUILDING 16. Code Based Procedure for Determination of Design 163.1 Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure 163.2 Dynamic Analysis Procedure Summary References 17. Consideration of Infill Wall in Seismic Analysis of RC 17.3 Failure Mechanism of Infilled Frame ... 17.4 Analysis of Infilled Frames ‘Summary References _ 18. Step-by-Step Procedure for Seismic Analysis of a Four- storeyed RC Building as per IS 1893 (Part 1): 2002 292-326 18.1 Introduction ... 18.2. Equivalent Static Lateral Force Method . : Determination of Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors Determination of Modal Participation Factors. Step 3: Determination of Modal Mass Step 4: Determination of Lateral Force at joor in Step 5: Determination of Storey Shear Forces in Each Mode ... Step 6: Determination of Storey Shear Force due to All Modes Step 7: Determination of Lateral Forces at Each Storey... B: Frame Considering the Stiffness of Infills.....19. 20. Step 1: Calculation of Modal Matrix Step 2: Calculation of Effective Force Vector Step 3: Calculation of Displacement Response in Step 4: Displacement Response in Physical Coordinates... Step 5: Calculation of Effective Earthquake Response Forces at Each Storey 18.4.6 Step 6: Calculation of Storey Shear Step 7: Calculation of Maximum Response Summary References Appendix I; Linear Interpolation of Excitatior Mathematical Modelling of Multi-storeyed RC Buildings...... 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Planar Models. 19.2.1 Shear Beam Model 19.2.2 Flexure Beam Model 19.3 3D Space Frame Model . 19.4 Reduced 3D Model 19.5 Some Important Issues in Modelling 19.5.1 Modelling of Floor Diaphragms .. 19.5.2. Modelling of Soil-Foundation 19.5.3 Foundation Model 19.5.4 Soil Models 19.5.5, Modelling of Staircases 19.5.6 Modelling of Infill: Summary References Part V EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT DESIGN (ERD) OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BUILDINGS Ductility Considerations in Earthquake Resistant Design of RC Buildings 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Impact of Ductility 20.3 Requirements for Ductility.ex ) 21. 23. 20.4 Assessment of Ductility . 20.4.1 Member/Eleme 20.4.2. Structural Ductility 20.5 Factors Affecting Ductility 20.6 Ductility Factors 20.7 Ductile Detailing Considerations as per IS 13920: 1993 Summary References Earthquake Resistant Design of a Four-storey RC Building Based on IS 13920: 1993...... 21.1 Introduction 21.2. Preliminary Data for Example 21.3 Loading Data. 21.4 Analysis of Sub-frame 4-4. 21.4.1 Dead Load Analysis . 21.4.2. Live (Imposed) Load Analysis .. 21.4.3 Earthquake Load Analysis 21.5 Load Combinations 21.6 Design of Sub-Frame 4-4 21.6.1 Design of a Flexure Member 21.6.2 Design of Exterior Columns .. 21.6.3 Design of Interior Column: 21.6.4. Detailing of Reinforcements. Summary References Earthquake Resistant Design of Shear Wall as per TS 18920: 1998 sssssoe 22.1, Introduction 22.2 Description of Building... 22.3. Determination of Design Lateral Forces 22.4 Design of Shear Wall. 22.5. Detailing of Reinforcements .. Summary References Capacity Based Design—An Approach for Earthquake Resistant Design of Soft Storey RC Buildings........... 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Preliminary Data for (G+3) Plane Frame. 23.2.1 Determination of Loadsc Contents) 23.3. Step-by-Step Procedure for Capacity Based Design. 409 23.3.1 Step 1: Seismic Analysis of Frame (G+3)...... 409 23.3.2. Step 2; Determination of Flexural Capacity of Beams....... 412 23.3.3. Step 3: Establishing a Strong Column—Weak Beam Mechanism 414 23.3.4 Step 4: Determination of Moment Magnification Factors for Columns..... 415 23.3.5. Step 5: Capacity Design for Shear in Beams 417 23.3.6 Step 6: Capacity Design for Shear in Columns. 418 23.3.7 Step 7: Detaiting of Reinforcements 419 Summary 421 References 421 Appendix 1: Beam Flexural Capacity Calculation as per Design Aid 18456: 1978...... 422 Appendix 2: Determination of Moment Magnification Factor at Every Joint Part VI EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT DESIGN (ERD) OF MASONRY BUILDINGS 24, Identification of Damages and Non-Damages in Masonry Buildings from Past Indian Earthquakes... 1427-448 24.1, Introduction 427 24.2. Past Indian Earthquakes .427 24.3 Features of Damages and Non-damages.. 429 24.3.1 Bhuj Earthquake, January 26, 2001 429 24.3.2 Chamoli Earthquake, March 29, 1999 431 24.3.3. Jabalpur Earthquake, May 22, 1997 433 24.3.4 Killari Barthquake, September 30, 199: . 436 24.3.5. Uttarkashi Earthquake, October 20, 1991 438 24.3.6 Bihar-Nepal Earthquake, August 21, 198! .441 24.4 Lessons Learnt 444 245 Recommendations 445 Summary 445 References 446 Appendix 1: Muzaffarabad Earthquake of October 8, 2005.... 25. Elastic Properties of Structural Masonry .... 25.1 Inuoduction 25.2 Materials for Masonry Construction .. 25.2.1 Unit 25.2.2 Mortar 25.23 Grout 25.2.4 Reinforcement 449 449 449 450 451 451ND Gantenes ) 26. 27. 25.3. Elastic Properties of Masonry Assemblage 25.3.1 Compressive Strength 25.3.2 Flexural Tensile Strength 25.3.3 Shear Strength Summary References Lateral Load Analysis of Masonry Buildings ... 26.1 Introduction ..... 26.2 Procedure for Lateral Load Analysis of Masonry Buildings.. 464 26.2.1 Step 1: Determination of Lateral Loads 262.2 Step 2: Distribution of Lateral Force 26.2.3 Step 3: Determination of Rigidity of Shear Wall 26.2.4 Step 4: Determination of Direct Shear Forces and Torsional Shear Forces 262.5 Step 5: Determination of Increase in Axial Load Due to Overturnin; 26.2.6 Step 6: Walls Subjected to Out-of-plane Bendin; Summary References Seismic Analysis and Design of Two-storeyed Masonry Building$s.........sesss: 27.1 Introduction 27.2 Building Data 27.3 Step 1: Determination of Design Lateral Loa 27.4 Step 2: Determination of Wall Rigidities . 27.5. Step 3: Determination of Torsional Forces 27.6 Step 4: Determination Increase in Axial Load due to Overturning 27.7 Step 5: Determination of Pier Loads, Moments and Shear. 27.8 Step 6: Design of Shear Walls for Axial Load and Moments 27.9 Step 7: Design of Shear Wells for Shear 27.10 Step 8: Structural Details Summary References Part VIL SEISMIC EVALUATION AND RETROFITTING OF REINFORCED CONCRETE AND MASONRY BUILDINGS Seismic Evaluation of Reinforced Concrete Buildings: A Practical Approach 28.1 Introduction 505-52329, 30. 28.2 Components of Seismic Evaluation Methodology 28.2.1 Condition Assessment for Evaluation ... 28.2.2 Field Evaluation/Visual Inspection Method 28.2.3 Concrete Distress and Deterioration Other than Earthquake .. 28.2.4 Non-destructive Testing (NDT)... Summary References Seismic Retrofitting Strategies of Reinforced Concrete Buildings...... 29.1 Introduction .. . 509 worerneeeree 524-555, 29.2 Consideration in Retrofitting of Structures: 528 29.3 Source of Weakness in RC Frame Building 528 29.3.1 Structural Damage due to Discontinuous Load Path 529 29.3.2 Structural Damage due to Lack of Deformation 29.3.3. Quality of Workmanship and Materials 29.4 Classification of Retrofitting Techniques 29.5. Retrofitting Strategies for RC Buildings. 29.5.1 Structural Level (or Global) Retrofit Methods 29.5.2. Member Level (or Local) Retrofit Methods 29.6 Comparative Analysis of Methods of Retrofitting Summary References Seismic Retrofitting of Reinforced Concrete Buildings—Case Studies ......1.....sssssess 30.1 Introduction ... 30.2 Methodology for Seismic Retrofitting of RC Buildings 30.3 Case Study 1: Seismic Retrofitting of RC Building with Jacketing and Shear Walls. 30.4 Case Study Shear Wall 30.5 Case Study 3: Seismic Retrofitting of RC Building with Steel Bracing 30.6 Case Study 4: Seismic Retrofitting of RC Building by Jacketing of Frames. 30.7 Case Study 5: Seismic Retrofitting of RC Building with Shear Walls and Jacketing 30.8 Case Study 6: Seismic Retrofitting of RC Building by Adding Frames 30.9 Case Study 7: Seismic Retrofitting of RC Building by Steel Bracing and Infill Wall 30.10 Case Study 8: Seismic Retrofitting of RC Building with Shear Walls ic Retrofitting of RC Building with Bracing and .-- 568 570 30.11 Case Study 9: Seismic Retrofitting of RC Building by Seismic Base Isolation .. 571 30.12. Case Study 10: Seismic Retrofitting of RC Building by Viscous Damper ....... 573 Summary ReferencesaE Gan 5 31. 82. Index. Seismic Provisions for Improving the Performance of Non-engineered Masonry Construction with Experimental Verifications... 31.1 Introduction 31.2. Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Provisions 31.3 Salient Features of Earthquake Resistant Provisions .. 314 Seismic Strengthening Features. 31.5 Experimental Verification of Codal Provisions 31.5.1 Features of Model 31.5.2 Seismic Strengthening Arrangements 31.6 Shock Table Test on Structural Models 31.6.1 Behaviour of Models in Shock Tests 31.6.2 Recommendations Summary References Retrofitting of Masonry Buildings...... 32.1 Introduction .... 32.2. Failure Mode of Masonry Buildings 32.2.1 Out-of-plane Failure 32.2.2 Inplane Failure 32.2.3 Diaphragm Failure 32.2.4 Failure of Connection 32.2.5 Non-structural Components 32.2.6 Pounding 32.3. Methods for Retrofitting of Masonry Buildings . 323.1 Repair 32.3.2 Local/Member Retrofitting 323.3. Structural/Global Retrofitting 32.4. Repairing Techniques of Masonry 32.4.1 Masonry Cracking 32.4.2 Masonry Deterioration 32.5 Member Retrofitting 32.5.1 Retrofitting Techniques 32.6 Structural Level Retrofitting Methods 32.6.1 Retrofitting Techniques 32.7. Seismic Evaluation of Retrofitting Measures in Stone Masonry Models 32.7.1 Behaviour of Retrofitted Models .. 32.7.2. Findings Summary ReferencesPreface ‘The vast devastation of engineered systems and facilities during the past few earthquakes has exposed serious deficiencies in the prevalent design and construction practices. These disasters have created a new awareness about the disaster preparedness and mitigation, With increased awareness came the demand of learning resource material which directly address the requirements of professionals without any circumlocution. While the recommended codes of practice for earthquake resistant design do exist but those only specify a set of criteria for compliance. These design codes throw little light on the basic issue of how to design. The problem becomes more acute as students graduate with degrees in civil/structural engineering without any exposure to earthquake engineering in most of the universities/institutes. The short-term refresher courses routinely offered by various institutes and universities for professionals achieve little more than mere familiarization with the subject matter. Any short-term approach to the leaming process, which requires the relevant ideas and concepts to be assimilated, is doomed to fail. Realizing the practical difficulties of professionals in attending any long-term direct contact academic programme on earthquake engineering, a six-month modular course in distance education mode was offered by IIT Roorkee in 2004. The course was well-received and culminated in a two-day workshop at Roorkee which was attended by a large number of participants, providing valuable feedback. This book derives its origin from the set of lecture notes prepared for the participants with later additions to incorporate some of the suggestions made in the feedback workshop. The guiding principle in developing the content of this book has been to provide enough material—at one place—to develop the basic understanding of the issues as required for correctly interpreting and using the standard codes of practices for earthquake resistant design. The objective is to present the essentials in a clear and concise manner with adequate illustrations, while intentionally steering clear of some of the advanced topics which require more rigorous mathematical treatment. This book is divided into seven parts, cach dealing with a specific aspect of earthquake engineering. We start with the discussion of the physics of the earthquake generation, the evolution of the seismic zoning map of India, characteristics of the earthquake strong ground motions, and determination of seismic design parameters in the first part on Earthquake Ground Motions. The second part on Structural Dynamics is concerned with the study of xxi(Preface ) analytical treatment of vibration problems. Starting with an introductory chapter on Mathematical Modelling for Structural Dynamics Problems, the theory of structural dynamics is developed gradually to the level of dynamics of complex structural systems including multi-support excitation and dynamic soil-structure interaction analysis. The treatment is intentionally focused on deterministic problems in time domain as most of the professional engineers do not feel comfortable with the probabilistic framework and frequency domain methods. The basic philosophy of the earthquake resistant design is discussed along with the deficiencies in the prevalent design and construction practices with the help of several case studies in the third part on Concepts of Earthquake Resistant Design of Reinforced Concrete Buildings. Simple architectural considerations that go a long way in improving the seismic performance of reinforced concrete (RC) buildings are also discussed. The modelling issues, including the modelling of infill panels, and seismic analysis of RC framed buildings are elaborated through several worked-out examples in the fourth part on Seismic Analysis and Modelling of Reinforced Concrete Buildings. The actual design calculations as per relevant IS codes are presented for the seismic design of four-storey RC framed buildings and RC shear walls are described in the fifth part on Earthquake Resistant Design of Reinforced Concrete Buildings. A detailed example on the capacity design method to handle the soft-storey problem in RC framed buildings has also been presented. The modelling, analysis and design of masonry buildings to resist earthquake load forms the thrust of part six entitled Earthquake Resistant Design of Masonry Buildings. Finally, the seventh part on Seismic Evaluation and Retrofitting of Reinforced Concrete and Masonry Buildings elaborates upon the very challenging problem of seismic evaluation and retrofitting/strengthening of existing buildings. A state-of-the-art compilation of methods and materials has been presented along with experimental verification in some case studies. Thus a gamut of earthquake engineering starting from seismology and seismic hazard analysis to analytical study of dynamic behaviour to design and retrofit of RC and masonry buildings has been presented in a single volume. This book is the result of team work. We have received tremendous support and cooperation from our colleagues and students in bringing it to this form and are greatly indebted to them. in particular. to Prof. Susanta Basu and Prof. S.K. Thakkar who read early drafts and offered useful suggestions for improvement in addition to contributing some chapters for the book. Dr. J.P. Narayan pitched in with his expertise in the engineering seismology to contribute a chapter introducing the basic seismological concepts. Mr. V.V.S. Dadi helped with the calculations and Mr. J.P. Singh and Mr. Hemant Venayak helped with the figures. We greatly appreciate the kind support extended to us by the staff of Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi. We particularly admire the seemingly infinite patience of Ms. Seema Zahir, who readily accepted numerous revisions/corrections till the last moment. Finally, we are grateful to our wives, Mahima and Ashwini, for their support during the period when time was at a premium. Although this book is primarily designed to serve as a textbook for undergraduate and postgraduate students of civil engineering, it can also be used as a reference book for regular academic courses on design of reinforced concrete and masonry buildings. The book will also serve the needs of structural designers as a ready reckoner for most of the commonlyc Prefce) encountered problems in earthquake resistant design and construction. Only the problems related to earthquake resistant design of buildings have been addressed in this book to resirict it to a reasonable size. It is planned to address the problems concerning earthquake resistant design of other structural types in another volume. It is but natural that some crrors might have crept into the text of such volume, We will appreciate if such errors are brought to our notice. Suggestions for improvement of the book are also welcome. PANKAJ AGARWAL MANISH SHRIKHANDEContributors Jay Prakash Narayan Assistant Professor, Department of Earthquake Engineering Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee Shashikant Thakkar Railway Bridge Professor Department of Civil Engineering Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee Susanta Basu Professor, Department of Earthquake Engineering Indian Institute of Technology RoorkeeEarthquake Ground MotionChapter 1 Engineering Seismology 1.1 INTRODUCTION Seismology is the study of the generation, propagation and recording of elastic waves in the earth, and the sources that produce them (Table 1.1). An earthquake is a sudden tremor or movement of the earth’s crust, which originates naturally at or below the surface. The word natural is important here, since it excludes shock waves caused by nuclear tests, man-made explosions, etc, About 90% of all earthquakes result from tectonic events, primarily movements on the faults, The remaining is related to volcanism, collapse of subterranean cavities or man- made effects. Tectonic earthquakes are triggered when the accumulated strain exceeds the shearing strength of rocks. Elastic rebound theory gives the physics behind earthquake genesis. This chapter includes elastic rebound theory, plate tectonics, earthquake size, earthquake frequency and energy, seismic waves, local site effects on the ground motion characteristics, interior of the earth and seismicity of India. TABLE 1.1 A list of natural and man-made earthquake sources Seismic Sources Natural Source Man-made Source Tectonic Earthquakes + Controlled Sources (Explosives) Volcanic Earthquakes + Reservoir Induces Earthquakes + Rock Falls/CoMapse of Cavity + Mining Induces Earthquakes + Microseism + Cultural Noise (Industry, Traffic, etc.) 1.2. REID’S ELASTIC REBOUND THEORY After the devastating 1906 San Francisco, California earthquake, a fault trace was discovered that could be followed along the ground in a more or less straight line for 270 miles. It was found that the earth on one side of the fault had slipped compared to the earth on the other side of the fault up to 21 feet. This fault trace drew the curiosity of a number of scientists, but 3GED (Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures ) nobody had yet been able to explain what was happening within the earth to cause earthquakes. From an examination of the displacement of the ground surface which accompanied the 1906 earthquake, H.F. Reid, Professor of Geology at Johns Hopkins University, concluded that the earthquakes must have involved an “elastic rebound” of previously stored elastic stress (Reid, 1911). The gradual accumulation and release of stress and strain is now referred to as the “elastic rebound theory” of earthquakes. Suppose continuously increasing shear forces are acting on two blocks of an unstrained existing fault (Figure I.la). Further, assume that these stresses are trying to move the western block northward and the eastem block southward. Because of friction, there is no movement initially, but the blocks are distorted so that lines originally straight across the fault have become oblique (Figure 1.1b). oN i Just after No strain Strained earthquake FIGURE 11 Schematic representation of elastic rebound theory (after Mussett and Khan, 2000). The weakest part the fault slips suddenly when the strain becomes more than what the fault, can support. The rupture from the weakest part extends rapidly along the fault plane, allowing the blocks on either side of it to ‘jerk’ into a Jess strained condition. The half arrows beside the fault in Figure 1.1c show the extent of this sudden displacement, called the elastic rebound. The accumulated energy in the strained volume of rock is suddenly released in the form of seismic waves and a part is converted into heat or other forms. 1.3. THEORY OF PLATE TECTONICS The epicentres of earthquakes are not randomly distributed over the earth’s surface. They tend to be concentrated in narrow zones. Why is it so? And why are volcanoes and mountainranges also found in these zones, too? An explanation to these questions can be found in plate tectonics, a concept which has revolutionized thinking in the Earth Sciences in the last few decades. The epicentres of 99% earthquakes are distributed along narrow zones of interplate seismic activity, The remainder of the earth is considered to be aseismic. However, no region of the earth can be regarded as completely earthquake-free. About 1% of the global seismicity is due to intraplate earthquakes, which occur away from the major seismic zones. The seismicity map is one of the important evidences in support of the plate tectonic theory, and delineates the presently active plate margins (Figure 1.2). 0 2) 40 6 0 100 120 140 160 180 160 140 130 100 80 60 NS. ‘ : ted 60 ie se °s| o a Dt tet Oo 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 FIGURE 1.2 Geographical distribution of epicentres of 30,000 earthquakes occurred during 1961-1967 illustrates the tectonically active regions of the earth (after Barazangi and Dorman, 1969). The pioneering work was done by Alfred Wegener, a German meteorologist and geophysicist, towards the development of the theory of plate tectonics. He presented his continental drift theory in his 1915 book “On the Origin of Continents and Oceans’. He proposed that at one time all the continents were joined into one huge super continent, which he named Pangaea and that at a later date the continents split apart, moving slowly to their present positions on the globe. Wegener’s theory was not accepted since he could not satisfactorily answer the most fundamental question raised by his critics, i.e. what kind of forces could be strong enough to move such large masses of solid rock over such great distances? Further, Harold Jeffreys, a noted English geophysicist, argued correctly that it was physically impossible for a large mass of solid rock to plough through the ocean floor without breaking up, as proposed by Wegener. But, Wegener persisted in his study of the idea, finding more and more supporting evidences like fossils and rocks of vastly different climates in the past that could only be explained by a relocation of the particular continent to different latitudes,GMD (Eorthquake Resistant Design of Structures ) Wegener died in 1930 and his continental drift theory was not accepted by most of the scientific community in spite of numerous supporting evidences. Continental drift theory was hotly debated off and on for decades even after his death and was largely dismissed as being eccentric, preposterous, and improbable. However, in the beginning of 1950s, wealth of new evidences emerged to revive the debate about Wegener's provocative ideas and their implications. In particular, four major scientific developments spurred the formulation of theory of the plate tectonics. (i) Demonstration of the ruggedness in the form of oceanic ridges, island arcs, trenches and youthness of the ocean floor. (ii) Confirmation of repeated reversals of the carth magnetic ficld in the past and development of paleomagnetism. i) Emergence of the seafloor-spreading hypothesis and associated recycling of oceanic crust. Hess (1962) first recognized the sea floor spreading at the oceanic ridges. (iv) Precise documentation that the world’s earthquake and volcanic activity is concentrated along oceanic trenches and submarine mountain ranges. After fifty years of publication of Wegener's continental drift theory (1915), finally the science of plate tectonics, although in a modified form, came to the rescue of his intellectual honour and his life’s work was vindicated. According to the theory of plate tectonics, the outermost layer of the earth, known as lithosphere, is broken into numerous segments or plates. The plates comprising crust and upper mantle are floating on the asthenosphere, which is viscous in nature. A plate may be purely continental, oceanic or both continental and oceanic. 1.3.1 Lithospheric Plates The crust and uppermost mantle down to a depth of about 70-100 km under deep ocean basins and 100-150 km under continents is rigid, forming a hard outer shell called the lithosphere. Beneath the lithosphere lies the asthenosphere, a layer in which seismic velocities often decrease, suggesting lower rigidity. It is about 150 km thick, although its upper and lower boundaries are not sharply defined. This weaker layer is thought to be partially molten; it may be able to flow over long periods of time like a viscous liquid or plastic solid, in a way that depends on temperature and composition. The asthenosphere plays an important role in plate tectonics, because it makes possible the relative motion of the overlying lithospheric plates. Earthquake epicentres are not evenly distributed over the surface of the globe, but occur predominantly in well-defined narrow seismic zones that are often associated with volcanic activity. These narrow zones are: (a) the circum-Pacific ‘ring of fire’; (b) the Alpine-Himalayan belt and (c) the world-circling oceanic ridges. These seismic zones subdivide the lithosphere laterally into tectonic plates (Figure 1.3). There are twelve major plates (Antarctica, Africa, Eurasia, India, Australia, Arabia, Philippines, North America, South America, Pacific, Nazca, and Cocos) and several minor plates (c.g., Scotia, Caribbean, Juan de Fuca, etc.).Chapler J o I0E T30° 180° ow, Spreading ‘Convergent Transform Uncertain gg, Relative motion het ‘boundary boundary “boundary S—€°3 (mm/yr) FIGURE 1.3. The major and minor lithospheric plates. The arrows indicate relative velocities in mm/year at different types of active plate margins (After: DeMets et al., 1990). 1.3.2 Plate Margins and Earthquake Occurrences Barazangi and Dorman (1969) published the locations of all earthquakes occurred in period 1961-1967, to relate the earthquake occurrences with plate tectonics (Figure 1.2). The epicentres of most of the earthquakes are confined to narrow belts, which define the boundaries of the plates. The interiors of the plates are largely free of large earthquakes, but they are not aseismic. ‘The different lithospheric plates comprising both crust and upper mantle move relative to each other across the surface of the globe (Figure 1.3). There are three types of plate margins: (i) Constructive plate margin/Divergent boundaries—where new crust is generated as the plates pull away from each other. (ii) Destructive plate margin/Convergent boundaries—where crust is destroyed as one plate drives under another. (iii) Conservative plate margin/Transform boundaries—where crust is neither produced nor destroyed as the plates slide horizontally past each other. Divergent boundaries Divergent boundaries occur along spreading centres where plates are moving apart and new crust is created by upward movement of molten magma (Figure 1.3). Figure 1.4 depicts a schematic representation for divergence boundary. The well-known divergent boundary is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The rate of spreading along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge averages about 2.5 cm/yr. Divergence(Garthquake Resistant Design of Structures ) boundaries in continental regions are known as rift zones. The distribution of earthquakes defines a narrow band of seismic activity close to the crest of an oceanic ridge and rift zone. The earthquakes occur at shallow depths (2-8 km) and are mostly small. The occurrence of earthquake with magnitude greater than six is rare. — ‘The point is that the lithosphere is very thin and (ie _| weak at divergence boundaries, so the strain build up is not enough to cause large earthquakes. FIGURE 1.4 Schematic representation of divergence boundary. Convergent boundaries The earth's unchanging size implies that the crust must be destroyed at about the same rate as it is being created at divergence boundaries, as surmised in sea floor spreading hypothesis. Such destruction of crust takes place along convergent boundaries where plates are moving toward each other, and one plate sinks under another. The location where sinking of a plate occurs is called subduction zone. Convergence can occur between an oceanic and a continental plate, or between two oceanic plates, or between two continental plates. The ten largest earthquakes since 1900 on the globe have occurred along the subduction zones, including the 26" December 2004 earthquake in Indonesia which had triggered a massive tsunami. Oceanic-continental convergence If by magic we could pull a plug and drain the Pacific Ocean, we would see the most amazing sight, a number of long narrow, curving trenches thousands of kilometres long and 8 to 10 km deep cutting into the ocean floor. Trenches are the deepest parts of the ocean floor and are created by subduction. At the oceanic-continent boundaries, oceanic plate subducts due to higher density (Figure 1.5). Strong, destructive earthquakes and the rapid uplift of mountain ranges towards the side of overriding plate are common at the convergence boundaries. Oceanic- continental convergence also sustains many of the earth's active voleanoes on the side of overriding plate. Continental crust Lithosphere => <= Lithosphere Asthenosphere SQ FIGURE 1.5 Schematic representation of oceanic-continental convergence. Oceanic-oceanic convergence When two oceanic plates converge, older one is usually subducted under the other, and in the process a trench is formed. The Mariana’s Trench (paralleling the Mariana Islands), for example,C Chapter 1 Engineering Seismology) QED marke the location where the fast-moving Pacific Platc converges against the slow moving Philippine Plate. Subduction processes in oceanic-oceanic plate convergence also result in the formation of voleanoes. Such volcanoes are typically strung out in chains called island arcs. Continental-continental convergence ‘The Himalayan mountain range dramatically demonstrates onc of the most visible and spectacular consequences of plate tectonics. When two continents meet head-on, neither is subducted because the continental rocks are relatively light and, like two colliding icebergs, resist downward motion. Instead, the crust tends to buckle and be pushed upward or sideways (Figure 1.6). ; 2 Continental crust Continental crust Lithosphere Lithosphere Asthenosphere FIGURE 1.6 Schematic representation of continental-continental convergence. About 40 to $0 million years ago the boundary between Indian plate and the Eurasian plate was oceanic-continental in nature and later on it became continental-continental convergence after consump- tion of the Tethys Sea. Transform boundaries The zone between two plates sliding horizontally past one another is called a transform-fault boundary, - or simply a transform boundary (Figure 1.7). The FIGURE 1.7 Schematic representation concept of transform fault originated with Canadian ° transform boundary. geophysicist J. Tuzo Wilson, who proposed that these large faults or fracture zones connect two spreading centres (divergent plate boundaries) or, less commonly, trenches (convergent plate boundaries), Most transform faults are found on the ocean floor. However, a few occur on land, for example, the San Andreas Fault zone in Califonia. Along the transform boundaries, the earthquakes occur at shallow depth, unaccompanied by volcanic activity. The friction between the plates can be so great that very large strains can build up before they are periodically relieved by large earthquakes. 1.3.3 The Movement of Indian Plate Among the most dramatic and visible creations of plate-tectonic forces are the lofty Himalayas, which stretches 2,900 km along the border between India and Tibet. After splitting of Pangaea,GUD (Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures ) about 200 million years ago,.India began to forge northward. About 225 million years ago, EURASIAN PLATE India was a large island still situated off the Australian coast, and Tethys Sea separated India from the Eurasian continent. About 80 million years ago, India was located roughly 6,400 km south of the Eurasian continent, moving north- ward at a rate of about 9 m a centuty. By study ing the history and ultimately the closing of the Tethys Sea, scientists have reconstructed India’s northward joumey (Figure 1.8).Immense | 38 mittion _~7 oF Himalayan mountain, range began to-form | yearsago Q between 40 and 50 million years ago, when tWo | Equator large landmasses, India and Eurasia, driven by plate movement, collided. Both these continen. tal landmasses have same rock density, so one | 55 nition plate could not be subducted under the other. | years ago Ane Further, the rate of northward movement of OCEAN India reduced to about 4.5 m a century after y collision. The collision and associated decrease in the rate of plate movement are interpreted to 71 mittion mark the beginning of the rapid uplift of the INDIA" YS 28° Himalayas. Laan: 1.4 SEISMIC WAVES Seismic waves are classified into two groups: body waves, which travel through the earth in pGURE 1.8 Schematic representation of all directions and to all depths, and surface movement of Indian plate. waves, whose propagation is limited to a volume of rock within a few seismic wavelengths of the earth's surface. The uses and analysis methods for the two types of waves are substantially different. Body waves are used for resource exploration purposes and for the study of earthquakes. Surface waves are used to delineate the layered-earth structure. --SRI LANKA 1.4.1 Body Waves ‘Two types of body waves exist: compressional waves (P) and shear waves (S). P-waves are similar to sound waves. They obey all the physical laws of the science of acoustics. The mass particle motion of a P-wave is in the direction of the propagation of the wave. In addition, P-waves cause a momentary volume change in the material through which they pass, but no concomitant momentary shape change occurs in the material. S-waves, or shear waves, as they are commonly called, move in a direction perpendicular to the direction of particle motion. Vertically and horizontally polarised S-waves are known asC Chapter 1 Engineering Seismology) QD SV-wave and SH-wave, respectively. They are sometimes called secondary waves because they travel more slowly than P-Wayes in the same material $-Wwayes de net shange the instaniancows volume of the materials through which they pass, but as they pass through materials, they distort the instantaneous shape of those materials. The velocity of S-wave is directly related to the shear strength of materials. S-waves do not propagate through fluids as those do not have any shear strength. 1.4.2. Surface Waves A disturbance at the free surface of a medium propagates away from its source partly as seismic surface waves. Surface waves, sometimes known as L-waves, are subdivided into Rayleigh (Lp) and Love waves (Lg). These surface waves are distinguished from each other by the type of motion of particles on their wavefronts. Rayleigh waves Lord Rayleigh (1885) described the propagation of Rayleigh wave along the free surface of semi-infinite elastic half-space. In the homogeneous half-space, vertical and horizontal components of particle motion are 90° out of phase in such a way that as the wave propagates, the particle motion describes a retrograde ellipse in the vertical plane, with its major axis vertical and minor axis in the direction of wave propagation. The resulting particle motion can be regarded as a combination of P- and SV-vibrations (Figure 1.9). In the case of a layered and Rayleigh wave (Lp) Direction of. oe Vig= 092 6 motion FIGURE 1.9 Schematic representation of movement of particle during Rayleigh wave propagation (after Lowrie, 1997).GRE Corthquake Resistant Design of Siructures ) dissipative medium, the path is always elliptical but not necessarily retrograde. Further, the axis of the ellipse may not be vertical and horizontal since the phase difference between vertical and horizontal displacement can be different from 90°. The velocity of Rayleigh wave is very much dependent on the Poisson’s ratio and it is equal to 0.9194 times to that of S-wave in the Poisson's solid (Poisson's ratio = 0.25). The particle displacement is not confined entirely to the surface of the medium but the passes of the Rayleigh waves also displace the particle below the free surface up to a depth equal to the wavelength. In a uniform half space, the amplitude of particle displacement decreases exponentially with depth. Love waves AEH. Love (1911) explained the mechanism of generation of Love waves in horizontal soil layer overlying the half-space (Figure 1.10). When the angle of reflection at the base of soil layer is more than the critical angle, SH-waves are trapped in the soil layer. The constructive interference of reflected SH-waves from the top and bottom of the soil layer generate horizontally travelling Love waves. The particle motion is in horizontal plane and transverse to the direction of wave propagation. The velocity of Love wave lies between the velocity of S-wave in the soil layer and in the half-space. The velocity of Love wave with short wavelength is close to the velocity S-wave in soil layer and velocity of longer wavelength Love wave is close to the S-wave velocity in half-space. This dependence of velocity on wavelength is termed dispersion. Love waves are always dispersive, because they can only propagate in a velocity- layered medium. B,> By half-space (b) Love wave (Lo) A SH,/ Panicle yf motion FIGURE 1.10 Schematic representation of movement of particle during Love wave propagation (after Lowrie, 1997).¢ Blaoler 1 Braincerina Seiomolooy) QD 1.5 EARTHQUAKE SIZE 15.1 Intensity Seismic intensity scale is a way of measuring or rating the effects of an earthquake at different sites. The assignment of intensity of an earthquake does not require any instrumental records. It depends very much on the acuity of the observer, and is in principle subjective. Intensity to different places of an affected area can be assigned based on visual observations and interviews of residents or based on evaluation of questionnaires completed by residents of that area. Intensity data are very much useful for the development of seismic risk map of a region or country. Seismic risk maps are useful in planning safe sites for important structures like nuclear power plants or large dams. Risk maps are also valuable to insurance companies. Intensity data is also important in determination of historic seismicity of a region. The Rossi-Forel intensity scale, developed in the late 19th century, have ten stages to describe the earthquake effects in increasing order. Mercalli (1902) proposed an intensity scale in which earthquake severity was classified in twelve stages. The Mercalli intensity scale was modified in 1931 to suit the building conditions in the United States. The modified version is widely known as Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) scale. The Medvedev-Spoonheuer-Karnik (MSK) intensity scale introduced in 1964 also has twelve stages and differs from the MMI scale mainly in details. The MSK (Table 1.5) and MMI (Table 1.6) intensity scales are commonly used to seek information on the severity of effects of an earthquake. Intensity ratings are expressed as Roman numerals. The intensity scale differs from the magnitude scale in that the effects of any one earthquake vary greatly from place to place, so there may be many intensity values for ‘one earthquake. On the other hand, there is only one magnitude value for an earthquake. MSK intensity scale In assigning the MSK intensity at a site due attention is paid to the type of structures (Table 1.2), percentage of damage to each type of structure (Table 1.3) and grade of damage to different type of structures (Table 1.4) and details of intensity scale (Table 1.5). The main features of MSK intensity scale are as follows: TABLE 1.2 Type of structures (buildings) Type of structures _ Definitions A Buildings in fieldstone, rural structures, unbumt-brick houses, clay houses. B Ordinary brick buildings, buildings of the large-block and prefabricated type, half-timbered structures, buildings in natural hewn stone. Reini buildings, well TABLE 1.3 Definition of quantity Quantity Percentage Single, few About 5 Many About 50 Most About 75(Barthquake Resistant Design of Structures ) TABLE 1.4 Classification of damage to buildings Grade Definitions Descriptions Gt Slight damage Fine cracks in the plaster; fall of small pieces of plaster. G2 Moderate damage Small cracks in walls; fall of fairly damaged large pieces of plaster, pantiles slip off; cracks in chimneys; parts of chimney brakes. G3 Heavy damage Large and deep cracks in walls; fall of chimneys. G4 Destruction Gaps in walls; parts of buildings may collapse; separate parts of the building lose their cohesion; and inner walls collapse. Gs Total damage Total collapse of buildings. TABLE 1.5 Details of MSK intensity scale Intensity 1 Descriptions Not noticeable The intensity of the vibration is below the limit of sensibility; the tremor is detected and recorded by seismographs onl Scarcely noticeable Vibration is felt only by individual people at rest in (very slight) houses, especially on upper floors of the buildings. Weak, partially The earthquake is felt indoors by a few people, outdoors observed only only in favourable circumstances. The vibration is like that due to the passing of a light ruck. Attentive observ- ers notice a slight swinging of hanging objects, some- what more heavily on upper floors. Vv Largely observed The earthquake is felt indoors by many people, outdoors by few. Here and there people awake, but no one is frightened, The vibration is like that due to the passing of a heavily loaded truck. Windows, doors and dishes rattle, Floors and walls crack. Fumiture begins to shake. Hanging objects swing slightly. Liquids in open vessels are slightly disturbed. In standing motorcars the shock is noticeable. Awakening (@) The earthquake is felt indoors by all, outdoors by many. Many sleeping people awake. A few run outdoors, Animals become uneasy. Buildings trembie throughout. Hanging objects swing considerably. Pictures knock against walls or swing out of placc. Occasionally pendulum clocks stop. Unstable objects may be overturned or shifted. Open doors and windows are thrust open and slam-back again. Contd.Chapter 1 Engineering Seismology) QED TABLE 1.5 Contd. (tensity Daseriptions (b) © Liquids spill in small amounts from well-filled open containers. The sensation of vibration is like that due to heavy object falling inside the buildings. Slight damages in buildings of Type A are possible. Sometimes changes in flow of springs. vi Frightening (a) (b) (c) Felt by most indoor and outdoor people. Many people in buildings are frightened and run outdoors A few persons lose their balance. Domestic animals run out of their stalls. In few instances dishes and glassware may break, books fall down. Heavy furniture may possibly move and small steeple bells may ring. Damage of Grade I is sustained in single buildings of Type B and in many of Type A. Damage in a few buildings of Type A is of Grade 2. In few cases cracks up to widths of 1 cm is possible in wet ground; in mountains occasional Jandslips; change in flow of springs and in level of well water are observed. Vil Damage of buildings (a) (b) (©) Most people are frightened and run outdoors. Many find it difficult to stand, The vibration is noticed by persons driving motorcars. Large bells ring. In many buildings of Type C damage of Grade I is caused; in many buildings of Type B damage is of Grade 2. Most buildings of Type A suffer damage of Grade 3, a few of Grade 4. In single instances landslips of roadway on steep slopes; cracks in roads; seams of pipelines dam- aged; cracks in stone walls. vol Destruction of buildings @) (b) rs) Fright and panie; also persons driving motorears are disturbed. Here and there branches of trees break off, Even heavy furniture moves and partly overturns. Hanging lamps are damaged in part. Most buildings of Type C suffer damage of Grade 2, and a few of Grade 3. Most buildings of Type B suf- fer damage of Grade 3, and most buildings of Type A suffer damage of Grade 4. Many buildings of Type C suffer damage of Grade 4. Occasional breaking of pipe seams. Memorials and monuments move and twist. Tombstones overturn. Stone-walls collapse. Small landslips in hollows and on banked roads on steep slopes; cracks in ground up to widths of several Contd.GRUWD (Borthquake Resistant Design of Structures TABLE 1.5 Contd. Intensity Descriptions em, Water in lakes becomes turbid. New reservoirs come into existence. Dry wells refill and existing wells become dry. In many cases change in flow and level of water is observed. General damage to buildings (a) General panic; considerable damage to furniture. Animals run to and fro in confusion and cry. (b) Many buildings of Type C suffer damage of Grade 3, and a few of Grade 4. Many buildings of Type B show damage of Grade 4, and a few of Grade 5. Many buildings of Type A suffer damage of Grade 5. Monuments and columns fall. Considerable damage to reservoirs; underground pipes partly broken, In individual cases railway lines are bent and roadway damaged. (©) On flat land overflow of water, sand and mud is often observed. Ground cracks to widths of up to 10 cm, on slopes and river banks more than 10 cm; furthermore a large number of slight cracks in ground; falls of rock, many landslides and earth flows; large waves in water. Dry wells renew their flow and existing wells dry up. x General destruction of buildings (a) Many buildings of Type C suffer damage of Grade 4, and a few of Grade 5. Many buildings of Type B show damage of Grade 5; most of ‘Type A have destruction of Grade 5; critical damage to dams and dykes and severe damage to bridges. Railway lines are bent slightly. Underground pipes are broken or bent. Road paving and asphalt show waves. (b) In ground, cracks up to widths of several cm, some- times up to 1 m, Parallel to water course occur broad fissures. Loose ground slides from steep slopes. From river-bank and steep coasts, considerable landslides are possible. In coastal areas, displacement of sand and mud; change of water level in wells; water from canals, lakes, rivers, etc., thrown on land. New lakes occur. Destruction (a) Severe damage even to well built buildings, bridges, water dams and railway lines; highways become useless: underground pipes destroyed. (b) Ground considerably distorted by broad cracks and fissures, as well as by movement in horizontal and vertical directions; numerous landslips and falls of rock. The intensity of the carthquake requires to be Contd.Chapter 1 Engineering Seemolowy) QED TABLE Lie Contd Intensity Descriptions investigated specially. xl Landscape changes (a) Practically all structures above and below the ground are greatly damaged or destroyed. (b) The surface of the ground is radically changed. Considerable ground cracks with extensive vertical and horizontal movements are observed. Falls of rock and slumping of river-banks over wide areas, lakes are dammed; waterfalls appear, and rivers are deflected. The intensity of the earthquake requires to be investigated specially. The details of Modified Mercalli Intersity (MMI) scale is given in Table 1.6 and is also used to seek information on the effects of an earthquake like MSK intensity scale. TABLE 1.6 Details of MMI intensity scale Intensity 1 Descriptions Vibrations are recorded by instruments. People do not feel any earth movement. 1 People at rest upstairs notice shaking. A few people might notice movement if they are at rest and/or on the upper floors of tall buildings. Shaking felt indoors; hanging objects swing. Many people indoors feel movement. Hanging objects swing back and forth. People outdoors might not realize that an earthquake is occurring. Dishes rattle; standing cars rock; trees shake. Most people indoors feel movement. Hanging objects swing. Dishes, windows, and doors rattle. The earthquake feels like a heavy truck hitting the walls. A few people outdoors may feel movement. Parked cars rock. Doors swing; liquid spills from glasses; sleepers awake. Almost everyone feels movement. Sleeping people are awakened. Doors swing open or close. Dishes are broken. Pictures on the wall move. Smiall objects move or are turned over. Trees might shake. Liquids might spill out of open containers. VI People walk unsteadily; windows break; pictures fall off walls. Everyone feels movement. People have trouble walking. Objects fall from shelves. Pictures fall off walls. Furniture moves. Plaster in walls might crack. Trees and bushes shake. Damage is slight in poorly built buildings. No structural damage. Difficult to stand; plaster, bricks, and tiles fall; large bells ring. People have diffi- culties in standing. Drivers feel their cars shaking. Some furnitures break. Loose bricks fall from buildings. Damage is slight-to-moderate in well-built buildings; considerable in poorly built buildings. Car steering affected; chimneys fall; branches break; cracks in wet ground. Drivers Contd.(Barthquake Resistant Design of Structures ) TABLE 1.6 Details of MMI intensity scale Intensity Descriptions have trouble steering. Houses that are not bolted down might shift on their foundations. Tall structures such as towers and chimneys might twist and fall. Well-built buildings suffer slight damage. Poorly built structures suffer severe damage. Tree branches break. Hillsides might crack if the ground is wet. Water lev- els in wells might change. x General panic; damage to foundations; sand and mud bubble from ground. Well- built buildings suffer considerable damage. Houses that are not bolted down move off their foundations. Some underground pipes are broken. The ground cracks. Reservoirs suffer serious damage. x Most buildings destroyed; large landslides; water thrown out of rivers. Most build- ings and their foundations are destroyed. Some bridges are destroyed. Dams are seriously damaged. Large landslides occur. Water is thrown on the banks of canals, rivers, lakes. The ground cracks in large areas. Railroad tracks are bent slightly. XI Railway tracks bend; roads break up; large cracks appear in ground; rocks fall. Most buildings collapse. Some bridges are destroyed. Large cracks appear in the ground. Underground pipelines are destroyed. Railroad tracks are badly bent. xt Total destruction; “waves” seen on ground surface; river courses altered; vision distorted. Almost everything is destroyed. Objects are thrown into the air. The ground moves in waves or ripples. Large amounts of rock may move. 1.5.2 Isoseismal Map ‘A contour ona map bounding areas of equal intensity is an isoscismal and a map having different isoseismals for a particular earthquake is an isoseismal map. The intensity is usually strongest near the earthquake epicentre and decreases with distance and at large distance the earthquake is no longer felt by anyone. Other factors such as the local geology beneath a particular site, the regional geology and the orientation of the earthquake fault can affect intensity. The numbers on the map represent relative shaking strength and can be qualitatively interpreted. Earthquake isoseismal maps provide valuable documents of macro-seismic effects of large earthquakes. Isoseismal maps of past earthquakes help us to understand the nature of the earthquakes in a particular region. Scientifically, it is still a far cry to predict an earthquake, and to be able to take effective steps for minimizing the damage due to the same. So, in the absence of earthquake prediction, the use of isoseismal map for long term planning and development of seismic zoning maps or seismic hazard maps is the best approach. 1.5.3 Earthquake Magnitude Earthquake magnitude is a measure of the amount of energy released during an earthquake. Depending on the size, nature, and location of an earthquake, seismologists use different methods to estimate magnitude. Since magnitude is the representative of the earthquake itself, there is thus only one magnitude per earthquake. But magnitude values given by differentChapter 1 Engineering Seismology) QD seismological observatories for an event may vary. The uncertainty in an estimate of the magnitude is about +0.3 unit, Seismologists often revise magnitude estimates as they obtain and analyze additional data. Richter magnitude (M,) One of Dr. Charles F. Richter’s most valuable contributions was to recognize that the seismic waves radiated by earthquakes could provide good estimates of their magnitudes. Richter (1935) collected the recordings of seismic waves from a large number of earthquakes and constructed a diagram of peak ground motion versus distance (Figure 1.11). The logarithm of recorded amplitude was used due to enormous variability in amplitude. Richter inferred that the larger the intrinsic energy of the earthquake, the larger the amplitude of ground motion at a given distance. 1 Se a Modified from 2h Richter (1958) @ |: 2 @ & 2 3 x Se 0 100200300 40050000 Distance (km) FIGURE 1.11 A plot of log of peak amplitude in mm versus epicentral distance of earthquakes recorded in Southern California (different symbols represent different earthquakes). The idea of a logarithmic earthquake magnitude scale struck into the mind of Richter after analysing the roughly parallel curves generated by different size earthquakes on the plot of log of the recorded amplitude at various epicentral distances. The parallel nature of curves for different earthquakes suggested that a single number could quantify the relative size of different earthquakes. He proposed zero magnitude for an earthquake that would produce a record with amplitude of 1.0 m at a distance of 100 km from the epicentre on Wood-Anderson (WA) seismograph with 1.25 Hz natural frequency and 2800 magnification factor. The logarithmic form of Richter magnitude scale (M;) is given as: My = logig A - logo Ao (1) where Ao is the amplitude for zero magnitude earthquakes at different epicentral distances and Ais the recorded amplitude in um. The zero magnitude amplitude can be computed for different epicentral distances taking into account the effects of geometrical spreading and absorption of considered wave.GD (Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures ) The Richter scale used in Southem California for different epicentral distances and 18 km fixed focal depth is as follows. M, = logioA (mm) + Distance correction factor ‘o” (2) Distance correction factor ‘6’ is log of inverse of zero magnitude amplitude measured in mm at an epicentral distance ‘A’ in kmi. The distance correction factors for different epicentral distances are given in Table 1.1. The distance correction factors given in Table 1.7 cannot be used in other regions of the world since considered focal depth was constant. So, to compute M, in any other region like Himalayas, first zero magnitude amplitude at different epicentral distances should be determined according to the original definition of M; at 100 km and different focal depths taking into account the geometrical spreading and appropriate measure of absorption. Since, sufficient time resolution of high frequency records is no longer a problem, therefore, frequency dependent distance correction factors, matched with Richter scale at 100 km distance, have been developed based on epicentral as well as hypo-central distances (Hutton and Boore, 1987; Kim, 1998; Langston et al., 1998). TABLE 1.7 Distance correction factors (0) for M,, (Elementary Seismology, Richter, 1958) Akm 4) Am) tt) A (km) aa) Atm) fd) 0 14 90 3.0 260 38 440 46 10 is 100 3.0 280 3.9 460 4.6 20 id 120 at 300 4.0 480 47 30 24 140 3.2 320 4 500 43 40 2.4 160 3.3 340 4.2 520 4.8 50 2.6 180 34 360 43 540 4.8 60 28 200 33 380 44 560 49 70 28 220 3.65 400 45 380 4.9 80 29 240 3.7 420 45 600 49 Although, Richter magnitude was originally developed using earthquake records of WA-seismometer in Southern California but the records of any short period seismometers can be used. Now, procedures are available to synthesise precisely the response characteristics of WA-seismograph from digital broadband recordings (Plesinger et al., 1996). Magnitude is a measure of seismic energy released which, in turn, is proportional to (A/T), where A is the ground motion tace amplitude, and T as the period of the considered wave. So, the general form of Richter magnitude scale based on measurements of ground displacement amplitudes A of considered wave with periods T is M = logyy (A/T ngx + (A, A) + C, + Cy (1.3) where o(A, h), distance correction factor at an epicentral distance ‘A’ and focal depth *h’. C, is the regional source correction term to account for azimuth dependent source directivity and , is the station correction factor dependent on local site effects. (A/T) for different periods are computed and maximum of them is used in the magnitude computation.( Chapler 1_Engineering Seismology) QD Surface wave magaitade As more seismograph stations were installed around the world, it became apparent that the method developed by Richter was strictly valid only for certain frequency and distance ranges. Further, at large epicentral distances, body waves are usually attenuated and scattered so that the resulting motion is dominated by surface waves. On the other hand, the amplitude of surface waves, in case of deep focus earthquakes is too small. So, in order to take advantage of the growing number of globally distributed seismograph stations, new magnitude scales that are an extension of Richter’s original idea were developed. These include body-wave magnitude (mp) and surface-wave magnitude (Ms). Each is valid fora particular period range and type of seismic wave. A commonly used equation for computing Mg of a shallow focus (< 50 km) earthquake from seismograph records between epicentral distances 20°< A < 160° is the following one proposed by Bath (1966). Ms = logio (AdT)nax + 1.66logyy A+ 3.3 (4) Where As is the amplitude of the horizontal ground motion in ‘im’ deduced from the surface waye with period 7 (around 20 + 2 seconds) and epicentral distance A is in degree. Body wave magnitude (m,) Gutenberg (1945) developed body wave magnitude my for teleseismic body-waves such as P, PP and S in the period range 0.5 s to 12 s. It is based on theoretical amplitude calculations corrected for geometric spreading and attenuation and then adjusted to empirical observations from shallow and deep-focus earthquakes. my = logio(ATmax + (A, 1h) (1.5) Gutenberg and Richter (1956) published a table with distance correction factors 6(A, h) for body waves, which enable magnitude determinations. These distance correction factors are used when ground motion trace amplitudes are measured in ‘um’. Duration magnitude (Mp) Analogue paper and tape recordings have a ery limited dynamic range of only about 40 dB and 60 dB, respectively. M, cannot be determined since these records are often clipped in case of strong and near earthquakes. Therefore, alternative duration magnitude scale M, has been developed. Duration from the P-wave onset to the end of the coda (back-scattered waves from numerous heterogeneities) is used in computations. Aki and Chouet (1975) reported that for a given local earthquake at epicentral distances lesser than 100 km the total duration of a signal is almost independent of distance, azimuth and property of materials along the path. This allows development of duration magnitude scales without a distance term. Mp = a + a log D (1.6) dg and a, are constant and D is the duration in seconds. The values of these constants vary region to region according to crustal structure, scattering and attenuation conditions. They have to be determined locally for a region with the help of available My.GEE (Eortiquake Resistant Design of Structures ) Moment magnitude In case of large earthquakes, the various magnitude scales (M;, mg or Ms) based on maximum amplitude and period of body waves or surface waves under estimate the energy released duc to saturation. Recently, seismologists have developed a standard magnitude scale, known as moment magnitude. Moment magnitude is calculated using moment released during an earthquake rupture. The moment released depends on the physical dimension of the rupture (A), shear strength of the rock (jz) and the average displacement on the fault plane (d). Figure 1.12 shows a schematic diagram of the strained fault just before the rupture. In this figure, a couple of the shear forces acting on the either side of the fault are considered, ‘2b’ distance apart, The moment of the couple (Mp) is simply ‘F.2b". Now, if ‘d’ is the displacement, the strain (7) developed by the couple is ‘d/2b”. The value of considered force can be obtained in terms of shear strength rock and area of rupture, using stress-strain relationship. z O=FA=py=pditb or F=wAdi2b Strained volume just before rupture FIGURE 1.12 Schematic diagram for seismic moment determination (after Mussett and Khan, 2000). Finally, moment can be computed as Mo=HAd «7 ‘The moment magnitude M, can be obtained using following relation (Kanamori, 1977; Hanks and Kanamori, 1979). My =2 (login Mo(dyne-cm) ~ 16.0 a8) ‘The rigidity ‘’ is measured using samples of rock or is estimated from knowledge of the rocks in the area. Aftershocks are believed to reveal the rupture area because most of them lie on a plane. The simplest way to measure the length ‘L’ and average displacement ‘d’ of a fault is to look at the newly faulted surface, or fault break. The seismic moment can also be estimated from the long period components of seismograms (Bullen and Bolt, 1985)C Chapter 1 Engineering Seismology ) ERD 1.5.4 Energy Released in an Earthquake The earthquake magnitude is defined in terms of logarithm of the amplitude of recorded seismic wave, and energy of a wave is proportional to the square of its amplitude. So, there should be no surprise that the magnitude is also related to the logarithm of the energy. Several equations have been proposed for this relationship in the past. An empirical formula worked out by Gutenberg and Richter (Gutenberg, 1956), relates the energy release E to the surface-wave magnitude Ms logy B= 4.4 + 15 Ms (19) where £ is in Joules. An alternative version of the energy—magnitude relation, suggested by Bath (1966) for magnitudes Ms > 5, is, logy E = 5.24 + 144 Ms (1.10) The logarithmic nature of each formula means that the energy release increases very rapidly with magnitude. For example, when the magnitudes of two earthquakes differ by 1, their corresponding energies differ by a factor 28 (=10!#) according to Bath’s equation, or 32 (10°) according to the Gutenberg-Richter formula, More recently, Kanamori came up with a relationship between seismic moment and seismic wave energy. It gives: Energy = (Moment}/20,000 (i) For this relation moment is in units of dyne-cm, and energy is in units of erg. 1.5.5 Earthquake Frequency On this globe, the annual frequency of small earthquakes is very large and that of large earthquakes is very small (Table 1.8). According to a compilation published by Gutenberg and Richter in 1954, the mean annual number of earthquakes in the years 1918-1945 with magnitudes 4-4.9 was around 6000, while there were only on an average about 100 earthquakes per year with magnitudes 6-6.9. The relationship between annual frequency (N) and magnitude TABLE 1.8 Earthquake frequencies since 1900 (based on data from the USGS/ NEIC) and the estimated mean annual energy release based on Bath (1966) Earthquake magnitude Number per year Annual energy (10'° Joule yr) 28.0 0-1 0-600 7-79 18 200 6-6.9 120 43 5-5.9 800 12 4-4.9 6,200, a 3-3.9 49,000 1 229 ~350,000 0.2 19 =3,000,000 O14GED (Eerthquoke Resistant Design of Structures ) (Ms) is logarithmic and is given by an equation of the form logN = a- bMs (1.12) The value of ‘a’ varies between about 8 and 9 from one region to another, while ‘b” is approximately unity for regional and global seismicity. Most of the time ‘b’ is assumed to be equal to 1; *b’>1 in an area generally means that small earthquakes occur frequently; *b’<1 indicates an area that is more prone for a larger earthquake. In volcanic areas where there is lots of earthquake swarms ‘b’ >1. Along subduction zones and continental rifts the value of *b’. Valley duration, are topography (ridge, valley and : pane © Slope/siope l. Focusing variation slope variation) and the lateral discontinuities. ‘The historical references regarding earthquake ¢ Basin-edge C. Strong Lateral damage due to local site condition extend back Damping discontinuities to nearly 200 years (Wood, 1908; Reid, 1910), Mac Murdo (1924) noted that the buildings situated on the rock were not much affected as those situated on the soil cover during Kutch earthquake (1819). Recent examples regarding the intense effects of local site conditions include Michoacan earthquake (1985) which caused only moderate damage in the vicinity of its epicenter but caused heavy damage some 400 km away in the Mexico city (Dobry and Vacetic, 1987), damage caused by the Loma Prieta, California earthquake (1989) in the city of San Francisco and Oakland (USGS, 1990) and damage pattern observed during Bhuj earthquake of January 26, 2001 (Narayan et al., 2002). bs 1.6.1 Basin/Soil Effects Study of different aspects of basin effects on the ground motion characteristics needs special attention since most of urbanized areas are generally settled along river valleys over young, soft, surficial soil deposits. Impedance contrast Seismic waves travel faster in hard rocks than in softer rocks and sediments. As the seismic waves pass from hard medium to soft medium, their celerity decrease, so they must get bigger in amplitude to carry the same amount of energy. If the effects of scattering and materialc Chapter 1_Engineoring Seiamolow ) QED damping are neglected, the conservation of elastic wave energy requires that the flow of energy (energy flux, pVsv7) from depth to the ground surface be constant. Therefore, with decrease in density (p) and S-wave velocity (Vs) of the medium, as waves approach the ground surface, the particle velocity (v), must increase. Thus, shaking tends to be stronger at sites with softer soil layers. Resonance Tremendous increase in ground motion amplification occurs when there is resonance of signal frequency with the fundamental frequency or higher harmonics of the soil layer. Various spectral peaks characterize resonance patterns. For one-layer 1D structures, this relation is very simple: fo = Vs)/4h (fundamental mode) and f,, = (2 + 1) fo (harmonics) where Vo, is the S-wave velocity in the surficial soil layer, and h is the thickness. The amplitudes of these spectral peaks are related mainly to the impedance contrast and sediment damping. Damping in soil Absorption of energy occurs due to imperfect elastic properties of medium in which the collision between neighbouring particles of the medium is not perfectly elastic and a part of the energy in the wave is lost instead of being transferred through the medium. This type of attenuation of the seismic waves is referred to as anclastic damping, The damping of seismic waves is described by a parameter called as quality factor (Q). It is defined as the fractional loss of energy per cycle, 27/0 = —AE/E, where AE is the energy lost in one cycle and E is the total elastic energy stored in the wave. If we consider the damping of a seismic wave as a function of the distance and the amplitude of seismic wave, we have Ae A, exo(- 25) = Agexp(-ar) (1.13) where @ = @/2QV is absorption coefficient. This relation implies that higher frequencies will be absorbed at a faster rate. Basin edge Intense concentrations of damage parallel to the basin-edge had been observed due to strong generation of surface waves near the edge, during recent earthquakes (Northridge earthquake, 1994; Kobe earthquake, 1995 and Dinar earthquake, 1995). The conclusion that basin-edge induces strong surface waves had been drawn in many studies by examining the phase and group velocities, polarity and arrival azimuth (Bard and Bouchan, 1980 a, b 1985; Hatayama et al., 1995; Kawase, 1996; Pitarka et al., 1998; Narayan, 2003a, 2004, 2005). Surface waves start generating near the edge of the basin when frequency content in the body wave exceeds the fundamental frequency of the soil and their amplitudes decrease with increase of edge-slope (Narayan, 2004, 2005). Figure 1.13a shows the vertically exaggerated basin-edge models having different thickness of single soil layer over the bed-rock. Figure 1.13b depicts the vertical component of ground motion, computed for thickness of soil layer as 195 m using a double-couple source (dip = 45°,ED (Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures ) rake = 60° and strike = 90°) just below the edge at a depth of 13.7 km with a dominant frequency 1.0 Hz. The P- and S-waves velocities and densities were taken as 1396.5 m/s, 400.0 m/s and 1.9 g/cm? for soil and 3464.1 m/s, 2000.0 m/s and 2.5 g/cm’ for half space (hard rock). The ground response was computed at 26 equidistant (105 m apart) receiver points. Figure 1.13b reveals four well-separated wavelets at receiver points some distance away from the edge. The differential ground motion in north-south direction clearly depicts horizontally travelling surface waves since vertically travelling body waves are more or less removed (Figure 1.13c). —+—-N RIO Vacuum PANO ener e oe 60 m. 4105 m_ i 150m Sat 1452 195 m_ p=25 g/cm’, A= 10 GPa, A= 10 Gpa Hard rock [aaganeune sat hanes aa) vo 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 Time (sec) Time (sec) (b) ©) FIGURE 1.13 (a) Vertically exaggerated basin-edge model, (b) vertical component of ground displacement, and (c) the differential ground displacement corresponding to the vertical compo- nent of ground motion at 26 receiver points (after Narayan, 2005). The generation of surface waves near the edge was confirmed on the basis of the large coherence in recording stations, increase of travel time of later phases as we move away from the edge, estimated group velocity of later phases and the analysis of differential ground motion (Narayan, 2005). Both P-wave and S-wave have caused generation of Rayleigh waves.( Tooler 1 Broinsering Seumolooy ) QUAD The major conclusions drawn in papers of Bard and Bouchan (1980 a, b), Hatayama et al. (1995), Kawase (1996) Pitarka, et al. (1998) and Narayan (2003a, 2004, 2005) are listed below. * Basin-edge induces strong surface waves near the edge. © Edge-induced surface waves propagate normal to edge and towards the basin. Surface waves start generating near the edge of the basin when frequency content in the body wave exceeds the fundamental frequency of the soil deposit. © Surface wave amplitude decreases with increase of edge-slope. * Damage caused by edge-induced surface waves is confined in a narrow zone (width 2.5-3.5 km) parallel to the edge, and at some distance (0.5—1.0 km). © Surface wave amplitude increases with the decrease of propagation velocity in soil. Further, their characteristics are highly variable with change in propagation velocity and thickness of soil deposit © The characteristics of edge-induced surface waves are also very much dependent on the angle of incidence of body waves. « Edge-induced surface waves develop significant differential ground, the main cause of damage during earthquakes, in addition to amplification and prolongation of the signal. Basement topography The focusing and defocusing effects caused by basement topography are strongly dependent on the azimuth and angle of incidence of waves. Seismic waves traveling upward from depth may be redirected by subtle irregularities at geological interfaces, particularly the basement topography. The effects of focusing and defocusing are maximum for normal incidence of waves and it decreases with increase of angle of incidence. Similarly, azimuth also affects the focusing and defocusing effects. This effect reveals the importance of considering not only the surficial soil layer but also the basement topography for seismic microzonation. ‘Trapping of waves The fundamental phenomenon responsible for the increase of duration of motion over soft sediments is the trapping and multiple reflections of seismic waves due to the large impedance contrast between soft sediments and underlying bedrock. Sometimes, when a wave enters a basin through its edge, it can become trapped within the basin if post-critical incidence angles develop, causing total intemal reflection at the base of the layer. Waves that become trapped in deep sedimentary basins can therefore be potentially very damaging. 1.6.2 Lateral Discontinuity Effects ‘There are numerous consistent macroseismic observations showing a significant increase in intensity of damage in narrow zones located along lateral discontinuities, i.e. areas where a softer material lies besides a more rigid one. An amplitude amplification and local surface wave generation in the softer medium and large differential motion caused by shorter wavelength Of the surface wave can explain the observed damage. In past, a number of field observationsGEE (Borthquake Resistant Design of Structures ) (Narayan and Rai, 2001) and theoretical studies have reported significant increase of damage in the narrow zone located along strong lateral discontinuities (Moczo and Bard, 1993). 1.6.3 Effect of the Surface Topography It has often been reported after destructive earthquakes in hilly areas that buildings located at hill tops suffer much more damage than those located at the base: examples of such observations may be found in Levret et al., 1986 (Lambesc, France, 1909 earthquake), Siro, 1982 (Ixpinia, Italy, 1980 earthquake), Celebi, 1987 (Chile, 1985 earthquake) and Narayan and Rai, 2001 (Chamoli, 1999 earthquake). ‘There are also very strong instrumental evidences that surface topography considerably affects the amplitude and frequency contents of ground motion (Pedensen et al., 1994). A review of such instrumental studies and results may be found in Geli et al. (1988), Aki (1988) and more recently in Faccioli (1991). The theoretical and numerical models have also predicted a systematic amplification of ground motion at ridge crest (convex part) and deamplification in valley (concave parts) of the surface topography (Kawase and Aki, 1990; Sanchez-Sesma, 1990; Faccioli, 1991; Narayan and Rao, 2003; Narayan, 2003b). Narayan and Rao (2003) reported surface wave generation near the top of the ridge and their propagation towaids the base of the ridge, in addition to amplification of ground motion with elevation and slope of the ridge using 2.5 D model (Narayan, 2001). Narayan (2003b) reported strong generation of surface for weathering thickness more than one-eighth of wavelength. He reported on the basis of the simulated results that damage to the built environment may be maximum on the top of the ridge, if it is not weathered. But, if the velocity of the weathered material is very less as compared to the underlying rock formation, maximum damage may be more near the base of the ridge, due to large amplitude and duration of the generated surface waves. Some of the findings of the above-mentioned studies are listed below. © Ground motion amplification increases with ridge-slope. © Maximum amplification (2776 times, where @ is the crest angle) occurs at the crest of the triangular wedge type topography relative to the base for wavelength comparable to width of the base (Figure 1.14). (a) FIGURE 1.14 Characterization of simple topographic irregularities; (a) notation for a trian- gular wedge; (b) approximation of actual ground surface (solid line) at trough and crest by wedges, (after Faccioli, 1991).Chapter 1 Engineering Seismology) QED © De-amplification (2n/6 times) occurs in valley relative to the top of the valley. & Tapageaphis aniplifigition a @ of angle of incidence of hody waves. © Ridge amplification increases with elevation (Figure 1.15) 12 T T T Ridge profile Ratio of peak to peak crest acceleration 2 2 & & © x 02 1 \ 1 1 oO 30 100 150 Elevation (m) FIGURE 1.15 Variation of average amplification factor with elevation (after Jibson, 1987). © Surface waves are generated near the top of the topography. The presence of neighbouring ridges accentuates the topographic effects. © Interference between the incident waves and outgoing diffracted waves produces rapidly varying amplitude and phase, thereby causing differential ground motion along the slope of the topography. * The amplitude of ridge-weathering-induced surface wave increases towards its base, if thickness of weathering is more than one-eighth of the wavelength. © Decrease of weathering velocity increases the amplitude of ridge-induced surface waves. Complicated damage pattern occurs on hills with variable slopes. Generally, houses situated on or near the slope-change suffer more damage. © In general, theoretical studies predict lower amplification than those obtained by analysis of recorded motion,ED (Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures ) 1.7 INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH The delineation of internal structure of the Earth, different discontinuities and nature of material between two major discontinuities is mainly based on the analysis of the recorded reflected and refracted seismic waves. In broad sense, the internal structure of the earth is divided into three concentric cells, namely crust, mantle and core according to the chemical property of the materials (Figure 1.16). Further, crust is divided as upper and lower crust, mantle as upper and lower mantle and core as inner core and outer core. The crust and mantle together are also classified as lithosphere, asthenosphere and mesosphere, on the basis of physical property of the materials. Following subheadings describe crust, mantle and core in brief along with the discovery of major discontinuities. Body-wave velocity kms") (2 sw 15 cmt ot ts ipper 10} mantle 10004 Lower 20004 B @ ‘ mantle & 3004——— 2 a a 4000 Outer core i \ -5154 Inner 60004 core | FIGURE 1.16 Internal structure of the earth based on P- and S-waves velocity variations (after Kennett and Engdahl, 1991), 1.7.1 Crust Andrija Mohorovicic (1909) found only direct P-wave (Pg) arrivals near the epicentre during the analysis of an earthquake in Croatia. But beyond 100 km two P-wave arrivals were recorded and direct P-wave was overtaken by the second P-wave (Pn). He concluded that it is only possible when Pn has travelled at greater speed. Mohorovicic identified Pn as a refracted wave from the upper mantle. According to his calculations, the velocity of direct P-wave and refracted P-wave was 5.6 kmv/s and 7.9 km/s, respectively; and the estimated depth, at which suddenc Chapier 1 Bagincering Seamotoy) QED increase of velocity occurred was 54 km. Now, this seismic discontinuity between crust and manlle, where there fe sudden !ncrease of sclamle wave velocity, is called as Mohorovicic discontinuity, or simply Moho. V. Conrad (1925) found faster P-wave (P*) and S-wave (S*) as compared to Pg and Sg waves during the analysis of Tauem earthquake of 1923 (Eastern Alps) in upper crustal layer. The estimated velocities of P* and S* waves (6.29 km/s and 3.57 km/s, respectively) were lesser than the velocities of Pn and Sn waves refracted from the Moho. Conrad inferred the existence of a lower crustal layer with higher velocity as compared to the upper crustal layer. The interface separating the crustal mass into upper and lower crust is called as Conrad discontinuity, in honour of V. Conrad. Worldwide analysis of recorded reflected and refracted seismic waves reveals that the structures of the crust and upper mantle are very complex. The thickness of crust is highly laterally variable. It is 5-10 km in oceanic region, below the mean water-depth of about 4.5 km. The vertical structure of continental crust is more complicated than that of oceanic crust. ‘The thickness of continental crust varies from 35 to 40 km under stable continental areas and 50 to 60 km under young mountain ranges. 1.7.2 Upper Mantle ‘The Mohorovicic discontinuity defines the top of the mantle. The average depth of Moho is 35 km, although it is highly variable laterally. Several discontinuities of seismic wave velocity and velocity gradients exist in the upper mantle. The uppermost mantle, 80-120 km thick, is rigid in nature in which velocity of seismic wave increases with depth. This rigid part of uppermost mantle together with crust forms the lithosphere. The lithosphere play an important role in plate tectonics. There is an abrupt increase of seismic wave velocity (3 — 4%) at depth of around 220 + 30 km. This interface is called as the Lehmann discontinuity. Between the base of lithosphere and the Lehmann discontinuity, there is low velocity layer (LVL) with negative velocity gradients. The average thickness of LVL is around 150 km. This LVL is known as asthenosphere, which also plays an important role in plate tectonics. Asthenosphere behaves as viscous fluid in long term and thus decouples the lithosphere from the deeper mantle. The travel-time versus epicentral-distance curves of body wave show a distinct change in slope at epicentral distance of about 20°. This is attributed to a discontinuity in mantle velocities at a depth of around 400 km. This is interpreted as due to a petrological change from an olivine- type lattice to a more closely packed spinel-type lattice. A further seismic discontinuity occurs at a depth of 650-670 km. This is a major feature of mantle structure that has been observed world-wide. In the transition zone between the 400 km and 670 km discontinuities there is a further change in structure from B-spinel to ¥-spinel, but this is not accompanied by appreciable changes in physical properties. 1.7.3 Lower Mantle The lower mantle lies just below the important seismic discontinuity at 670 km. Its composition is rather poorly known, but it is thought to be consisting of oxides of iron and magnesium asERED (Eorthquate Resistant Design of Structures ) well as iron-magnesium silicates with a perovskite structure. The uppermost part of the lower mantle between 670 and 770 km depth has a high positive velocity gradient. Beneath it, there is great thickness of normal mantle, characterized by smooth velocity gradients and the absence of seismic discontinuities. Just above the core-mantle boundary an anomalous layer, approxi- mately 150-200 km thick, has been identified in which body-wave velocity gradients are very small and may even be negative. 1.7.4 Core R.D. Oldham first detected the fluid nature of the outer core seismologically in 1906. He observed that, if the travel-times of P-waves observed at epicentral distances of less than 100° were extrapolated to greater distances, the expected travel-times were less than those observed. This meant that the P-waves recorded at large epicentral distances were delayed in their path. Oldham inferred from this the existence of a central core in which the P-wave velocity was reduced. Gutenberg (1914) verified the existence of a shadow zone for P-waves in the epicentral range between 105° and 143°, Gutenberg also located the depth of top of outer core at about 2900 km. A modern estimate for this depth is 2889 km, It is characterized by very large seismic velocity change and is the most sharply defined seismic discontinuity. In honour of Gutenberg, the core-mantle boundary is known as the Gutenberg seismic discontinuity. Inga Lehmann (1936), a Danish seismologist, reported weak P-wave arrivals within the shadow zone. She interpreted this in terms of a rigid inner core with higher seismic velocity at depth of around 5154 km. Thus core has a radius of 3480 km and consists of a solid inner core surrounded by a liquid outer core. 1.8 SEISMOTECTONICS OF INDIA Himalaya is one of the tectonically most active belts of the world and one of the rare sites of active continent-continent collision. A major portion of the strain due to collision is taken up in the thrusting phenomenon along the Himalayas while the remaining strain is distributed north of it in a wide area from Tibetan Plateau to Pamirs. The push from the Asian side has given rise to compression from north producing gigantic thrusts progressing from north to south. ‘The northward movement of the Indian plate and the continued convergence process along the Himalayas has transmitted large northerly compression in the Indian Peninsula, causing NE oriented faults (Figure 1.17). The other tectonic features like ENE trending Narmada Son graben and NW trending Godavari and Mahanadi grabens are older. Sometimes the NW faults have been displaced by the younger NE faults. Present-day tectonics as indicated by seismicity study shows strike-slip fauit either along NE or NW tending faults by reactivation, Normal faults along Narmada, Godavari and Koyna rifts are also reactivated occasionally. However, the faults in Peninsular India are small and so only moderate earthquakes have occurred except in Kutch region. The source of stress responsible for tectonic activity in the Kutch region is not well defined.C Chapler 1 Engineering Seiemoloy) QED a yenenneny use \ \ Nongeran ° pm Nah HK Medd Y ont ptr sed, 3) akg 2 (fiat ee Os elt “A » Bay oF j arwoat i / xworar {7 Ptareau CENTRAL BASIN oi aeapen FAULT phnust (2) sunae (22) Graben FB) Lincament 7) Voleanie Are [E_ piretion of Vlcity [=] temaion! Boundary SS) Ridge [7] Fautt FIGURE 1.17 Tectonic map showing the major geomorphologic features in India and adjoining regions. AR—Aravalli Ridge; ASR—Andaman Spreading Ridge; CB—Cuddapah Basin; CG—Cambay Graben; CHB—Chhatisgarh Basin; DG—Damodar Graben; DHR—Delhi- Hardwar Ridge; FR—Faizabad Ridge; GBF—Great Boundary Fault; GG—Godavari Graben; HK—Hindukush; KOF—Koyna Fault; KR—Kutch Ridge; MG—Mahanadi Graben; MRDF— Moradabad Fault; MSR—Monghyr Saharsa Ridge; NT—Naga Thrust; SGF—Sogaing Fault; SHF—Sumatra Fault; TST—Tien Shan Thrust; WCF—West Coast Fault (after Khan, 2004).GEIB (Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures ) 1.9 SEISMICITY OF INDIA Earthquakes have been occurring in the Indian subcontinent from the times immemorial but reliable historical records are available for the last 200 years (Oldham, 1883). From the beginning of 20" century, more than 700 earthquakes of magnitude 5 or more have been recorded and felt in India, as given in the catalogues prepared by US National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration, India Meteorological Department, National Geophysical Research Institute (Figure 1.18). The seismicity of India can be divided in four groups, namely, Himalayas region, Andaman Nicobar, Kutch region and Peninsular India. Some of the damaging earthquakes which have occurred in these four regions are listed in Table 1.10. © s0w<60 © 60m<65 © o3~<70 © 20we7s 75w<8O More tan 40 Doce oe os) : rb of Pemacumesea een (hae aha = ——1— ‘é) = © Ea we me Re FIGURE 1.18 Seismicity map of India (after, 18:1893 (Pt. 1): 2002).(G Chapter 1 Engineering Seismology) QED TABLE 1.10 List of damaging earthquakes in India - Himalayan Region S.No. Name Location Year Magnitude/ Death Intensity 1. Kashmir Earthquake Srinagar, J. & K. 1885 - 3,000 2. Shillong Earthquake Shillong, Plateau 1897 87 1,600 3. Kangra Earthquake Kangra, H.P. 1905 8.5 20,000 4. Bihar-Nepal Earthquake Bihar-Nepal border region 1934 83 10,000 5. Assam Earthquake Assam 1950 8.5 1,526 6. Bihar-Nepal Earthquake Bihar-Nepal border region 1988 65 1,000 7. Indo-Burma Earthquake India-Burma Border 1988 13 = 8. Uttarkashi Earthquake Utturkashi, Uttaranchal 1991 7.0 768 9. Chamoli_ Earthquake Chamoli, Uttaranchal 1999 6.8 103° Andaman Nicobar 1. Andaman-Nicobar Andaman-Nicobar Trench 1941 8.1 -_ Earthquake Kutch Region 1, Samaji Earthquake Samaji, Delta of Indus 1668 x = 2. Kutch Earthquake Kutch, Gujarat 1819 8.0 2,000 3. Anjar Earthquake Anjar, Gujarat 1956 61 115 4. Bhuj Earthquake Bachau, Gujarat 2001 69 20,000 Peninsular India 1, Bombay-Surat Earthquake Bombay-Surat 1856 VI a 2. Son Valley Earthquake Son Valley 1927 65 - 3. Satpura Earthquake Satpura 1938 63 = 4. Balaghat Earthquake Balaghat, M_P. 1997 3.5 - 5. Koyna Earthquake Koyna 1967 6.0 177 6. Ongole Earthquake Ongole, Bhadrachalam 1967 54 - 7. Broach Earthquake Broach 1970 3.4 26 8. Latur Earthquake Latur, Maharashtra 1993 6.2 10,000 9. _Jabalpur_Earthquake Jabalpur, M.P. 1997 6.0 54 1.10 CLASSIFICATION OF EARTHQUAKES 1, Based on location 2. Based on epicentral distances (a) Interplate (a) Local earthquake 10° 3, Based on focal depth (a) Shallow depth 0-71 km (b) Intermediate depth 71-300 km 4. Based on magnitude (a) Mircoearthquake < 3.0 (b) Intermediate earthquake 34GED (Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures ——___——_) (c) Deep earthquake > 300 km (c) Moderate earthquake 5-5.9 (d) Strong earthquake 6-6.9 (c) Major earthquake 7-7.9 (f) Great earthquake > 8.0 1.11 TSUNAMI Tsunami is a series of large waves of extremely long period caused by a violent, impulsive undersea disturbance or activity near the coast or in the ocean. The waves become extremely dangerous and damaging when they reach the shore. The word tsunami is composed of the Japanese words “tsu” (which means harbour) and “nami” (which means “wave”). They are some times called seismic sea waves or, erroneously, tidal waves. In case of tsunami waves, energy extends to the ocean bottom and water flows straight. Near the shore, tsunami energy is concentrated in the vertical direction by the reduction in water depth, and in the horizontal direction by shortening of the wavelength due to reduction in velocity. There are various aspects of tsunami waves which are studied by researchers namely plate tectonics responsible for generation, propagation and observation, inundation, run-up build-up near the coast due to geometry of coast, resonance in bays, etc. The destructive tsunamis are generated from large (dislocation of several metres), shallow earthquakes with epicentre or fault line near or on the ocean floor. Tsunamis generally occur in the oceanic subduction zones of lithospheric plates. The sudden vertical displacements over large areas, disturb the ocean’s surface, displace water, and generate destructive tsunami waves. A ‘tsunami earthquake’ is defined as an carthquake that excites much larger tsunami than expected from its seismic waves (Kanamori, 1972; Abe, 1973). Usuallg, earthquakes with Richter magnitude larger than 7.5 produce destructive tsunami waves. Table 1.11 shows a list of ten deadliest tsunamis in Indian Ocean. The wavelength of the tsunami waves and their period depend on the generating mechanism and the dimensions of the source event. The period of the TABLE L11 List of ten deadliest tsunamis in Indian Ocean Year Deaths Location* Dec, 26, 2004 220000+ Sumatra Aug. 27, 1883 36500 Java/Sumawra Jan. 26, 1941 5000 Andaman Sea Sept. 3, 1861 1700 Sumatra Jun. 16, 1819 15434, Arabian Sea Nov. 28, 1945 1000+ Arabian Sea Feb. 16, 1861 905 Sumatra April 2, 1762 500 Bay of Bengal Aug. 19, 1977 500 Sunda Islands Jan. 4, 1907 400 Sumatra + Includes deaths from the tsunami and the earthquake.Cc Thapicr 1 Engineering Seismology) QED tsunami waves may range from 5 to 90 minutes. On the open ocean, the wavelength of a tsunami may be as much as 200 km (Figure 1.19). In the deep ocean, the height of the tsunami from trough to crest may range from only a few centimetres to a metre or more, In shallow waters near the shoreline, however, the tsunami height may build up to several metres. 1.11.1 Tsunami Velocity The velocity of a tsunami wave (Vry,) Whose wavelength is sufficiently large compared to the water depth (25 or more times the depth) is given by the following expression (Satake, 2002): Vase = Veh (1.14) where ‘g’ is the acceleration due to earth’s gravity field and ‘h’ is the depth of water. The tsunami velocity may vary from 35 km/hr to 950 km/hr for the range of water depth 10 m to 7.0 km (Figure 1.19). 1.0.2 Run-up and Inundation Although infrequent, tsunamis are among the most terrifying and complex physical phenomena and have been responsible for great loss of life and extensive destruction to property. Damage due to tsunami is caused by large run-up (elevation reached by seawater measured relative to some stated datum), inundation (distance between the inundation line and the shore), wave impact on structures and erosion, As the tsunami wave approaches the coast, the wavelength is shortened and the wave energy is directed upward, thus increasing their heights considerably, as shown in Figure 1.19. The amplitude of tsunami waves may grow up to 30-35 m near the shore. Depending upon the kin FIGURE 1.19 Velocity and wavelength variation with water depth of a tsunami with period about 18 minutes, and an illustration for amplitude amplification near the shore.(Barthquake Resistant Design of Structures ) water depth and the coastal configuration, the waves may undergo extensive refraction, another process that may converge their energy to particular areas on the shore and thus increase the heights and inundation even more. Ficld surveys are carried out after every large tsunami for assessment of run-ups and inundation limits and to collect associated data from eyewitnesses such as the number of waves, arrival time of waves and the largest wave. SUMMARY Seismology is the study of generation, propagation and recording of elastic waves in the earth and of sources that produce them. An earthquake is a sudden tremor or movement of carth’s crust, which originates naturally at or below the surface. About 90% of all earthquakes result from tectonic events, primarily movements of the faults. The remaining proportion is related to volcanism, collapse of sub-terranean cavities, or man-made effects. The epicenters of earthquakes are not randomly distributed over the earth's surface. They tend to be concentrated in narrow zones. This chapter describes in detail the elastic rebound theory, seismic waves, local site effects on ground motion characteristics, interior of the earth and movement of Indian plate along with its seismotectonic features. GLOSSARY OF EARTHQUAKE/SEISMOLOGY e Active fault. A fault that is likely to have another earthquake some time in the future. Faults are commonly considered to be active if they have moved one or more times in the past, ¢ Aftershocks. Earthquakes that follow the largest shock of an earthquake sequence. ‘They are smaller than the mainshock and continue over a period of weeks, months, or years. In general, the larger the mainshock, the larger and more numerous the aftershocks, and the longer they will continue. ¢ Alluvium. Loose gravel, sand, silt, or clay deposited by streams. * Aseismic. This term describes a fault on which no earthquakes have been observed. ¢ Attenuation, When you throw a pebble in a pond, it makes waves on the surface that move out from the place where the pebble entered the water, The waves are largest where they are formed and gradually get smaller as they move away. This decrease in size, or amplitude, of the waves is called attcnuation, ‘* Basement. Harder and usually older igneous and metamorphic rocks that underlie the main sedimentary rock sequences (softer and usually younger) of a region and extend downward to the base of the crust. « Bedrock. Relatively hard, solid rock that commonly underlies softer rock, sediment, or soil; a subset of the basement. * Benioff zone. A dipping planar (flat) zone of earthquakes that is produced by the interaction of a downgoing oceanic crustal plate with a continental plate. These earthquakes can be produced by slip along the subduction thrust fault or by slip on faults within the downgoing plate as a result of bending and extension as the plate is pulled into the mantle. Also known as the Wadati-Benioff zone.Chapter 1 Engineering Seismology) QED Body wave. A seismic wave that moves through the interior of the earth, as opposed to the surface waves that travel near the earth's surface. P- and S-waves are body waves. Crust, The outermost major layer of the earth, ranging from about 10 to 65 km in thickness worldwide. The uppermost 15 to 35 km of crust is brittle enough to produce earthquakes. Core. The innermost part of the earth. The outer core extends from 2500 to 3500 miles below the earth’s surface and is liquid metal. The inner core is the central 500 miles and is solid metal. Earthquake. This term is used to describe both sudden slip ona fault, and the resulting ground shaking and radiated seismic energy caused by the slip, or by volcanic or magmatic activity, or other sudden stress changes in the earth. Earthquake hazard. Anything associated with an earthquake that may affect the normal activities of people. This includes surface faulting, ground shaking, landslides, liquefaction, tectonic deformation, tsunamis, and seiches. Earthquake risk. The probable building damage, and number of people that are expected to be hurt or killed if a likely earthquake on a particular fault occurs. Earthquake risk and earthquake hazard are occasionally used interchangeably. Epicentre. The point on the earth’s surface vertically above the point in the crust where seismic rupture begins Fault. A fracture along which the blocks of crust on either side have moved relative to one another parallel to the fracture. Strike-slip faults are vertical (or nearly vertical) fractures where the blocks have mostly moved horizontally. If the block opposite to an observer looking across the fault moves to the right, the slip style is termed right lateral; if the block moves to the left, the motion is termed left lateral. Dip-slip faults are inclined fractures where the blocks have mostly shifted vertically. If the rock mass above an inclined fault moves down, the fault is termed normal, whereas if the rock above the fault moves up, the fault is termed reverse (or thrust) Oblique-slip faults have significant components of both slip styles. Foreshocks. Foreshocks are relatively smaller earthquakes that precede the largest earthquake in a series, which is termed the mainshock. Not all mainshocks have foreshocks. Hypocentre. The point within the earth where an earthquake rupture starts. Also commonly termed the focus. Intensity. A number (written as a Roman numeral) describing the severity of an earthquake in terms of its effects on the earth's surface and on humans and their structures, There are many intensity values for an earthquake, depending on where you are, unlike the magnitude, which is one number for each earthquake. Intraplate and interplate. Intraplate pertains to process within the earth’s crustal plates. Interplate pertains to process between the plates. Isoseismal. A contour or line on a map bounding points of equal intensity for a particular earthquake, Left-lateral. If you were to stand on the fault and look along its length, this is a type of strike-slip fault where the left block moves toward you and the right block moves away.GED (Bertiquate Bevis of Structures ed) Lithosphere. The outer solid part of the earth, including the crust and uppermost mantle. The lithosphere is about 100 km thick, although its thickness is age dependent (older lithosphere is thicker). The lithosphere below the crust is brittle enough at some locations to produce earthquakes by faulting, such as within a subducted oceanic plate. Love wave. A type of seismic surface wave having a horizontal motion that is transverse (or perpendicular) to the direction the wave is travelling. Magnitude. A number that characterizes the relative size of an earthquake. Magnitude is based on measurement of the maximum motion recorded by a seismograph. Several scales have been defined, but the most commonly used are (1) local magnitude (M,), commonly referred to as “Richter magnitude,” (2) surface-wave magnitude (Ms), (3) body-wave magnitude (mg), and (4) moment magnitude (My). Mainshock. The largest earthquake in a sequence, sometimes preceded by one or more foreshocks, and almost always followed by many aftershocks. Mantle. The part of the earth's interior between the metallic outer core and the crust. Moho. The boundary between the crust and the mantle in the earth. The boundary is between 25 and 60 km deep beneath the continents and between 5 and 10 km deep beneath the ocean floor. ‘Oceanic spreading ridge. A fracture zone along the ocean bottom where molten mantle material comes to the surface, thus creating new crust. This fracture can be seen beneath the ocean as a line of ridges that form as molten rock reaches the ocean bottom: and solidifies. Oceanic trench. A linear depression of the sea floor caused by the subduction of one plate under another. P-wave. A seismic body wave that shakes the ground back and forth in the same direction and the opposite direction as the wave is moving. Plate tectonics. A theory supported by a wide range of evidence that considers the carth’s crust and upper mantle to be composed of several large, thin, relatively rigid plates that mave relative to one another. Slip on faults that define the plate boundaries commonly results in earthquakes. Several styles of faults bound the plates, including thrust faults along which plate material is subducted or consumed in the mantle, oceanic spreading ridges along which new crustal material is produced, and transform faults that accommodate horizontal slip (strike slip) between adjoining plates. Rayleigh wave. A seismic surface wave causing the ground to shake in an elliptical motion, with no transverse, or perpendicular, motion. Recurrence interval. The average time span between large earthquakes at a particular site. Also termed return period Reflection. The energy or wave from an earthquake that has been returned (reflected) from a boundary between two different materials within the earth, just as a mirror reflects light. Refraction. The deflection, or bending, of the ray path of a seismic wave caused by its passage from one material to another having different elastic properties, Bending of a tsunami wave front owing to variations in the water depth along a coastline. Right-lateral. If you were to stand on the fault and look along its length, this is a type lip fault where the right block moves toward you and the left block movesGayle 1 aghscating Siomoio) QED. Ritig of Fire. The zone of earthquakes surrounding the Pacific Ocean which is called the Circum-Pacific belt about 90% of the world’s earthquakes occur there. The next most seismic region (5—6% of earthquakes) is the Alpide belt (extends from Mediterranean region, eastward through Turkey, Iran, and northem India). S-wave. A seismic body wave that shakes the ground back and forth perpendicular to the direction the wave is moving, also called a shear wave. Sand boil. Sand and water that come out onto the ground surface during an earthquake as a result of liquefaction at shallow depth. Seismic gap. A section of a fault that has produced earthquakes in the past but is now quiet. For some seismic gaps, no earthquakes have been observed historically, but it is believed that the fault segment is capable of producing earthquakes on some other basis, such as plate-motion information or strain measurements. Seismicity. The geographic and historical distribution of earthquakes. Seismic moment. A measure of the size of an earthquake based on the area of fault rupture, the average amount of slip, and the force that was required to overcome the friction sticking the rocks together that were offset by faulting. Seismic moment can also be calculated from the amplitude spectra of seismic waves. Seismic zone. An area of seismicity probably sharing a common cause. Example: “The Himalayan Zone.” Seismogenic. Capable of generating earthquakes. Seismogram. A record written by a seismograph in response to ground motions produced by an earthquake. explosion, or other ground-motion sources. Seismology. The study of earthquakes and the structure of the earth, by both naturally and artificially generated seismic waves. REFERENCES ) [2] 3) [4] (S} [6] Abe, K., “Tsunami and Mechanism of Great Earthquakes", Physics of the Earth Planet Interiors, 7: 143-153, 1973. Aki, K. and Chouet, B., “Origin of Coda Waves: Source, Attenuation and Scattering Effects”, Journal of Geophysical Research, 80: 3322, 1975. Aki, K., “Local Site Effects on Strong Ground Motion”, In Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics H-—Recent Advances in Ground Motion Evaluation, 1.L. Yon Thun (Ed.), Geotechnical Special Publication No. 20, 103-155, American Society of Civil Engineering. New York. 1988. Barazangi, M. and Dorman, J., “World Seismicity Map Compiled from ESSA, Coat and Geodetic Survey, Epicenter Data, 1961-1967", Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 59: 369-380, 1969. Bath, M., “Earthquake Energy and Magnitude”, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Abren, L.H. Press, 115-165, 1966. Bard, PY, and Bouchon, M., “The Seifmic Response of Sediment-filled Valleys— Part 1: The Case of Incident SH Waves", Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 70: 1263-1286; 9980s.GREMD (Bortiquake Resistant Design of Structures ) (7) [8] 19] 1} fu] 2) {13} [14] us] [16] 17) [18] [19] [20] 2) [22] [23] [24] [25] Bard, PY. and Bouchon, M., “The Seismic Response of Sediment-filled Valleys— Part 2: The Case of Incident P and SV Waves”, Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 70: 1921-1941, 1980b. Bard, PY. and Bouchon, M., “The Two-dimensional Resonance of Sediment-filled Valleys", Bulletin of ihe Seismotogical Society of America, 75: 519-541, 1985. Bullen, K.E. and Bolt, B.A., An Introduction to the Theory of Seismology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1985. Celebi, M., “Topographical and Geological Amplifications Determined from Strong- motion and Afiershock Records of the 3 March 1985 Chile Earthquake”, Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 77; 1147-1167, 1987. Conrad, V., “Laufzeitkurven Des Tauernbebens”, vom 28: 59: 1-23, Mitt.Erdb.- Komm. Wien, 1925. DeMets, et al., Current Plate Motions, 101: 425-478, 1990. Faccioli, E., “Seismic Amplification in the Presence of Geological and Topographic Irregularities”, Proceedings of 2nd International Conference on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics, St. Louis, Missouri, 2: 1779-1797, 1991. Geli, L., Bard, P.Y. and Jullien, B., “The Effect of Topography on Earthquake Ground Motion: A Review and New Results", Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 78: 42-63, 1988. Gutenberg, B., The Energy of Earthquakes, 112: 1-14, 1945. Gutenberg, B. and Richter, CF, Seismicity of Earth and Related Phenomenon, Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, 1945. Gutenberg, B., “Magnitude Determination for Deep Focus Earthquakes”, Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 35: 117-130, 1956. Hatayama, K., Matsunami, K., Iwata, T. and Irikura, K., “Basin-induced Love Wave in the Eastern Part of the Osuka Basin”, Journal of Physics of the Earth, 43: 131-155, 1995. Hatton, L.K. and Boore, D.M., “The M, Seale in Southern California”, Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 77: 6: 2074-2094, 1987. Jibson, R.. “Summary on Research on the Effects of Topographic Amplification of Earthquake Shaking on Slope Stability”, Open-File-Report-87-268, USGS, California, 1987. Kanamori, H., “Mechanism of Tsunami Earthquake”, Physics of the Earth Planet, Interiors, 6: 246-259, 1972. Kanamori, H., “The Energy Release in Great Earthquakes”, Tectonophysics, 93: 185— 199, 1977. Hank, T.C. and Kanamori, H., “A Moment Magnitude Scale”, JGR, 84: 2348-2350, 1979. IS: 1893, Indian Standard Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures, Part 1, BIS, New Delhi, 2002. Kawase, H., “The Cause of Damage Belt in Kobe: “The Basin-edge Effect’, Constructive Interference of the Direct $-Waves with the Basin Induced Diffracted/ Rayleigh Waves”, Seismological Research Letters, 67: 25-34, 1996.[26] 127] (28) 229] [30] (311 [32] (33) 14] [35] (36] (37) [38] 139] [40] [41] [42] [43] [44] Capi 1 Enginccring Saomctony) QEERD Kawase, H. and Aki, K., “Topography Effect at the Critical SV Wave Incidence: Possible Explanation of Damage Pattern by the Whitter Narrow”, Earthquake of 1 October 1987, Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 80: 22, California, 1990. Kennett, B.L.N. and Engdahl, E.R., “Travel Times for Global Earthquake Location and Phase Identification”, International Journal of Geophysics, 105: 429-465, 1991. Khan, PK., “Recent Seismicity Trend in India and Adjoining Regions”, ISET, New Lett., October 2003-July 2004, 10-14, 2004. Kim, W.Y., “The M, Scale in Eastern North America", Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 88(4); 935-951, 1998. Langston, C.A., Brazier, R., Nyblade, A.A., and Owens, TJ., “Local Magnitude Scale and Seismicity Rate for Tanzania, East Africa,” Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 883): 712-721, 1998. Levret, A., Loup, C., and Goula, X., “The Provence Earthquake of June 11, 1909 (France): New Assessment of Near Field Effects”, Proceedings of the 8th European Conference of Earthquake Engineering, Lisbon, 2, p. 4.2.79, 1986. Love, AE.H., Some Problems of Geodynamics, Cambridge University Press, 1911. Lowrie, W. Fundamentals of Geophysics, Cambridge University Press, 1997. MacMurdo, J., “Papers Relating to the Earthquake which Occurred in India in 1819”, Philosophical Magazine, 63: 105-177, 1824. Moczo, P. and Bard, PY., “Wave Diffractiort, Amplification and Differential Motion Near Strong Lateral Discontinuities”, Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 83: 85-106, 1993. Mohorovicic, A., “Das Beben Vom 8 x 1909”, Jb. Met. Obs. Zagreb, 9, 1-63, 1909, Mussett, A.B. and Khan, M.A., Looking into the Earth: An Introduction to Geological Geophysics, Cambridge University Press, 2000. Narayan, J.P, “Site Specific Strong Ground Motion Prediction Using 2.5-D Modelling”, Geophysical Journal International, 146: 269-281, 2001. Narayan, J.P. and Rai, D.C., “An Observational Study of Local Site Effects in the Chamoli Earthquake”, Proceedings of Workshop on Recent Earthquakes of Chamoli and Bhuj’, 273-279, 2001. Narayan, J.P., Sharma, M.L. and Ashwani Kumar, ‘A Seismological Report on the January 26, 2001 Bhuj, India Earthquake’, Seismological Research Letters, 73: 343-355, 2002. Narayan, J.P. and Prasad Rao, P.V., “Two and Half Dimensional Simulation of Ridge Effects on the Ground Motion Characteristics”, Pure and Applied Geophysics, 160: 1557-1571, 2003. Narayan, J.P. “2.5D Simulation of Basin-edge Effects on the Ground Motion Characteristics", Proceedings of Indian Academy of Sciences (Science of the Earth Planet), 112: 463-469, 2003a, Narayan, J.P., “Simulation of Ridge Weathering Effects on the Ground Motion Characteristics”, Journal of Earthquake Engineering, 7: 447-461, 2003b. Narayan, J.P. “3D Simulation of Basin-edge Effects on the Ground Motion Characteristics”, 13WCEE, August 1-6, Paper No. 3333, Vancouver, Canada, 2004.GRAND (Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures ) [45] [46] [47] [48] [49] 150) [51] (52] [53] [54] [58] [56] {57} {58} {59} Narayan, J.P., “Study of Basin-edge Effects on the Ground Motion Characteristics Using 2.5-D Modelling”, Pure and Applied. Geophysics, 162: 273-289, 2005 Oldham, R.D., “A Catalog of Indian Earthquakes from the Earliest Times to the End of A.D., 1869", Memoir X, Geological Survey of India, 1883. Oldham, R.D., “The Constitution of the Interior of the Earth, as Revealed by Earthquakes”, Quarterly Journal of Geological Society of London, 62: 456-75, 1906. Pedersen, H., Hatzfeld, D., Campillo, M., and Bard, “Ground Motion Amplitude Across Ridges”, Bulletin of the Seismological Soceity of America, 84: 1786-1800, 1994, Pitarka, A., Irikura, K., Iwata, T., and Sekiguchi, H., “Three-dimensional Simulation of the Near Fault Ground Motion for 1995”, Hyogo-ken Nanbu (Kobe), Japan earthquake, Bulletin of the Seismological Soceity of America, 88: 428-440, 1998. Plesinger A., Zmeskal, M., and Zednik, J., Automated Pre-processing of Digital Seismograms: Principles and Software. Version 2.2, E. Bergman (Ed.), Prague and Golden, 1996, Rayleigh, Lord, “On-wave Propagated Along the Plane Surface of an Elastic Solid”, Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, 17; 4-11, 1885. Reid, HF., The California Earthquake of April 18, 1906, Publication 87, 21, Camegie Institute of Washington, Washington, D.C., 1910. Reid, HF, “The Elastic Rebound Theory of Earthquakes”, Bulletin of Department of Geology, 6; 413-444, University of Berkeley, 1911. Richter, C.F, “An Instrumental Earthquake Magnitude Scale”, Bulletin of the Seismological Soceity of America, 25: 1-32, 1935 Richter, C.F, Elementary Seismology, W.H. Freeman, San Francisco, 1958. Sénchez-Sesma, F.J., “Elementary Solutions for the Response of a Wedge-shaped Medium to Incident SH and SV Waves”, Bulletin of the Seismological Soceity of America, 80; 737-742, 1990. Satake, K., Tsunamis, International Handbook of Earthquake and Engineering -—Part B, Lee, et al. (Eds.), 437-451, 2002. ‘Southern Italy November 23, 1980 Earthquake”, Proceedings of 7th European Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Athens, Greece, 1982. Wood, H.O., “Distribution of Apparent Intensity in San Francisco, in the California Earthquake of April 18, 1906”, Report of the State Earthquake Investigation Commission, 1; 220-245, Carnegie Institute of Washington, Washington, D.C., 1908.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.TIL Jo ss yeas Ty pur | Mm A JO SI9IST wi AT pure TT A pur AL 59-9 apmruiew WK sueeyary ay) UE SHINE 1es0] Fuope Aynae yeuondsoxa 9-$ apmuseur jo sysoys [eucrse29Q unOpE|d ay) WO saA09 WOZoUa)-—I0L ~OsoWy OU) UF TUAIXA part] Jo siiMey pue wiseq PURMPUOD ay} Jo sIINey Arepunog ay) 01 parejas aq Avw pue ¢-9-9 epmu “But aavy Kew YoryA “SaNUID 9p WTA O-§ apnyfusvur Jo sysoys jeuoiseaxQ, ST'9 YE Nel, “gg YU epuLEN uo *J-9°9 AU0Z ISt09 389 tO 9pMIE -Seur papiooa wnurxeyy “sipney poddeur Ajurd jo suotsuayxa 0} pareyal oq ueo sanuaide iseg “sy ndey pur epruey ut {-9 apnmuSeur jo syoous Maye {us g-¢ apmytusem Jo syoys vouRMIOD “(siqney ysony *syne} u9UE -o8@q Isto 10 {IMEY wUyeG) qaIMDseq ay) ut simey asnoe fuope funeurdiso 8-$L apmuseur Jo syxoys jeuoTsRII0 pue 2-9 apnyutem yo sysoys May v {MM 9-¢ apnyUsem Jo syoys vow (oxo ‘syne ryneqq ssa uesepuny penueD ‘snap peta ISM] eNTIeS) IypNey puw sey wee] -vUNTE JofeU xp JO aus vO FueUITO 8 UM JOWAsF sYo0qs frUOIseIz0 pu g =$'L apMUBMUL JO SYOYS Maz E ‘S'{-°9 apnyudeul Jo spoys Jo saquNU e YL SO-S spniquFeu Jo sysoys voumio> “sameay o1uadoursias PazryRs0} IMA pur syME wis1UE TEN quad om Jo seam pouon waSoursiose 4 swwaUNpas 210z009)~: Jo zan09 wuOpE|d UX quOU pue sta 2m 01 plats semnsutad omy Jo sued [wuriiear ‘prays amp jo. sued ya -vfpe pue 9uoz yur euRApuoH apajout ‘suounsnipe s21e] pue sitouteaout yey sozosayy UM pjatys Jo NU ‘suorsuaixa payeymsod stay pue ouoz Yu ndey ay ‘uoz yu uog-epruuEN ain ‘auoz aquaZowsIas ISROI IS9M4 am Furpnjour juauasow yey Au saieng—CenaL yt pjarys Jo wap “(plows oy jo uIBseU ye yuSMIASeG OW Jo InowOD WI QODI-0Og 3 AAepuNog om Souyap Aypeuowstacsd dey 1001524, OWL ‘9u0z STI UT popnisut oq Appear Ata prays ayy jo sund prurizew om Jo duos “paystiquisa Ajaanisod 10u st ‘Asepunog ay 794M) vorssordop [eur -aeut pure daopaioy ueXepeunyy Jo Wu) “auoz sim ur pepnjour ussq sey ‘uninyy sip Aq parsayye Kpeas® usaq sey yor SHsseW SuoRTys yy NPIOf Do20U2) JO HUN PITS sy BuempuOD ndry-epewsey pur 18209 159M, uorssordap jeurdzew pue daopasoy sauoz gnus}ag aouasanso0 ayombyss0ry wondiaasoq aun yun 2WOLD2E GED (Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures *((6961 “PARWseALIG Uy) CUeASeUYSLY, Jaye) aouaL N90 ayENbypsWa Jo Asuanbasy puv apnyuseu Iupseascop yyy eIpUy Jo spun afuojI9) posyeroUIH 1° ATAVLaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.GED (Lorthauake Resistant Design of Structures ) SUMMARY The description of perceived threat from earthquakes in different parts of the country in the form of a map began in 1935. The most recent revision of this map was taken up in 2002. This evolution of seismic zoning map of Indian subcontinent is described in this chapter. The basis and data used in the preparation of these zoning maps are discussed, The future trends in the preparation of seismic zoning map on the basis of the probabilistic hazard analysis is also discussed. REFERENCES 103] 2) (3) {4} [5] [6] (71 (8) [9] [10] ty) [12] 13} Auden, J.B., “Earthquake in Relation to Damodor Valley Project”, Earthquake Engi- neering Seminar, H.L. Sally (Ed.), University of Roorkee, India, pp. 212-216, 1959. West, W.D., “Earthquake in India (Presidential Address)”, 24 Indian Science Congress, pp. 189-227, 1937. Krishna, J., “Earthquake Engineering Problems in India”, Journal of Institution of Engineers, India, 1958. Krishna, J., “Seismic Zoning of India”, Earthquake Engineering Seminar, 1.1. Sally, (Ed.), University of Roorkee, India, pp. 24-31, 1959. Mithal, R.S. and Srivastava, L.S., “Geotectonic Position and Earthquakes of Ganga- Brahmaputra Region”, in H.L. Sally, (Ed.), Earthquake Engineering Seminar, University of Roorkee, India, pp. 217-233, 1959. IS: 1893-1962, Indian Standard Recommendations for Earthquake Resistance of Structures, Indian Standards Institute, New Dethi, 1962. Guha, $.K. “Seismic Regionalisation of India”, Second Symposium on Earthquake Engineering, University of Roorkee, India, 1962. IS: 1893-1966, Indian Standard Recommendations for Earthquake Resistance of Structures (First Revision), Indian Standards Institute, New Delhi 1967. Krishnaswamy V.K., “The Evolution of Seismic Zoning Map of India”, Souvenir Volume, H.M. Choudhury, (Ed.), Sixth World Conference of Earthquake Engineering, Prabhat Press, Uttar Pradesh, pp. 77-89, 1977. IS: 1893-1970, Indian Standard Criteria for Earthquake Resistance of Structures (Second Revision), Indian Standards Institute, New Delhi, 1971. Srivastava L.S., “A Note on the Seismic Zoning Map of India”, Bulletin of the Indian Society of Earthquake Technology, 6(4): pp. 185-194, 1969. Srivastava, L.S., “Seismic Zoning Map of India”, Earthquake Engineering—Jai Krishna Sixtieth Birth Anniversary Commemoration Volume, Sarita Prakashan, Meerut, India, pp. 49-65, 1974. IS: 1893, Indian Standard Criteria for Earthquake Resistance of Structures—Part 1: General Provisions and Buildings (Fifth Revision), Bureau of Indian Stantands, New Delhi, 2002.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.ED (Bartiquate R latent Destin of Structures _ STRIKE SLIP DIP SLIP ey Plain view) ay (Cross Section) Fault nh, Fling Step», va Ground Surface Directivity Pulse | b Directivity Pulse i Fling Step Fait) FIGURE 3.2 Schematic illustration of the orientations of fling step and directivity pulse in strike-slip and dip-slip faults (after [32)). form of response spectra needs to be augmented with a simplified description of the near-source pulses in time domain. A simple characterization is indeed possible with the use of Peak Horizontal Velocity (PHV), approximate period of the dominant pulse (7,), and the number of significant half-cycles of motion in the larger, fault-normal direction [16]. (iii) Hanging wall efiect The hanging wall effect is primarily due to the proximity of much of the fault to the sites on hanging wall side. It has been observed to have the most pronounced effect for periods shorter than about 1 s, and at locations away from the top-edge of the fault on the hanging wall side. The rupture directivity effect, on the other hand, is due to rupture propagation and radiation pattern effects. It is more pronounced for periods longer than 1 s, and is concentrated over the top edge of the fault. The relationship between the rupture directivity effect and the hanging wall effect is thus complementary both in the region of influence and the affected period range, thereby increasing the degree of spatial variation of strong ground motion around dipping faults [2]. Sites on the hanging wall of a dipping fault have closer proximity to the fault as. a whole than do the sites at the same closest distance on the foot wall side, causing larger short period motions on the hanging wall than on the foot wall. The hanging wall effect is observed to be the greatest in the closest distance range of 8 to 18 km for periods of 0 to 0.6 s, and decreases to unity at 5 s [1). 3.2.2 Path Effect Although the total energy released during an earthquake is a constant parameter for a particular seismic event the specific energy, which is defined as the seismic energy per unit volume, decreases due to advancing wavefront. This decrease is purely geometrical in nature as the volume of the medium over which the total seismic energy is distributed increases as the wavefront advances. When the earthquake energy is released from a fault below the ground surface, body waves travel away from the source in all directions. If we assume the rupture zone to be a point source, the wavefronts will be spherical and it can be proved that the geometricaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.END (Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures ) recommended approach of using easily available weak motion data instead of data from less frequent strong earthquakes may lead to gross errors in land-use planning in addition to leading to unsafe designs [25]. Strong motion data helps in developing a better understanding of (i) ground response near fault ruptures of large earthquakes, (ii) effects of severe shaking on different sub-surface structures and geologic materials, and (iii) ground response in areas that are prone to liquefaction. Analysis of strong motion records also leads to the development of improved methods for generating artificial earthquake motions for regions where the data from teal earthquakes are not available [27, 28]. The data recorded by the network of instruments in high-rise buildings can be used for deriving information fer remote monitoring of the health of the building, the locations and extent of repair works required, and to verify adequacy of the analytical modeling and design guidelines. The strong motion data as recorded by the strong motion instruments, however, are not directly useful for strong motion studies. The raw data has to be first processed and corrected for various possible sources of errors which might have crept in during the process of recordi A detailed discussion of the various issues of strong motion data processing may be found in other publications [4, 20, 26, 33, 34, 35]. SUMMARY This chapter contains discussion of the various issues involved in strong motion studies— primarily a discussion of what, why, and how. The emphasis is on developing an understanding of the problem of characterizing design earthquake ground motions. This will help readers to interpret correctly the relevant clauses in design codes and also in making a judicious decision in special cases requiring special attention beyond the scope of the standard codes of practice. REFERENCES [1] Abrahamson, N.A. and Silva, W.J., “Empirical Response Spectral Attenuation Relations for Shallow Crustal Earthquakes”. Seismological Research Letters, 68: 94— 127, 1997. [2] Abrahamson, N.A. and Somerville, P.G., “Effects of the Hanging Wall and Foot Wall on Ground Motions Recorded during the Northridge Earthquake”, Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 86: S93-S99, 1996. [3] Aki, K., Chin, B.-H., and Kato, K., “Seismological and Geotechnical Studies of Local Site Effects on Strong and Weak Motions”, In Proceedings of the International Symposium on ihe Effects of Surface Geology on Seismic Motion, ESG1992, Odawara, Japan, Pages I: 97-110, IASPEVIAEE Joint Working Group on ESG, Association for Earthquake Disaster Prevention, Tokyo, Japan, 1992. [4] Boore, D.M., Stephens, C.D., and Joyner, WB., “Comments on Baseline Correction of Digital Strong Motion Data: Examples from the 1999 Hector Mine, California Earthquake", Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 92(4): 1543-1560, 2002.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Chapter 4 Strong Motion Characteristics 4.1 INTRODUCTION ‘The characteristics of strong motion in the vicinity of causative fault (near field) is strongly dependent on the nature of faulting. The motion depends on source parameters such as fault shape, its area, maximum fault dislocation, complexity of slipping process, stress drop and the distance of fault plane from the ground surface. The elastic properties of the material through which the generated seismic waves travel also influence the strong motion characteristics. A component trace of acceleration is known as aceelerogram. Figure 4.1 shows a record of analog accelerograph, obtained during Uttarkashi earthquake of October 20, 1991 in epicentral area, in fact, at Uttarkashi itself. It shows traces of three components (accelerograms), two fixed traces and two traces of relative time marks—two pulses per second. Conventionally trace two is termed as longitudinal (N15°W), trace four is termed as vertical and trace six is termed as transverse (N75°E). By visual inspection following approximate estimate can be made of the parameters of the shock: LOO NO RUE COUN Tu oH YE CORR FIGURE 4.1 Traces of analog records of Uttarkashi earthquake. 70aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.END haritgacc Rievistanat Design of Sirachares ) is unity and for steady-state square acceleration wave it is 1/2, whereas for most earthquake motions this ratio ranges between 5-15. 4.2.2. Duration of Strong Motion Several definitions have been proposed for the strong motion duration of an accelerogram. However, one of the most widely used definitions refers to the duration of the strong motion as the time interval in which 90% of the total contribution to the energy of the accelerogram (J68@P at) takes place [22]. Usually the time interval between 5% and 95% contributions is taken as the strong motion duration. 4.2.3 Fourier Spectrum The frequency content (distribution of energy with respect to frequencies) of an accelerogram is represented by Fourier Spectrum. The Fourier transform of an accelerogram ¥(1) is given by, xo = [eat ay Assuming ground acceleration as non-zero in ¢€ (0, 7] the Equation (4,1) can be written as, 7 7 X(co) = f (0) €05 (a de —i [34 sin (or) dt (4.2) Fourier amplitude and phase spectra of earthquake ground motion are defined using Equation (42) as, T pr, T IX(a@)l = If 1)}60s (an) a] lf sin coat] (43) 7 J #@ sin (on at @) = ~tan 3 (44) fio cos (an) dt Although phase spectrum is considered to be relatively of lesser importance than amplitude spectrum, both amplitude and phase spectra are required for unique definition of ground acceleration. It has long been established that the non-stationary characteristics of an accelerogram are described by its phase spectrum (15, 16, 20, 21]. Fourier amplitude spectra of velocity and displacement can be obtained by dividing acceleration and Fourier amplitude spectrum ordinate by frequency and square of frequency value respectively. Figure 4.5 shows normalized Fourier amplitude spectra for displacement, velocity and acceleration of N1S°W component of Uttarkashi earthquake, recorded at Uttarkashi. It is to be noted that the bandwidth of predominant frequency for displacement is narrowest and that of acceleration is the broadest. It also demonstrates that acceleration, velocity and displacement are controlled by different frequency bands.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.ERED (Eeritiquake Resistant Design of Structures ) It may be seen that for damping ratio ¢ € (0.0, 0.20) Sal @y) = DySpy(Ss On) = Spal Ss On) (4.17) where 5,o(¢, @,) is called absolute pseudo-acceleration spectral response and the Equation (4.17) becomes equality for ¢ = 0. Absolute pseudo-acceleration spectra Sy.(f, @,) < S,(6, @,)- This difference might be important for rigid systems. Figure 4.7(a) shows absolute acceleration response spectra 5,(0.05, @,) and absolute pseudo acceleration response spectra $,,(0.05, ©®,) of longitudinal (N15°W) component of motion at Uttarkashi, Figure 4.7(b) shows the enlarged view of the plot in the period range 5-15 s to illustrate the difference in 5, and S,_ ordinates ‘at long periods. The limiting value of absolute acceleration spectra is achieved for infinitely stiff structure, as there is no relative motion between ground and mass, hence lim $,(0,0,,) =1¥, 1.20 Z 1.00 = a ‘pa 2 0.80 3B 0.60 2 z 040 2 0.20 a 0.00 .« ¥ 0.01 ol 1 10 100 § 6 7 8 910 is 20 Period (s) Period (s) fa) (b) FIGURE 4.7 Comparison of spectral and pseudo-spectral acceleration of longitudinal compo- nent recorded at Uttarkashi for 5% damping. The maximum spring force developed in the oscillator is KS, (, @,) = mSju (C. Oe whereas mS, (£, @,) is the maximum of total elastic and damping forces. The maximum strain energy input is, k E,= 518i OF (4.19) and the maximum stain energy per unit mass is, £= KisCoP = 110,56,0,7 = 115,607 (4.20) = FLUC OM? = 5 (OS GOP = FS p(y : ‘The total energy of the system is, Et) = Bixcor+k oor 21)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.(Barthquake Resistant Desi; recorded earthquake motions in the region. In deriving the spectral shape for horizontal motions, it is common to consider the stronger of the «wo horizontal components of ground motion in these analyses. Since the directivity of a future earthquake is random, the same spectral shape is used for the two orthogonal horizontal directions for a conservative estimate of the expected seismic loading. Further, the two orthogonal horizontal components of design earthquake are generally assumed to be uncorrelated. However, if these spectral shapes were derived from the recorded components of the ground motions, the estimates of the expected spectral ordinates are likely to be biased and also unconservative. The bias in these estimates results from the finite correlation between the recorded components of the motions. In order to eliminate this bias, it is desirable to consider the uncorrelated components of the ground motion in statistical analysis. Let the three translational components of ground acceleration recorded along the three orthogonal transducer axes of the accelerograph denoted by a(t); (i = x, y, z) be defined as, (0) = e(),O a(t) = e(t)by (i) (4.24) a(t) = e(t)b,() where b(t); (i =x, y, 2) are stationary random processes and e(?) is a deterministic modulating function. Assuming the ground acceleration process to be Gaussian with zero mean, the three dimensional ground acceleration process can be completely characterized in a probabilistic sense through the covariance matrix Ba Hy He TH, OL =| Bye By Bye (4.25) He Hy where, ,(= f(t, T) = Elaj()a,(t + 1)}) represents the covariance between two orthogonal components a;(t) and a((1) and E[-] represents the mathematical expectation (ensemble average) ‘operator. As a first approximation, real earthquake accelerograms can be represented by shot or white noise processes [7]. In such a situation, the random variables a,() and a(¢ + 7) would be statistically uncorrelated for non-zero values of time difference t. Hence, the elements of the covariance matrix of the ground acceleration process may approximated by [iy = Ela(ajt)) Substituting from Equation (4.24) into Equation (4.25), the covariance matrix can be written as, [uy] = FOIBI (4.26) where, 11(1) = Ela()a{0)] and B= £1b(t)b{0))) is the time invariant covariance of stationary processes b(t) and bt), for i: j = x, y, z. Further, the components of motion along an arbitrary set of orthogonal axes x’, y’, 2’ can be transformed to components along orthogonal axes x, y, z by a simple transformation as, a,(t) a(t) a,(t) | = [Al] ay(t) (4.27) a(t) a(t)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.GED (Lorthquake Resistant Design of Structures ) where, @, denotes the natural frequency of the SDOF structure, Uy represents the yield deformation, and j1 is the specified ductility. The smallest value N can have is 1; in this case, the structure yields only in one direction and reaches its maximum displacement. SUMMARY A discussion of various issues involved in the engineering interpretation of strong motion data is presented. Starting with the explanation of basic terminology used in strong motion seismology the reader is guided through the different forms of characterization of ground motions. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the various parameters used to quantify the damage potential of the earthquake ground motion recorded at a site. This will help in developing an understanding about the ground motion characterization and the parameters used to indicate the severity of the motion at a site. REFERENCES [1] Araya, R. and Saragoni, G.R., “Earthquake Accelerogram Destructiveness Potential Factor”, In Proceedings of the Eighth World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, San Francisco, California, U.S.A., pp. Tk: 835-842, Prentice Hall Inc., New Jersey, 1984. [2] Arias, A., “A Measure of Earthquake Intensity”. In Seismic Design for Nuclear Power Plants, R.J. Hansen, (Ed.), pp. 438-469. MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1970. [3] Bendat J.S. and Piersol A.G., Random Data, 2nd ed., John Wiley and Sons, 1986. [4] Hao, H., Oliviera, C.S., and Penzien, J., “Multiple-Station Ground Motion Processing and Simulation Based on SMART-1 Array Data”, Nuclear Engineering and Design, 111: 293-310, 1989. [5] Harichandran, R.S. and Vanmarcke, E.H., “Stochastic Variation of Earthquake Ground Motion in Space and Time”, Journal of Engineering Mechanics, ASCE, 112: 154-174, 1986. Housner, G.W., “Calculating the Response of an Oscillator to Arbitrary Ground Motion”, Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 31: 143-149, 1941. Housner, G.W., “Characteristics of Strong Motion Earthquakes”, Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 37(1): 19-31, 1947. [8] Housner, G.W., “Spectrum Intensities of Strong Motion Earthquakes”, In Proceedings of the Symposium of Earthquake and Blast Effects on Structures, Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, Los Angeles, California, pp. 21-36, 1952. Housner, G.W., “Measures of Severity of Earthquake Ground Shaking”. In Procedings of the US National Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, Ann Arbor, Michigan, pp. 25-33, 1975. [10] Hudson, D.E., “Response Spectrum Techniques in Engineering Seismology”, In Proceedings of the First World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, Los Angeles, California, Vol. 4, pp. 1-12, 1956. [6 (7. 19]aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.GED (Porthyuoke Resistant Design of Structures } 3 10 MPa for crust and 7 x 10* MPa for mantle in most of the seismic moment calculation), Ais the surface area in m? of ruptured fault and s is the average slip in m across fault. The value of this moment as time t — 0 is known as the seismic moment. However, only geodetic data can provide My as t -> ee. Further, estimate of Mg is also made from low frequency end of the seismic spectrum (period much larger than 20 s). This far-field seismic parameter is a direct measure of the extent of faulting and is used for comparison with near-field geodetic and geological measurements. It may also be noted that surface wave, magnitude M, is an energy measure and is determined by seismic wave amplitude at a period approximately in the range of 18 s to 22 s, The moment magnitude My as defined by Hanks and Kanamori [11] is given by, My = 2/3 log My - 6.7 6.) My is intrinsically related to seismic moment Mo (Nm). For values at about 6.5 the m, and Mg scales coincide. The small earthquakes (< 6.5) are better represented by m, scale and Mg scale underestimates the same. The magnitude scales (M,, m, and Mg) saturate al some upper bound. ‘My and my saturate at about 6.5 and 7 respectively. Upper bound of Mg is about 8.5. Since, Mz, mp and Mg are determined from seismic wave of particular period and wavelength that is much shorter than the earthquake source size of great earthquakes (magnitude eight or larger). The My scale adequately measures the size of the source since the scale is independent of particular wave type. 5.3 FAULT RUPTURE PARAMETERS Tocher [29], Slemmons [28] and Wells and Coppersmith [32] among others studied the corre- lations of fault rupture parameters (e.g. length and displacement) to assess the future earthquake potential in a region. Based on 216 worldwide past earthquake Wells and Coppersmith gave relationship between moment magnitude My and fault rupture parameters. For all styles of faulting, some of the relations are My = 1.16 log(L) + 5.08 + 0.28; log(L) = 0.69 My ~ 3.22 + 0.22 Mw = 2.25 log(W) + 4.06 + 0.41: Jog(W) = 0.32 Mw ~ 1.01 # 0.15 (5.2) My = 0.98 log(A) + 4.07 + 0.24; log(A) = 0.91 My - 3.49 + 0.24 where, L, W and A are surface rupture length (km), down-dip rupture width (km) and rupture area (km*) respectively. Similar relationships between moment magnitude My and displacement are also reported. These are, My = 0.74 log(D,,) + 6.69 + 0.40; log(Dm) = 0.82 My - 5.46 + 0.42 My = 082 log(D,) + 6.93 + 0.39; log(Da) = 0.69 My - 4.80 + 0.36 (5.3) where, D,, is maximum surface displacement (m) and D, is average surface displacement (m). The maximum surface displacement provides the largest slip at a point along a rupture and average surface displacement gives the mean displacement along the length of rupture. They also presented relations for different styles of faulting but concluded that difference is insignificant.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.GED CLarthquake Resistant Design of Structures ) deviation in trend is mainly due to the use of nonlinear regression in this study. This study also attempts to define a significant (effective) peak acceleration. On the basis of worldwide earthquake data Campbell [7] proposed attenuation relationships for peak value of both horizontal and vertical components of ground acceleration. These relationships are defined for moment magnitude My and the shortest distance R from site to the zone of seismogenic rupture on the fault. For peak horizontal ground acceleration (PGA), defined as the geometric mean of the PGA of two horizontal components, in units of g (= 981 cm/s’), the relation is given by, In A = 3.512 + 0.904My — 1.328 Iny K? + [0.149 exp (0.647 My )I* + (1.125 - 0.112 In R - 0.0957My] f + [0.440 - 0.171 In R]s, (5.7) + [0.405 — 0.222 In R]s, + € where, the following are recommended: f=0 for strike-slip faultin; 0.5 for normal faulting: f = 1 for reverse, thrust, reverse-oblique and thrust-oblique faulting: s, = s, = 0 for alluvium or firm soil (Quatemary deposit with depth > 10 m); s, = 1, 5, =0 for soft rock (Tertiary sedimentary deposits and soft volcanic deposits); 5, = 0, 5, = 1 for hard rock (Cretaceous and older sedimentary deposits, metamorphic rock, crystalline rock, and hard volcanic deposits like basalt); and € is error of the regression relation having mean zero and standard deviation o. In this study magnitude data was postulated as My = Ms for Ms 2 6.0 and My = M, for M, < 6.0. The standard deviation o is correlated with In Aas, 0.55 if A < 0.068 ¢ = 40173-01401n A if 0.068 g< A< 021g (6.8) 039 otherwise However, a correlation between o and My is also reported in this study as, 6.9) _ [0889-0.691 My if My <7.4 ~ (038 otherwise The equation (5.8) is found to be more robust than equation (5.9) by r-squared value. Further, the shortest distance from site to rupture zone depends on the average depth h to the top of the seismogenic rupture zone of a presumed earthquake. In absence of any information it is recommended as na {Psy Wainasod if hzh, ity A, otherwise where, h, and hp respectively are the depth to the top and bottom of the seismogenic crust in km, @is the angle of dip of the fault plane, and W is the down-dip rupture width in km. Down- dip rupture width W can be estimated using following empirical relation obtained by Wells and Coppersmith [32] log W=-1.01 + 0.32 My + 0.15 (5.11)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.) available. The effect of these distant earthquakes on the faults to the site, expressed as peak ground motion (e.g. acceleration, velocity and displacement), is obtained via attenuation law. Various attenuation laws are available in the literature (e.g. (2}, [9] efc.). One of them is due to Esteva and Villaverde [10] and is given by (Barthquake Resistant Design of Structures a = 5600 exp(0.8M,)(R + 40)" (5.17) v = 32 exp(M,)(R + 25° (5.18) d= (1+ 200R°) via (5.19) where, a is PGA in gal, v is PGV (cm/s), d is PGD (cm) and R is focal (hypocentral) distance (km). M,, is the Richter magnitude and 40 km and 25 km are empirical constants to account for the volume of lithospheric rock that participates in releasing the stored energy. The above laws indicate more rapid reduction in value of high frequency component of ground motion. 5.6 PROBABILISTIC APPROACH Various workers (Comell [8], Esteva [9], Algermissen and Perkins [1], McGuire [17] and Basu [3], etc.) developed methodology and techniques for the probabilistic estimations of ground motion. The combined statistical and seismotectonic approach for the evaluation of ground motion parameter (acceleration, velocity and displacement) at a site involves identification of seismotectonic province of the site and seismic sources in which future significant earthquake can originate, determine the rate at which earthquake can occur in different sources, obtain the frequency distribution of depth of focus and magnitude in various sources, and establish a ground motion attenuation to account for the effect of focal distance of earthquake on the site. The analysis is carried out with the assumption that the available data is not exhaustive and contain error in locations (say 0.1 degree), depth estimates, magnitude etc. The statistical tool available for analysis is Bayesian analysis, and can be carried out on the lines of Basu (3] for evaluation of ground acceleration in following steps: (i) The data are sorted out for different seismic sources. (ii) A modular source of arc length 150 km at the surface of the earthquake with the project site as its center and of 150 km depth is taken and seismically active fults lying within modular source are considered as area sources. Locations of floating earthquakes (not associated with faults) in the modular source are considered temporarily stationary and spatially homogeneous; and occurrence of earthquake is equally likely in the latitude and longitude direction. The focal depth data with assigned value of 33 km (average depth of Moho) are assumed to be distributed uniformly within 16 to 51 km for estimation of focal depth distribution. A mixed truncated lognormal distribution is fitted in the modular source and area sources. The probability density function of focal depth for h € (0, ho] is, 2 P 2 edb) = + ______ exp [- dn h- v?/(207)] (5.20) fa V 240 A@[(In hy — VO;}aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.GEDD (Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures — ) Three straight lines bound the general shape of the smooth spectra on a logarithmic tripartite graph as shown in Figure 5.2. At low frequency range the spectral displacement Sj = maximum ground displacement d; and in the high frequency range, the spectral acceleration S, = maximum ground acceleration a. As we proceed from low to high frequency, there exist five different regions. These are: a transition from maximum ground displacement to amplified spectral displacement, amplified displacement, Gi) amplified velocity, (iv) amplified acceleration and (v) a transition from amplified spectral acceleration to ground acceleration. ‘The design spectrum can be obtained from maximum ground velocity, displacement and acceleration if the amplifications are known. Table 5.4 gives the amplification factors for larger 500 ay x Spectra for at arming se 05% 200} ~ 19% 2% 5% 100 10% i % so| 2 % : Ground motion maxima io 3 = v om, a ae B oo ’ ns g ‘ y R® 4 Z 252 1 2 3 10-20 50 \ 100 Frequency, eps FIGURE 5.2 Design spectra recommended by Newmark et al. [22] for 1g PGA at 84.1 percentile.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.| of Structures REFERENCES uy (2) (3) [4] {5] [6] 071 (8) [9] [10] (Wu) {12} (13) [14] [15] (16) Algermisen, §.T. and Perkins D.M., “A Technique for Seismic Zoning—General Consideration and Parameter”, In Proceedings of the International Conference of Microzonation for Safer-Construction, Research and Application, Vol. Il, pp. 865-878, Seattle, Washington, 1972. Ambraseys, N.N., “The Correlation of Intensity with Ground Motions”, In Advances in Engineering Seismology in Europe, Trieste, 1974. Basu, S., “Statistical Analysis of Seismic Data and Seismic Risk Analysis of Indian Peninsula”, Ph.D thesis, Department of Civil Engineering, IT Kanpur, India, 1977. Bolt, B.A. and Abrahamson, N.A., “New Attenuation Relations for Peak and Expected Accelerations of Ground Motion”, Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 72(6): 2307-2321, 1982. Boore, D.M., Joyner, W.B., and Fumal, T.E., “Equations for Estimating Horizontal Response Spectra and Peak Acceleration for Westem North American Earthquakes: A Summary of Recent Work”, Seismological Research Letters, 68(1): 128-140, 1997. Burridge, R. and Knopoff, L., “Body Force Equivalents for Seismic Dislocation”, Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 54: 1875~1888, 1964. Campbell, K.W., “Empirical Near-source Attenuation Relationships for Horizontal and Vertical Components of Peak Ground Acceleration, Peak Ground Velocity, and Pseudo- absolute Acceleration Response Spectra”, Seismological Research Letters, 68(1): 154 179, 1997, Cornell, C.A., “Engineering Seismic Risk Analysis”, Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 58(5): 1583-1606, 1968. Esteva, L., “Bases Para la Formulacion de Decisiones de Diseno Sismico”, Technical Report, Institute de Ingenieria, UNAM, Mexico, 1968. Esteva, L. and Villaverde, R., “Seismic Risk Design Spectra and Structural Reliability”, In Proceedings of Fifth World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Rome, pp. 2586-2596, 1974. Hanks, T.C. and Kanamori, H., “A Moment Magnitude Scale”, Journal of Geophysical Research, 84(B5): 2348-2350, 1979, Housner, G.W., “Calculating the Response of an Oscillator to Arbitrary Ground Motion”, Bulletin of the Seismological Soctety of America, 31:143-149, 1941. Housner, G.W., “Measures of Severity of Earthquake Ground Shaking”, In Proceedings of the US National Conjerence on Earthquake Engineering, Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, Ann Arbor, Michigan, pp. 25-33, 1975. IS-1893, Indian Standard Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures— Part 1: General Provisions and Buildings, Bureau of Indian Standards, 2002. Joyner, W.B. and Boore, D.M., “Peak Horizontal Acceleration and Velocity from Strong-motion Records Including Records from the 1979 Imperial Valley, California Earthquake”, Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 71: 2011-2038, 1981. Maruyama, T., “On the Force Equivalents of Dynamic Elastic Dislocations with Reference to the Earthquake Mechanism”, Bulletin of Earthquake Research Institute, ‘Tokyo University, 41: 467-486, 1963.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.GEEED (Eerthquake Reviet and then releasing it. When the bob is at the extreme position the potential energy of the system is at its maximum while the kinetic energy is minimum. As the bob approaches the mean position during its dowaward swing, the potential energy is gradually converted into the kinetic energy of the bob so much so that at the mean position the kinetic energy is at its maximum with potential energy being zero. This energy conversion goes on in every half cycle as long as these oscillations persist. The oscillations eventually subside due to frictional losses caused by the resistance offered by the air to the motion of bob. Having observed the physical phenomenon, it is then natural to enquire—is it possible to develop a mathematical model for describing it? The answer is a resounding yes. In fact, mathematical modelling is an integral part of the study of structural dynamics. The solution of the differential equation governing the mathematical model correspond to the observed physical phenomenon. The governing differential equation, also known as the equation of motion, is a second order differential equation in time. The most important (and many a time quite difficult one) aspect of structural dynamics is the formulation of equation of motion. In general, the governing equation of a vibrating system can be developed by adopting any of the following five approaches: 1. Newton's second law of motion, Application of d’Atembert’s principle, Principle of virtual work, Hamilton's principle, and Lagrange’s equation peer Of these, the first two approaches are based on the principles of vector mechanics, whereas the latter two approaches are based on variational principles. The approaches based on vector mechanics are physically intuitive but invariably become intractable in case of complex configurations, On the other hand, the variational approaches depend on scalar work-like quantities and can accommodate very complex systems without any difficulty. However, the variational approaches are more abstract and lack the physical intuitive appeal afforded by the Vector mechanics approaches. The principle of virtual work is an extension of the equilibrium methods in the sense that it is a statement of no work being done by a system of forces, in equilibrium, in moving through a set of virtual displacements consistent with the geometric constraints. For the purpose of introductory exposition to structural dynamics the methods based on vector mechanics will suffice for establishing the equation(s) of motion. 6.2 MATHEMATICAL MODELLING The study of structural dynamics involves developing an insight into the dynamic behaviour of the structural systems by investigating the behaviour of their models under the influence of dynamic loads, such as blast, winds, earthquakes, heavy rotating machinery, etc. The models used in these investigations can be either small-scale laboratory models for experimental studies, or can be mathematical models for analytical studies. The development of an appropriate mathematical model for a specific study requires an understanding of the basic phenomenon and a clear idea of the basic mechanics.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.ED Bertingiaic Resistant Design of Siractures : D elastic restoring force and the force developed in the damper, respectively. These forces, along with the external force F(s) act on the mass (m), which then cause the change in momentum of the mass in accordance with Newton’s second law as, imi) = FO) ~fs-fo @.1) where, x(¢) denotes the displacement of mass m from its original position of rest. For the special case of civil engineering structures, the mass of the system does not change with time, and there- fore, the rate of change of momentum can be considered to have the same effect as that of applying a fictitious inertia force f, directed opposite to the direction of motion for considering the instantaneous equilibrium of forces acting on the mass. This simplified interpretation of Newton’s second law of motion (valid only when the mass of the system is time invariant) is popularly known as the d’Alembert’s principle. f= FO -fs—fo (7.2) ‘Thus the inertia force f; = mi (mass x acceleration), spring force fs = kx (spring constant x spring deformation) and damping force fy = ci (coefficient of viscous damping x relative velocity between the two ends of the dashpoi).' By substituting these relations in Equation (7.2), we get, mk +cx + kes Fg) (7.3) Equation (7.3) is a linear second order differential equation with constant parameters. The general solution for this equation is given by, x(t) = (1) + xp) (74) where, (1) is the solution of the corresponding homogeneous equation obtained by making the right hand side zero; and x,(2) is the particular solution which depends on the specific form of applied force F(t). The homogeneous solution of this second order differential equation contains two arbitrary constants which can be evaluated by using the initial conditions x(0) and-%(0), ie., the displacement and velocity of the mass at the onset of vibration. 7.2. FREE VIBRATION OF VISCOUS-DAMPED SDOF SYSTEMS For a particular case when there is no external force acting on the system, it is still pos to make the mass vibrate by giving some arbitrary initial conditions. The ensuing motion of ‘Phis is only a convenient mathematical model for the energy dissipation mechanism in a vibrating system and is actually an expression of the viscous drag in a laminar flow. In real structural systems, energy dissipation actually takes place in different ways and the most important of them is the energy loss due to inter-granular friction between the particles of a vibrating system. However, incorporating a dry friction damping behaviour would result in a nonlinear equation of motion. Since the magnitude of damping force is generally very small in ‘comparison to the other forces acting on the system, a viscous damping model (leading to a linear equation!) serves well {0 get a rational estimate of system response for engineering designaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.GD (Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures - ) By taking the natural logarithm of both sides and substituting for «@y, we get, (7.15) where, 6 is known as the logarithmic decrement. In practice it is more convenient to measure the peak-to-trough amplitudes instead of peaks or troughs due to the absence of zero baseline in the experimental records. It can be shown that the same result for logarithmic decrement (as in Equation (7.15)) also holds for peak-to-trough amplitudes. Further, in the case of lightly damped systems, it might be more convenient to measure amplitudes which spaced a few cycles (say, m) apart. It can be shown that in this case the equation for logarithmic decrement changes to mat which is commonly used in practice. 7.3. FORCED VIBRATIONS OF SDOF SYSTEMS The dynamical systems may be set into motion by several types of excitations. These forcing functions may either be harmonic or non-harmonic, periodic or aperiodic, etc. Further, the response may also differ on account of the duration of exposure to the applied excitation. The nature of the response of a SDOF system to harmonic excitation is significantly different from that for a finite duration excitation. We shall begin with the response of SDOF systems excited by harmonic excitations, which has great practical significance since any periodic function can be decomposed into a sum of harmonic functions by using Fourier series”. The results of this section have an important bearing on the design of vibration recording instruments, industrial vibration isolators, and shock absorbers. 7.3.1 Response of SDOF Systems to Harmonic Excitations The governing differential equation for a SDOF system as shown in Figure 2.1 with F(:) = Fo sin aot is given by, am + ck +kx= Fo sin ot (7.16) Let us assume the initial conditions given as xo and x. Moreover, the particular solution of this 2Under a fairly general set of conditions, any periodic function f(t) can be expressed as = 2m 2et f= % +E (a cos j2 + by sin 8) where T is the period of f(0), For more detaiis consult any text on Applied Mathematics, such as, E. Kreyszig, Advanced Engineering Mathematics, Wiley Interscience.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.GLAD (Eerthquake Resistant Design of Structures ) gy a T | mr, =025 — 2 a TT, = 0.50 — § 1.s}-—_ 4-4 5 st -2—+ i 10 5 2 05 2 3 oo 3 05 g 10 2 2-8 2 002040. os 10 Time (8) . 6 T 7,-2.0) — 7 ; Ef qo dk $s HV i eo = 00 \A /\ = o Boos — 4 Boo: E-10} 1+ Exo 2 -ts-—+—__ 4 3 -1s-—_+—1—+—__,_+ “$0 02 04 06 08 10 ?%o 02 04 06 08 10 ‘Time (8) Time (s) FIGURE 7.7 Effect of finite duration of excitation on response of SDOF system (7, = 0.1 s, and $= 0.05). 7.3.4 Response of SDOF Systems to a Short Duration Impulse Let us consider a SDOF system, initially at rest, that is excited by an impulse of magnitude J. Since the impulse acts on the system for a very small time, it can only effect an instantaneous change in the momentum of the mass without altering its position. Therefore the mass, initially at rest, experiences a change in velocity but the instantaneous displacement remains zero. The velocity imparted to the mass by the impulse / is given by .i) = //m from the conservation of momentum principle. Thus the mass will start free-vibration after the removal of impulse with initial velocity as iq = Hm and initial displacement xp = 0. When the applied impulse is of unit magnitude, the resulting free vibration solution is known as the unit impulse response function and is given by, hit) = at” sinw,t (7.25) The response due to an impulse is closely approximated by response to short duration pulse as seen in the first plot of Figure 7.7 for T = 0.257, This useful approximation can be clubbed with the principle of superposition to develop a versatile analytical procedure.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.(Barthquake Resistant Design of Structures a ) It might appear that one should always aim for a flexible isolator/mounting pads (n> V2) with very small damping so that the amplitude of the force transmitted to the support can have minimum isolation problem. However, such an isolator would lead to excessive displacement of the machine frame itself. Therefore, it is often preferred to have stiff isolators/mounting pads (7 < V2) so that the machine frame itself does not vibrate so as to hinder its operation, For designing isolator to operate in this range, adding more damping to the system improves the performance of vibration isolators. SUMMARY The behaviour of the most elementary form of a dynamical system is described. The basic concepts of vibration analysis are presented with reference to this elementary system. Different aspects of the vibration problem are introduced such as, free vibration, forced vibration, harmonic and transient excitation, vibration isolation, etc. This background paves the way for assimilation of concepts from dynamics of more complex systems REFERENCES [1] Clough, R.W. and Penzien, J., Dynamics of Structures, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1993. [2] Craig, R.R., Jr, Structural Dynamics, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1981. [3] Humar, J.L., Dynamics of Structures, Prentice Hall, Inc., 1990. [4] Thomson, W.T., Theory of Vibration, 3rd ed., CBS Publishers, New Delhi, 1988.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.GED (Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures ) spectrum, in the frequency-range of interest, in order to best utilise the dynamic range (the difference between the smallest and the largest values that can be measured) by the instrumentation. Depending on the operating range of frequencies, the seismic-mass transducers may be classified as (i) seismometers and (ii) accelerometers. The difference in operation of these two basic types of seismic pickups is described in detai 8.4 SEISMOMETERS Seismometers are the instruments with very low natural frequency in comparison to the frequency of the vibrations to be measured so that the ratio @/@, becomes very large. It may be noted from Figure 7,5, that as the frequency of the oscillator decreases, the relative displacement ¥ (@) of the ascillator mass approaches the base displacement X(«) irrespective of the value of damping. Thus the oscillator mass remains stationary while the casing of the instrument moves with the vibrating body. Due to the requirement of very low natural frequency, the seismometers are often of a very large size. Moreover, the dimensions of a seismometer unit are also governed by the peak to peak maximum displacement of the vibrating body which will be same as the maximum displacement of the vibrating base. Seismometers with an arrangement to store the vibrations measured by the seismometer on some kind of a storage device are known as seismographs. The seismometers can be designed to work as either displacement pickups, or velocity pickups. 8.4.1 Displacement Pickups These are used to pickup the vibration of a body when there is no fixed reference point available, in determining the movement of the chassis of a vehicle. It is, therefore, required that the seismic mass should belaave (as far as possible) as though it was fixed in space. This can be achieved by having a very heavy seismic mass attached to an extremely flexible spring which results in a system with a very low natural frequency @,. For frequencies of vibration well above the natural frequency of the pickup the displacement of the seismic mass relative to the casing is practically same as the the displacement of the casing but with the phase difference of 180° as shown in Figure 7.5. This means that as the casing moves in one direction, the seismic mass moves in the opposite direction. The relative motion of the seismic-mass may either be amplified optically to record the displacement trace on a photographic film/smoke paper, or be converted to a proportional voltage signal by using a potentiometer. 8.4.2 Velocity Pickups A velocity pickup is designed like a displacement pickup, to have a low value of @, and to operate at angular frequencies well above (o, so that the motion of the seismic mass is virtually the same as that of the casing but opposite in phase. The transducer is generally a coil of wire carried by the seismic mass which is suspended in a radial magnetic field so that a voltage proportional to velocity is generated in the coil when it is vibrated along the sensor axis. Sinceaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.GED (Lurthquake Resistant Design of Structures ) 8.5.2 Calibration of Accelerometers The accelerometers capable of recording a constant acceleration (0 Hz/DC) signal can be calibrated using the earth’s gravitational field. The accelerometer is mounted on a tilting table from which the angle @ between the sensing axis and the vertical can be measured. At @ = 0, the force of gravity on the seismic mass is same as the force of inertia due to an acceleration of 9.81 nv/s*. At any other angle @ the corresponding acceleration is 9.81 cos @ m/s. A simple 90° turn produces a traceable 1 g change in acceleration and a 180° rotation produces a 2g change. By recording the output of the accelerometer for these acceleration levels a simple scale factor to convert the accelerometer output to acceleration units can be established. This is a simple and easy technique for testing the accelerometer before sending it out in the field. SUMMARY The aims and objectives of vibration recording and monitoring are discussed, This is followed by a detailed description of the principle of operation of vibration pickups. The important criteria for choosing an appropriate type of vibration pickup depending on the application are discussed. REFERENCES [1] Crede, CM. and Piersol, A.G., Harris’ Shock and Vibration Handbook, 5th ed., McGraw-Hill Professional, 2001. [2] De Silva, C.W., Vibration: Fundamentals and Practice, CRC Press, 1999. [3] Rao, S.S., Mechanical Vibrations, 4th ed., Prentice Hall, Inc., 2003. 14] Thomson, W.T.. Theory of Vibration with Applications, 3rd ed., CBS Publishers, New Delhi, 1988.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.(Garthquake Resistant Design of Structures ) solved for the acceleration at the end of the interval, and which, in turn can be used to compute the velocity and displacement at the end of the time step as: oe AP a | AP a AP at), Ate | vane Aa ge arty 1 Ate ve ail Sea (Qc +Atk) |, Yin ® SH fit Sa fins ~ Sti ky, [1 - Mart ae+an)] % In these relations the acceleration ij, = m™'(f; - ci; - kv) has been eliminated by making use of the dynamic equilibrium equation at the instant 1. Thus the solution marches in time from one instant to the next. Again these recurrence relations can be arranged in matrix form as, ()-Le alte oll) where A, B, ..., C’, D’ are the coefficients of the recurrence relation and are given in Table 9.2. TABLE 9.2 Coefficients of recurrence relation for constant average acceleration a [- Sir! (2+ a0] oy At Ar where, fi = m+Fe+ 5k. ‘Similar recurrence relations can be derived in the case of other forms of assumed variation of acceleration within a time-step leading to various time-marching schemes for numerical integration of equation of motion. Schematically, the recurrence relation for any time-marchingaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Chapter 10 Response Spectra 10.1 INTRODUCTION Earthquake causes ground to vibrate and structures supported on ground are subjected to this motion. Thus the dynamic loading on the structure during an earthquake is not external loading but due to motion of supports. In general, the ground motions have three translational and three rotational components. Not much information is available regarding the properties of rotational components of ground motion due to difficulties in recording those. On the other hand, the characteristics of translational components are relatively better known as they are routinely recorded and processed during strong earthquakes by an instrument known as accelerograph. Moreover, it can be deduced from the analysis of vibration records obtained from different elevations in a structure during an earthquake that the rotational components are quite small in magnitude in comparison with translational components. Therefore, the effects of rotational components of ground motion are usually neglected in seismic analysis of structures. Further, the response of a structure is often obtained by subjecting structure to one component of ground tanslation (acceleration). The total response of structural system is obtained by combining response due to individual component, as method of superposition is valid for linear elastic systems. Since the natural frequencies of the structure are not known a priori, complications arise in the design of structure necessitating several iterations. In such a situation, a design engineer requires a prescription of seismic loading that reflects frequency content, amplitude of ground motion and effect of subsequent filtering by the structure. This information is provided by Response Spectra. In this chapter frequency content of ground motion is discussed first by means of Fourier Spectrum and later the concept of response spectrum is introduced as a tool for quick dynamic analysis. 10.2 FOURIER SPECTRA Frequency content of an accelerogram can be conveniently depicted by Fourier Spectra. Fourier transform of an accelerogram ¥() is given by 144aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.(Barthcquake Resistant Design off Structures ) (ii) the prescribed ground motions (acceleration, velocity and displacement) are not compatible. The accelerograph generally starts recording motion after a fixed threshold of acceleration level set up in the instrument is exceeded by the base motion. Thus, at the start of recording, ground displacement and velocity are not zero. Moreover, reported processed histories of ground acceleration, velocity and displacement are often incompatible (i.e. reported histories of velocity and displacement can not be obtained by integrating reported acceleration) due to the use of extra correction procedure employed for velocity and displacement correction than that of acceleration history correction of standard ground motion processing. Note that solution for well posed problem will give same solution using either of the Equation (10.5) or (10.6). These complications are ignored by engineers by assuming that the ground and structure are initially at rest and using only ground acceleration as input. 10.3.2 Solution: Initially at Rest The Equation (10.6) is the standard equation of motion for a linear elastic SDOF system undergoing forced vibration due to support excitation. The solution of initially at rest system is given by Duhamel’s integral as y(t) = E(t) Sn) sin Ot — D dt (0.7) a, where, @ = @,V1-¢? is the damped natural frequency of SDOF system. The maximum relative response y(t) of linear elastic SDOF system, initially at rest with prescribed damping ratio ¢ subjected to a ground acceleration versus natural period or frequency of vibration is defined as relative displacement response spectrum and is denoted as SAG. On) = Sa(G, Tr) = l¥Olenax = 1 wi ‘ f Eye S"— sina, (t— svar (10.8) max ho where, natural period of vibration 7, = 27/@,. For a prescribed accelerogram the Equation (10.7) is numerically integrated and the resulting maximum relative displacement value gives one value of S, for a specified set of @,, and ¢. The numerical scheme for evaluating Duhamel’s integral, originally proposed by Nigam and Jennings [13], has been discussed in the previous chapter. Typically, this integration is carried out at uniform frequency interval in a prescribed range of frequencies for different values of £. It is worth noting that the quantity within the curly brackets of Equation (10.8) has the unit of velocity. The absolute maximum of this quantity is termed as pseudo relative velocity response spectrum (psv) S,, (6, @,) and is formally given as, SoG, O) = Spy(S Tr) 60,0) sing ,(t—T)dt (10.9) tae fo ‘maxaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.GD (orthquate Resistant Design of Structures ) The truncation of the modal summation after a few modes undoubtedly introduces some errors due to neglecting the contribution of higher modes to total response. However, if the above-mentioned two criteria are adhered to, the error resulting from neglecting the higher mode contribution is not likely to be significant to affect the design, except for very rare situations encountered in special structures such as pipings, etc. In such special cases, it is possible to improve on the accuracy of the solution by including the contribution of higher modes as a static correction to the computed dynamic response. 11.6.4 Static Correction for Higher Mode Response Let us consider the modal contribution to total response as the sum of two parts: vey OPW, 9+ YOO (11.44) aha where, the second term of the modal summation represents the error term due to truncation of modal summation (assuming that only N lower modes are being considered for dynamic response computation, Let us now consider the equation for the response of s!" modal coordinate mG) + €64,(t) + kg) =f, which can be rearranged as, O _ 26,40 where, the first term represents the response in s mode if the load were applied statically; the other two terms represent the dynamic correction to the static response in s® mode, The inertia term is inversely proportional to the square of the natural frequency, while the damping term (which is generally very small in magnitude in comparison to elastic and inertia terms) is inversely proportional to the natural frequency. Therefore for higher modes, the contribution from dynamic response terms becomes insignificant in comparison with the static response term and the response in higher modes can be reasonably approximated by considering only the static response. The total response can now be given (after substituting for the modal force A= {OY £) as, a N +=) 6,04 Y Lormorye rl soWet x NX =¥ 6% 0+ Vee 1.45) rl where, z {9}{9}" = F, represents the contribution of s” mode toward the flexibility matrix 5 of the structural system.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.(Barthquake Resistant Design of Structures step integration) if the terms on the right hand side are considered to constitute an effective force acting on the structural system. However, the ground displacement and velocity time histories also have to be specified in addition to the ground acceleration time histories at all support points. The ground velocity and displacement time histories are generally not available. Sometimes when those time histories are available, the reliability of those time histories is questionable due to several assumptions necessitated by the strong motion data processing algorithms for deriving velocity and displacement time histories from the recorded acceleration data. It is, therefore, beneficial to explore the possibility of reformulating the equation of motion so that the excitation can be specified in terms of ground acceleration only. For this purpose, let us consider the total displacement response be given by the sum of two components: (i) a quasi-static component (v°) which would result if the support displacements were applied statically, and (ii) a dynamic component (v) oscillating about the quasi-static displacement profile. Vv =Vv) +) (11.53) The quasi-static part of the solution is obtained by ignoring the time derivative terms (velocities and accelerations) of Equation (11.52) and noting that the total displacements (v‘) are, in this case, same as the quasi-static displacements (v*). Thus, V(t) = -K"K,v,(0) = Ry,() (11.54) where, R represents the influence coefficient matrix containing the response in all degrees of freedom due to a unit displacement of a support point and is given by, R=-K'K, Substituting from Equations (11.53) and (11.52), in Equation (11.52), we get after some rearrangement of terms, Mi + C¥ + Kv=-(Mr+M,]¥, -(CR+C,]¥, (11.55) As we had discussed earlier, the magnitude of damping forces in structural systems is generally quite small in comparison with the inertia and elastic force terms. In such cases, there will be no appreciable change in the computed dynamic response if the damping term is neglected from the right hand side of Equation (11.55). Thus the equation of motion for multi-support excitation can be reduced to, M¥+C¥+ -{Mr + M,Jé (11.56) e which contains only ground acceleration term in the excitation, Equation (11.56) can be solved for dynamic component of the response by any standard procedure of dynamic analysis, such as the mode superposition method. It must be mentioned here that the effect of spatial variability of ground motion on seismic response of multiple supported structure is strongly dependent onaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.(Barthquake Resistant Design of Structures ) [8] Stewart, J.P., Seed, R.B. and Fenves, G.L., “Empirical Evaluation of Inertial Soil Structure, Interaction and Effects”, Technical Report No. PEER 1998/07, Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research Centre, University of California, Berkeley. [9] Velestos, A.S, and Meek, J.W., “Dynamic Behaviour of Building Foundation Systems”, Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 3: 121-138, 1974. [10] Velestos, A.S. and Nair, V.V., “Seismic Interaction of Structures on Hysteretic Foundations”, Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, 101: 109-129, 1975.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.C Chapter Te Barthquake and Vibration Effect on Structures...) limited assumptions, which neglect the variation of loading patterns, the influence of higher modes, and the effect of resonance, This method, under the name of push over analysis has acquired a great deal of popularity nowadays and in spite of these deficiencies this method provides reasonable estimation of the global deformation capacity, especially for structures which primarily respond according to the first mode. A non-linear dynamic analysis or inelastic time history analysis is the only method to describe the actual behaviour of the structure during an earthquake. The method is based on the direct numerical integration of the motion differential equations by considering the elasto-plastic deformation of the structure element, This method captures the effect of amplification due to resonance, the variation of displacements at diverse levels of a frame, an increase of motion duration and a tendency of regularization of movements result as far as the level increases from bottom to top. 12.4.1 Code-based Procedure for Seismic Analysis Main features of seismic method of analysis (Riddell and Llera, 1996) based on Indian Standard 1893 (Part 1): 2002 are described as follows: Equivalent lateral force Seismic analysis of most of the structures are still carried out on the basis of lateral (horizontal) force assumed to be equivalent to the actual (dynamic) loading. The base shear which is the total horizontal force on the structure is calculated on the basis of structure mass and fundamental period of vibration and corresponding mode shape. The base shear is distributed along the height of structures in terms of lateral forces according to Code formula. This method is usually conservative for low to medium height buildings with a regular conformation. Response spectrum analysis This method is applicable for those structures where modes other than the fundamental one affect significantly the response of the structure. In this method the response of Multi-Degree- of-Freedom (MDOF) system is expressed as the superposition of modal response, each modal response being determined from the spectral analysis of single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) system, which are then combined to compute the total response. Modal analysis leads to the response history of the structure to a specified ground motion; however, the method is usually used in conjunction with a response spectrum. Elastic time history analysis A linear time history analysis overcomes all the disadvantages of modal response spectrum analysis, provided non-linear behaviour is not involved. This method requires greater computational efforts for calculating the response at discrete times. One interesting advantage of such procedure is that the relative signs of response quantities are preserved in the response histories. This is important when interaction effects are considered in design among stress resultants.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.C Chapter 1? Barthqwake and Vibration Bjfect on Structures) horizontal stiffness bearing between the structure and foundation, The isolation bearing decreases the frequency of overall building-isolation system to about 0.5 Hz. This low frequency system does not permit transmission of high frequency of earthquake motion to the structure (Figure 12.9) @ ©) «@) FIGURE 12.9 Base isolation concepts (a) Fixed base building, (b) Base isolated building, (©) Response of fixed base building under earthquake excitation, (d) Response of base isolated building under earthquake excitation. Active protective systems In these systems mechanical devices are incorporated into the building, which actively participate in the dynamic behaviour of the building in response to the measurements of its behaviour during the earthquake ground motion. Thus, in these systems, the structure's characteristics are modified according to seismic input to the building. The goals of active systems are to keep forces, displacements and accelerations of structure below specific bounds, in order to reduce the damage in case of a strong earthquake. Hybrid (semi-active) protective systems Hybrid systems are systems implying the combined use of passive and active control systems, For example, a base isolated structure is equipped with actuators, which actively control the enhancement of ils performance (Gioncu and Mazzolani, 2002). 12.7. SEISMIC EVALUATION AND RETROFITTING Many of the existing buildings are lacking in adequate earthquake resistance because these are not designed according to modern codes and prevalent earthquake resistant design practice. Also many buildings that are damaged in earthquakes may need not only be repaired but alsoaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.C Chapter 13 Identification of Sctemic Damages in RO Buildings.. are omitted, resulting in soft or weak stories, Most of the buildings have overhanging covered balconies of about 1.5 m span on higher floors. The architects often erect a heavy beam from the exterior columns of the building to the end of the balcony on the first floor onwards. A peripheral beam is provided at the end of the erected girder to create more parking spaces at the ground floor and allowing more space on the upper floors. The upper floor balconies or other constructions are constructed on the peripheral beams. The infill walls, which are present in upper floors and absent in the ground floor, create a floating box type situation (Figure 13.2). The dynamic analysis of a G+4 storey RC building on floating column shows that these buildings vibrate in torsional mode, which is undesirable. FIGURE 13.2 (a) Floating box construction in Ahmedabad, (Goel, 2001); (b) 3-D mathematical model of » floating type RC building; (c) First mode shape of the building in plan—a torsional mode. The plan dimensions of building vary considerably ranging from 10 m x 25 m or more in Ahmedabad. Storey heights remain typically between 2.7 m and 3 m, except the lowest storey, which may be as high as 3.5 m to 4.5 m. The lift cores in the multi-storeyed buildings are generally provided in central portion of the building Beam spans generally vary from 2 to 5 m, owing to irregular column spacing. In many buildings, beam reinforcement consists of three to four longitudinal bars of 12 to 16 mm in diameter. Transverse stirrups are usually 6 to 8 mm in diameter placed at a spacing of 20 to 25 cm and ends of the stirrups are usually terminated with 90° hooks. Columns in most of the buildings are of uniform size along the height of the buildings, with marginal change in the grade of concrete and reinforcement at ground floor. It is apparent that the columns are designed only for axial load, without considering the effect of framing action and lateral loads. The ground floor columns are not cast upto the bottom of the beam and a gap of 200 mm to 250 mm is left called as “topi” to accommodate the beam reinforcement, which makes the construction more vulnerable (Figure 13.3a). Due to the congestion of reinforcement in this region, the compaction of concrete is not properly done which results in poor quality of concrete and honeycombing (Figure 13.3b). Columns often have rectangular cross sections, with typical dimensions i.e. 25 cm wide and 60 cm to 80 cm long. Longitudinal reinforcements consist of two rows of four to six bars of 12 to 18 mm diameter. The longitudinal reinforcement ratio is generally between 1 and 2%aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.C Chapter 19 Identification of Seismic Damages in RC Buildings...) OD 13.1.3 Dlan aiid Mass Irregularlly Figure 13.6 shows the failure of two most famous multi-storeyed buildings, i.e., Mansi Complex (Figure 13.6a) and Shikhar Apartment (Figure 13.6b) during Bhuj earthquake with their exposed isolated footings (Figure 13.6c and 13.6d). Mansi Complex is a residential building in ‘Vastrapura village consisting of two blocks A and B with 40 units in each block. Shikhar Apartment is also a newly constructed residential complex approximately one year old in Vezalpur under Ahmedabad Urban Development Authority (AUDA) consisting of four blocks with 40 flats in each, Both the buildings are G+10 and are located in the satellite town of Ahmedabad. The plans of both the buildings are irregular. The Mansi Complex has C shaped plan while the Shikhar Apartment has U shaped plan with no expansion or separation joint as reported (Sinvhal et. al. 2001). In A-Block of Mansi Complex the staircase was in the central TT (©) FIGURE 13.6 Failure in reinforced concrete buildings due to structural irregularity: (a) Total collapse of half portion of A-Block of Mansi Complex; (b) Collapse of D-Block of Shikhar Apartment; (c) Oblong isolated footing of a column, A-Block of Mansi Complex; (d) Exposed isolated footing of a column of Shikhar Apartment.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.C Chapter 19 Identification of Seismic Damages in RC Buildings... ) ea FIGURE 13.10 Failure of reinforced concrete buildings due to different earthquake response (a) Swaminarayan school building collapsed while the adjacent building suffered minor damages; (b) Collapse of A-Block of Mansi Complex while B-block suffered minor damage. 13.4 DAMAGE TO STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS Figure 13.11 shows failure in reinforced concrete columns in reinforced concrete buildings. Oblong cross section, a space left at the top of column called ‘topi’ during casting and relatively slender column sections compared with beam sections are the main structural defects in columns. These columns are neither designed nor detailed for ductility. Lack of confinement due to large tie spacing, insufficient development length, inadequate splicing of all column bars at the same section, hook configurations of reinforcement do not comply with ductile detailing practices, Figures 13.1 1a.and 13.11b show the failure at the top and bottom of the column due to poor quality of concrete, the inadequate spacing of ties in the critical areas and the presence of strong beams. Crushing of the compression zone is manifested first by spalling of the concrete cover to the reinforcement; subsequently the concrete core expands and crushes. This phenomenon is (b) FIGURE 13.11 Typical failure of columns in reinforced concrete buildings (a) Cracking and spalling of concrete in first storey column; (b) Base of first storey column with widely spaced ties and spalled concrete.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.(@) () FIGURE 13.16 Amplification effects of acceleration in RC frame buildings (a) Failure of water tank in a RC frame building; (b) Top portion of the bare framed RC building under construction collapsed. 13.7, DAMAGE TO VERTICAL CIRCULATION SYSTEMS Staircases and lifts are the only means of vertical movement in building and the staircases also serve as escape routes during an earthquake. Figures 13.17 and 13.18 show the failure of staircases and a lift core in reinforced concrete buildings. 13.7.1 Damage to Staircase Figures 13.17(a) and 13.17(b) are typical examples of failure of staircases in Vishram Flat, G+5, in Navarangpura, Ahmedabad and in an RC building at Bhuj due to out-of-phase vibration of FIGURE 13.17 Failure of staircase in reinforced concrete framed buildings (a) Strut action of staircase during out of phase vibration of two blocks; (b) Damage to staircase in reinforced concrete frame building.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Chapter 13 Identification of Seismic Damages in RC Buildings... [8] (9] [10] Sinvhal, A., Bose, PR., Bose, A., and Prakash, V. “Destruction of Multi-storeyed Buildings in Kutch Earthquake of January 26, 2001”, Workshop on Recent Earthquakes of Chamoli and Bhuj: Volume Il, Roorkee, India, May 24-26, 2001. Srivastav, S.K., “Bhuj Earthquake of January 26, 2001—Some Pertinent Questions”, International Conference on Seismic Hazard with Particular Reference to Bhuj Earthquake of January 26, 2001, New Delhi, October 3-5, 2001. Thakkar, S.K., Dubey, R.N., and Agarwal, P., “Behaviour of Buildings, Bridges and Dams in Bhuj Earthquake of January 26, 2001”, Proceedings of 17th US-Japan Bridge Engineering Workshop, Tsukuba City, Japan, Nov. 12-14, 2001.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.C Chapier 1 Effect of Structural Irregularities on the Performance. Upper level oe column 7) = level column FIGURE 14.2 (a) Floating box construction in residential building in Ahmedabad, India; (b) Discontinuous shear wall. voile ne FIGURE 14.3 Collapse of building due to excessive deformation in San Fernando earthquake, 1972.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.(Caapter 11 Biffect of Structural Irregularities on the Performance.) QED at high level are therefore to be discouraged where possible. Where mass irregularities exist, check the lateral-force resisting elements using a dynamic analysis for a more realistic lateral load distribution of the base shear. Numerous examples of buildings that collapse due to the presence of excessive vertical load have been identified in Mexico earthquake, 1985. It is believed that the Mansi complex, a multi-storeyed building has failed in Bhuj earthquake due to a massive swimming pool at the upper floor. ‘ 14.2.4 Vertical Geometric Irregularity A vertical setback is a geometric irregularity in a vertical plane. It is considered, when the horizontal dimension of the lateral force resisting system in any storey is more than 150% of that in an adjacent storey (Figure 14.9). The setback can also be visualised as a vertical re- entrant comer. The general solution of a setback problem is the total seismic separation in plan through separation section, so that portions of the building are free to vibrate independently. When the building is not separated, check the lateral-force-resisting elements using a dynamic analysis. beac A A AIL> 0.25 AIL > OAS -— 1 —-— 1 — ka L L>1sh 1 Ly> 1.5L, MMM Ie ly k— L, — FIGURE 14.9 Vertical geometric irregularity. 14.2.5 Proximity of Adjacent Buildings Pounding damage is caused by hitting of two buildings constructed in close proximity with each other. Pounding may result in irregular response of adjacent buildings of different heightsaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.C Chapter If Effect of Structural Irregularities on the Performance. acute angle. The narrower portion of the building will tend to be more flexible than the wider ones, which will increase the tendency of torsion. To design these types of buildings, special care must be exercised to reduce the effect of torsion or to increase torsional resistance of the narrow parts of the building. 14.3.4 Diaphragm Discontinuity The diaphragm is a horizontal resistance element that transfer forces between vertical resistance elements. The diaphragm discontinuity may occur with abrupt variations in stiffness, including those having cut-out or open areas greater than 50% of the gross enclosed diaphragm area, or change in effective diaphragm stiffness of more than 50% from one storey to the next (Figure 14.15a). The diaphragm acts as a horizontal beam, and its edge acts as flanges. It is ‘obvious that opening cut in tension flange of a beam will seriously weaken its load carrying capacity. In a number of buildings there has been evidence of roof diaphragms, which is caused by tearing of the diaphragm (Figure 14.15b). Floor (a) (b) FIGURE 14.15 (a) Diaphragm discontinuity; (b) Failure resulting from diaphragm flexibility in Loma Prieta earthquake, 1989 (EERI, 1990). 14.4 RECOMMENDATIONS The multi-storeyed reinforced concrete buildings with vertical irregularities like soft storey, mass irregularities, floating box construction should be designed on the basis of dynamic analysis and inelastic design. The proper effect of these irregularities can be accounted by 3- D mathematical modeling of the building and dynamic analysis. The ductility provisions are most important in such situations. More care is necessary at the time of planning for reducing imregularitics. The torsional effects in a building can be minimised by proper location of verticalaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.C Chapter Ti Selomorccistant Building Ache) ED 15.3 BUILDING CONFIGURATION The second step in seismoresistant construction is the configuration of load resisting system of buildings. IS 1893 (Part 1): 2002 has recommended building configuration system in Section 7 for the better performance of buildings during earthquakes. An important feature in building configuration is its regularity and symmetry in horizontal and vertical plane. Seismic behaviour of irregular shaped plans (Figure 15.2) differs from regular shapes because the first can be subjected to their asymmetry and/or can present local deformations due to the presence of reentrant corners or excessive openings. Both effects give origin to undesired stress concentrations in some resisting members of the building. On the contrary, the ideal rectangular or square plan, structurally symmetric, with enough in-plane stiffness in its diaphragm, presents an ideal behaviour, because it has the same displacement at every point in the slab (Ravan and Lopez, 1996). Therefore, building shaped like a box, such as rectangular, both in plan and elevation, is inherently stronger than one that is L-shaped or U-shaped, that is a building with wings. Example of plan irregularity Example of vertical irregularity Oo Example of highly torsional configuration oo oo oo oo oO oe Oo Example of short columns FIGURE 15.2 General building configuration problems (BIA 1996). 15.3.1 Problems and Solutions Table 15.1 illustrates the problems associated with the configuration of building and its possible remedial measures (Arnold and Elsesser, 1980).aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Chapter 15 Seismoresistant Building Architecture Ga assembly. It is possible to build ductile structures with reinforced concrete if care is taken during designing to provide the joints with sufficient abutments that can adequately confine the concrete, thus permitting it to deform plastically without breaking. It is also important for this purpose to ensure that the tension edges of the structure are adequately reinforced and that there are sufficient stirrups to ensure that concrete is properly confined along the compression edge. For example, in columns, due to combined effect of flexure and axial produces a flexural compression failure mode in which failure takes place near the column ends and buckling of longitudinal reinforcement. This can be eliminated by providing the lateral reinforcement in the region of plastic deformation as per IS 13920: 1993. 15.4.5 Seismic Weight Seismic forces are proportional to the building weight and increases along the height of the building. Weight reduction can be obtained by using lighter materials or by relocation of heavy weight such as file racks, libraries, swimming pools etc., at lower levels. For example, if a load P placed at fifth level, the overturning moment becomes 25 times greater than P placed at the first level. Besides, the seismic shear affects from level 1 to 5, whereas, in the second case, only the first level is affected but to a lesser extent (5 times less). 15.4.6 Hyperstaticity/Redundancy In general, hyperstatic (statically indeterminate) structures have advantage because if primary system yields or fails, the lateral force can be redistributed to secondary elements or system to prevent progressive failure (alternate load path). Moreover, hyperstaticity of the structure causes the formation of plastic hinges that can absorb considerable energy without depriving the structure of its stability. Therefore, the redundancy of hyperstatic structure is highly desirable characteristic for earthquake resistant design. 15.4.7 Non-structural Elements The non-structural damage problem is particularly difficult to deal with because the non- structural components that are subjected to seismic forces are not normally within the design scope of the structural engineer, whose responsibility is to provide the seismic safety of the building. In addition, non-structural components—such as partition walls—are often added after the initial building design, and the original architect, or an architect at all, is often not involved. Finally, non-structural components remain uninvolved in the building design and become the source of damage. In general, non-structural damage is caused in two ways. The component may be directly affected by ground motion transmitted by the main structure of the building and be subjected to accelerations and consequent inertial forces in similar way to the building structure. Alternatively, the non-structural components may be affected by the movement or distortion in the structural elements that support or abet the element. These two causes can be summarized as acceleration or drift related damage. Methods of mitigating the damage to nonstructural components must recognize the probable mode of failure, whether through inertial forces or movement of failure in backingaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Seismic Analysis and Modelling of Reinforced Concrete Buildingaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.(Barthquake Resistant Design of Structures ) IS: 1893-1975 Vg =C a, W C =a coefficient defining the flexibility of structure C =0.9 for fundamental period (7) = 0.1 x n = 0.4 see @, = Horizontal seismic coefficient = 0.075 @, = BT a (In Seismic Coefficient Method) = 1 x 1.5 x 0.05 = 0.075 @ = 0.05 since Roorkee is in zone IV as per IS: 1893: 1975 1 = 15 (building is used as a hospital) 0, = BI Fy Sig (In Response Spectrum Method) = 1 x 1.5 x 0.25 x 0.1875 = 0.0703 eismic zone factor for average acceleration spectra = 0.25 for zone IV i = 1.0 for rock and hard soil and for all type of foundation Slg = 0.1875 correspond to T = 0.4 sec and damping 5% W = Weight of building (total dead load + appropriate amount of live Toad) = 11500 KN Vg = 0.9 x 0.075 x 11500 = 776.25 kN ‘Total base shear as per IS: 1893 - 1975 = 776.25 kN Fo= IS: 1893-1984 Vy=KC a, W K = performance factor depending on the structural framing system and brittleness or ductility of construction = 1.0 C =a coefficient defining the flexibility of structure with increase in number of stories depending upon fundamental time period = 0.9 for T = 0.4 sec K (performance factor) = 1.0 , = Horizontal seismic coefficient = 0.075 T dy (In Seismic Coefficient Method) * 15 x 0.05 = 0.075 Gy, = BI Fy S/g (In Response Spectrum Method) x 15 x 0.25 x 0.18 = 0.07 0 for rock and hard soil and for all types of foundation 1 =a coefficient depending upon the importance of structures = 1.5 (building is used as a hospital) % = 0.05 since Roorkee is in zone IV as per IS: 1893: 1984 W = Weight of building = 11500 kN Vg = 0.9 x 0.075 x 11500 = 776.25 KN Fo = 0.25 for zone IV 5,/g = 0.18 correspond to 7 = 0.4 sec and damping 5% ‘Total base shear as per IS: 1893 - 1984 = 776.25 kNaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.LD (Betiinnate. Tesiatant Design of Structures ) If the structure is allowed to freely vibrate with no external force (vector F is equal to zero) and no damping in simple harmonic motion, then the system represents undamped free vibration (Clause 7.8.4.1 of [8 1893 (Part 1): 2002). In that case, displacement x can be defined at time 1 is, xt) = x sin(or + 0) where, amplitude of vibration, natural circular frequency of vibration = phase difference, which depends on the displacement and velocity at time 1 = 0. Differentiating x(¢) twice with respect to time enables the relationship between acceleration and displacement ¥() =~ oFx sin (on + 9) = - 7 x) Substituting, Equation for free undamped vibration of the MDOF system becomes KX =@°MX where @ is known as the eigen-value or natural frequencies of the system, defined as, @, This is known as an eigen-value or characteristic value problem. 2 From the relation that, natural time period, 7 = — Natural time periods, T are (clause 7.8.4.1) fooo 0 . 0 oof, coos ° s X is known as an eigen-vector/modal vector or mode shape (Clause 7.8.4.1), represented as {P} = (O, B, ©; M, ...0,} Example 2 Let us consider a one bay four-storey shear building. Taking the masses and columns stiffness of each storey as shown. The summed shear stiffness (2 k,) of columns. The stiffness and mass matrix of the entire system areaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.LD Lartiquate Resistant Design of Structures Assume, x, = 1.0, then Row I gives: 8.9760 —8 x) = 0, xy = 1.1220 Row 2 gives: -8 x1 + 4.9760 x7 - 6 x3 = 0, x3 = 0.4028 Row 3 gives: ~6 x) +7.488 x3 ~ 6 x, = 0, 14 = —1.6242 10 _| 11220 ~ | 0.4028 16242 8 0 0 OVf 10 XT MX= {10 1.1220 0.4028 ~ 1.6242]|° & 9 0] H220\ 35 599 eihOh os " 2821) g 4 010.4028] ~ 0 0 0 4)[-16242 10 0.1848 1 11220 0.2074 [29.2722 | 0.4028 | ~ | -0.0744 1.6242] |-0.3002 Eigen-vector for @ = 2.8385 -4.7080 -8 0 0 -8 -87080 -6 0 Ikons] -6 06460 -6 0 0 -6 -5.3540 Assume, x; = 1.0, then Row I gives: —4.7080 —8 x, = 0, x; = -0.5885 Row 2 gives: ~8 x; -8.7080 x ~ 6 x3 = 0, x3 = -0.4792 Row 3 gives: -6 x -0.6460 x; - 6 x4 = 0, x4 = 0.5370 10 — 0.5885 *|_o4792 0.5370aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.ALD (Porthquake Resistant Design of Structures ) ion] isl ap mio. i=l 2.6841, Similarly, My = 0.9664, M, = 0.0246. Modal Contributions of Various Modes, Clause: 7.8.4.2 For mode 1, o ~ 20369 _ 0.8468 = 84.68% My _ 2.6841 _ = For mode 2, Si = 26841 _ 9.1120 = 11.20% M; _ 0.9664 For mode 3, “3 = 99654 - o.o40r = 4.02% For mode 4, Ms = 99246 - o.9010 = 0.10% ‘The effective mass for all modes considered will be 84.68 + 11.20 + 4.02 + 0.1 = 100%. It is clear from the values of the participation factors and effective mass, their value decreases as the mode number increases. The practical significance of this fact is that, in general it is not necessary to include all the modes in a calculation. Only a few significant modes need to be included in order to obtain reasonable results for practical problems. Therefore, the Clause 7.8.4.2 of IS 1893 (Part 1): 2002 states that “The number of modes to be used in the analysis should be such that the sum total of modal masses of all modes considered is at least 90% of the total seismic mass and missing mass correction beyond 33 Hz are to be considered, modal combination shall be carried out only for modes upto 33 Hz”. Design lateral force at each floor in each mode, clause: 7.8.4.5 (c) The design lateral force (Q,) at floor i in mode k is given by, Ag®aPLW; where A, is design horizontal acceleration spectrum value as per 6.4.2 using the natural period of vibration (7) of mode k. The design horizontal seismic coefficient A, for various modes are worked out using 2215, “IR Ay 2 |aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.LID (artiquaes Tesistand Design of Siractanes = Here the terms A; and A; represent the response of different modes of a certain storey level. Using the matrix notation the storey shears are worked out Vi, Va. V3.-.Vq respectively. Lateral forces at each storey due to all modes, clause 7.8.4.5 (f) The design lateral forces Frgoe and F, at roof and at i floor, are calculated as, Froot =Vioos and Fi = V,— Vian Fy = VykN, F; =(V3— V4) kN Fy = (V3— V3) KN F, = (V,— Va) KN Example 3 Consider a mass and stiffness matrix for the undamped free vibration of the system as below. Determine the lateral force at each storey. 1800-800 0 0 8000 k= -800 1400 -@00 0 kim, (Mf = os 00 F 0 -600 1200 -600 . oo 40. 0 0 -600 600 000 4 Natural frequencies ©, = 4.5036, @ = 10.6209, ws = 16.8479 and @ = 20.8101 Eigen-vectors 0.0914 0.1848 —0.2790" 0.0680 _| 01872 -0.2073) | o1e42| | -o1414 ** 0.2642 |" oo7ss[ ®~] 01337) %*) 0.3959 03056 03002 ~0.1498 | -0.2098 Time Periods 1.3951 0 0 0 0 05916 0 0 T= s 0 0 03729 «0 | 0 0 0 03019]aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.GED (Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures ‘Therefore all the frequency ratios and cross modal components can be represented in matrix form as shown below, Bu Ba Bx Bu) [Ola ofa, fa, o,/o, py=|22 Be Bo Pa| |orlm; alo, ovo, ogle, = = Bs Bx By Bul |O/o; @/0, aso, w4/o, Bu Ba Bis Bul (ola, ofa, ofa, aso, 1 2358 3.7409 4.6207 0.4240 I 1.5863 1.9593 ~ {0.2673 0.6303 11.2351 0.2164 05103 08096 | 8 x (0.05)? x (14 1x15 rel (=1)? +4 (0.05)? x Ix (4b? Pu= _8x (0.05) x (1 + 2.358) x 2.358! (12.358?) +4 x (005 (142. ree 2.358 x (1+ 2.358)" 0.0115 Therefore py calculated for all ij and represented as given below Pu Pi Pia Ps 1 0.0115 0.004 0.0027 Pr Pax Px Pu|_| 0.015 1 0.0430 0.0197 [Ps Px Pas Pu} | 0.004 0.0430 1 0.1816 Pu Pa Pr Pu} [0.0027 00197 0.1816 1 | Za ‘The above quadratic combination i.e. A = ye YX 4,044, can also be written as a4 VY ded, = Aids + Awids + APs ta p~uds +ArPak + Apparat it Aypass + Arse + APsiAy + MPods +Apyyds + Apuds+ Aipsidy + APads + AyPasds + AiPasrs In matrix form, it can be represented as Pu Pr Pas oe] A Pu Px Pos Pull Ar Pa Px Pas Pas |] As Pu Pa Par Pas SLAs 1A Ag Aad Here the terms A; or A; represent the response of different modes of a certain storey level.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Chapter 17 Consideration of Infill Wall in Seismic Analysis of RC Buildings 17.1 INTRODUCTION A large number of reinforced concrete and steel buildings are constructed with masonry infills. Masonry infills are often used to fill the void between the vertical and horizontal resisting elements of the building frames with the assumption that these infills will not take part in resisting any kind of load either axial or lateral: hence its significance in the analysis of frame is generally neglected. Moreover, non-availability of realistic and simple analytical models of infil! becomes another hurdle for its consideration in analysis. In fact, an infill wall enhances considerably the strength and rigidity of the structure, [t has been recognised that frames with infills have more strength and rigidity in comparison to the bared frames and their ignorance has become the cause of failure of many of the multi-storeyed buildings. The recent example in this category is the Bhuj earthquake on 26 January, 2001. The main reason of failure is the stiffening effect of infilled frame that changes the basic behaviour of buildings during earthquake and creates new failure mechanism. This chapter will discuss the structural action of infill panel and failure modes and modelling of infill walls with and without openings. 17.2 STRUCTURAL AND CONSTRUCTIONAL ASPECTS OF INFILLS The presence of masonry infills is the cause of (i) unequal distribution of lateral forces in the different frames of a building—overstressing of some frames; (ii) vertical irregularities in strength and stiffness—soft storey or weak storey as a result higher interstorey drifts and higher ductility demands of RC elements of the soft storey in comparison to remaining stories; (iii) horizontal irregularities—significant amount of unexpected torsional forces since the centre of rigidity is moved towards the stiffer infilled frames of increased stiffness and as a result 282aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.SED (Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures 2 to determine @,, and 0%, which depend on the relative stiffness of the frame and infill, and on the geometry of the panel. _ nf SEth Oe = 24 rsin26 4E IL weg ee OL VE esin20 where, E, and Ey = Elastic modulus of the masonry wall and frame material, respectively th, L = Thickness, height, and length of the infill wall, respectively 1. 1, = Moment of inertia of the column and the beam of the frame, respectively @ = tan! (AIL) Hendry (1998) has proposed the following equation to determine the equivalent or effective strut width w, where the strut is assumed to be subjected to uniform compressive stress Holmes (1963) recommended a width of the diagonal strut equal to one-third of the diagonal length of the panel, whereas New Zealand Code (NZS 4230) specifies a width equal to one quarter of its length. Example 1 Determine the increase in stiffness of the frame as shown in the given figure, when the brick infill walls are included in the analysis of frame. The infills are provided in the top two stories and the properties of frame and infill are given as Frame properties: E,= 5000 JF, Sx = 20 MPa Width of beam and column (b) = 0.30 m Depth of beam and column (d) = 0.45 m 1, = Moment of inertia of the column 1, = Moment of inertia of beam T_ = [y= 0.002278125 m* j sts Uy Yj Yy Yj Y Y Yj Infill properties Em = Elastic modulus of masonry wall = 13800 MPa i= t= thickness of the infill wall = 0.23 m | 0.30m x 0.45 m h = height of the infill wall = oe FZ L= length of the infill wall = sa]aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.SD (Parthquake Resistant Design of Structures 7 ‘The diagonal stiffness & of the infill is equal to the reciprocal of the deflection when P = 1. If an equivalent diagonal strut of length L, replaces the infill, the stiffness of the strut is given by. EA SL, Hence the cross-sectional area of the equivalent diagonal strut is, A, = LglEA The infilled frame can then be converted into the frame with the equivalent diagonal struts, and analysed by usual method of frame analysis. SUMMARY Multi-storeyed buildings are often analysed without considering the effect of infill wall panels on the assumption that these infill panel will not resist any kind of load. However, these infill panels increase the strength and stiffness of frame considerably and are responsible for unequal distribution of forces in buildings. The aim of the chapter is to focus on structural and constructional aspect of infill along with its failure mechanism. It also presents how to consider an infill wall in seismic analysis of frame. A solved example has also been presented for modeling the infill as an equivalent diagonal strut, An approximate solution of infill wall with opening has also been discussed. REFERENCES [1] IS 1893, Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures—Part 1, General Provisions and Buildings (fifth revision), Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, 2002. {2] CEB, RC Frames under Earthquake Loading—State of the Art Report, Thomas Telford, 1996. [3] Drydale, R.G., Hamid, A.A.. and Baker, L.R., Masonry Structures—Behaviour and Design, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1994. [4] Hendry, A.W. Structural Masonry, 2nd ed., Macmillan Press, 1998, [5] Holmes, M., “Combined Loading on Infilled Frames”, Proceedings of the Institute of Civil Engineers, 25: 31-38, 1963. {6} Kadir, M.R.A., “The Structural Behaviour of Masonry Infill Panels in Framed Structures”, Pi.D. Thesis, University of Edinburgh, 1974. 17] Liauw, T.C. and Lee, S.W., “On the Behaviour and the Analysis of Multi-storey Infilled Frames Subject to Lateral Loading”, Proceedings of Institute of Civil Engineers, 1977. [8] Liauw, T.C., “An Approximate Method of Analysis for Infilled Frame with or without Openings”, Building Science, 7: 223-238, Pergamon Press, 1972. [9] NZS 4230, “Code of Practice for the Design of Masonry Structures (Part 1)”, Standard Association of New Zealand, Willington, 1990,aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures es ern Roof Mass of infill + Mass of columns + Mass of beams in longitudinal and transverse direction of that floor + Mass of slab + Imposed load of that floor if permissible. = {((0.25 x 10 x (3.5/2) + 0.15 x 15 x (3.5/2) 20} + ((0.25 x 10 x 0.40 + 0.25 x 15 % 0.35) 25} + {0.10 x 5 x 10 x 25) + {(0.25 x 0.45 x (3.5/2) x 3) x 25} + OF = 363.82 KN (weight) = 37.087 ton (mass) 3, 2", 1 Floors = (O25 x 10 x 3.5) + O.15 x 15 x 3.5)) 20}4{(0.25 x 10 x 0.40 + 0.25 x 15 x 0.35) 25} + {0.10 x5 x 10x 25} + {0.25 x 0.45 x 3.5 x3 x 25} + (SX 10x 3.5 x 0.5%") = 632.43 KN (weight) = 64.45 ton (mass) * Imposed load on roof not considered. ** 50% of imposed load, if imposed load is greater than 3 kN/m? Seismic weight of building = Seismic weight of all floors = M, + My + M)+ My = 64.45 + 64.45 + 64.45 + 37.08 = 230.43 ton Note: The seismic weight of each floor is its full dead load plus appropriate amount of imposed load, as specified in Clause 7.3.1 and 7.3.2 of IS 1893 (Part1): 2002. Any weight supported in between stories shall be distributed to the floors above and below in inverse proportion to its distance from the floors. 18.2.2 Step 2: Determination of Fundamental Natural Period The approximate fundamental natural period of a vibration (7,,), in seconds, of a moment resisting frame building without brick infill panels may be estimated by the empirical expression T, = 0.075 x A’ = 0,075 x 14°75 = 0.5423 8 where fh is the height of the building, in metres. 18.2.3 Step 3: Determination of Design Base Shear Design seismic base shear, Vp = 4, W 1842 = 0.0443 Por T, = 05423 > * = + = 1.842, for rock site from Figure 2 of IS 1893 (Part 1): 2002 L Tr Design seismic base shear, Vp = 0.0443 x (230.43 x 9.81) = 99.933 KN"Darter Ta tap oy Step Procedere Jor Sclamic Anaya) QED 18.2.4 Step 4: Vertical Distribution of Base Shear The design base shear (Vj) computed shall DG distributed along the Height of the building ae par the expression, 2 Q= v, via (8.1) ywe ist where, Q, = Design lateral forces at floor i, W, = Seismic weights of the floor i, h, = Height of the floor i, measured from base, and n= Number of stories Using the Equation 18.1, base shear is distributed as follows: a=y, ie OWE + Wali + Wl + Wahi 2 632.25 35° | eae CS Fer X35? + 632.25 x 7? + 632.25 x 10.5" + 36382 x 14° Similarly, 1724 x 99.933 = 17.224 KN 3872 x 99.933 = 38.733 KN 3967 x 99.933 = 39.646 KN Lateral force distribution at various floor levels 9. 39.646 KN sen 38.755 KN 78.401 KN 95.625 kN 99.933 kN "WU: 99.933 KN Loading diagram Shear diagramaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.( Chepter 18, Step-by-Step Procedure for Seiemis Anatyitin | LD Complete quadratic combination (CQC) DLAs; where, r = Number of modes being considered, pi; = Cross modal coefficient, 2, = Response quantity in mode i (including sign), A; = Response quantity in mode j (including sign), ip 867(14 By) B'S 9 (+ ByP +4078, + By where, ¢ = Modal damping ratio (in fraction), By = Frequency ratio @/a;, ©, = Circular frequency in i mode, and @; = Circular frequency in j" mode. Therefore all the frequency ratios and cross modal components can be represented in matrix form as, Buy Br Bis Bu] [Ova e/a, a/o, o,/0, |B Bo Brs Bay | _| v2 Ola, ofa, w/a, By = = "|B Bs Bs By} |@@; @/0; a/0; w/o; Bu By Bas Bu] (Of, 0/0, Oso, ,/0, 1 2.84 4.26 5.04 _|035 1 149 1.77 “1023 0.66 1 LI8 019 056 084 1 Pu Pir Pris Ps 1 0.0073 0.0031 0.0023 py =] Pz P22 Pas Pau) _ 0.0073 10.0559 0.0278 j= = Ps Px Pax Pas 0.0031 0.0559 1 0.2597 Par Par Pas Pas. 0.0023 0.0278 0.2597 1 The above quadratic combination ie. A= |). }' A,p4A, can also be written in matrix form jal as,aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.C Chapler 18 Step-by-Step Procedure for Vetanie Awalysts..) Similarly, Ay = 0.037, Ayy = 0.035 For rocky, or hard soil sites 14+1ST, 0.005T7<0.10 =4 255 O10sT S040 L0O/T; 04057 <4.0 For 1, = 0.1655 > For Tz = 0.0581 = —* = 1+ 157 = 1.871 For T; = 0.0388 => ofS oe |S? 9 For T= 0.0382 = Sot 214 157 = 1.492 & Design lateral force Qi = (Ay Py Px Wy) (Ay PB, ®, W,)] [((0.060) (14.40) (-0.0328) (64.45 x9.81)]_ [(17.922y i (Aya PB Ba, We)) _ | (0.060) (-14.40) (0.0608) (64.45 x9.81))| _] (33215) | Oi) = | 4. Py W) | > | (0.060) (14.40) (-0.0798) (64.45 x 9.81)) | * | (43.637) (Ayg By By We] [((0.060) (— 14,40) (-0.0872) (37.08 x 9.81))] | (27.419) Similarly, 32.512 ~27.972 12980) _| =26343 _| 18.667 _ [722512] A=! 1166) '22=| issaay =| a6.065 | 20,361 16.696 | -13.057} Storey shear forces in each mode The peak shear force will be obtained by, Va= YO pelaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.c Chaper 18 Sep by Step Procatare Jor Sclomiz analyole.-) ED Gy + 1OBIS G, + 116989) = - 4.30 ¥,(1) Gy + 16.1947 Gy + 2622793 = - 1.95 ¥,(t) Gy + 19.1621 gy + 367199, = 0.68 &,(1) ‘The displacement response g, in normal coordinates can be evaluated by any of the numerical methods. Here, Piecewise-linear interpolation method has been used for evaluating the response of linear system (Appendix 1). For the given time history as shown in Figure 18.2, the response time history q in the principal coordinates or normal coordinates are shown in Figures 18.3 to 18.6. Displacement response 4, 0.006 0.004 0.002 0 ~0.002 0.004 0.006 0,008 ‘Time in sec FIGURE 18.3 Response history q, in normal coordinates. Displacement response 0.00015 0.0001 0.00005 . o s 0.00005 -0.0001 0.00015 0.0002 ‘Time in sec FIGURE 18.4 Response history q2 in normal coordinates.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.ED (Bertha Resistant Design of Structures > where [S] is the (n x n) upper triangular matrix given as, 1 1 1 i o11 1 001 1 Is]= 000 1 1 1 1 If 12674 -06337 0 0 x) 0 1 1 1//-06337 12674-06337 0 «| 20) {V(t} = x 001 1], 0 0.6337 1.2674 -0.6337 ay(t) 000 1,0 0 -0.6337 0.6337 x4(0) VY) 633712x,(r) V(t)|_ | -633712.x(¢) + 633712.x,(1) V(t) | | -633712.x,(1) + 6337122, (¢) v4t)} [-633712x,(1) + 633712.34(0), The storey shears at each storey are shown in Figures 18.15 to 18.18. 150 Base (first) storey shear 150 ‘Time in sec FIGURE 18.15 First storey (base) shear response history V,(¢) (KN).aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.END Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures ) 19.2.4 Equivalent Shear Wall Frame Model In order to analyze the building with parallel frames in plan as shown in Figure 19.4, an equivalent shear wall-frame model is established (Khan-Sbarounis, 1964). The equivalent frame is obtained by lumping together all the frames into one bay equivalent frame, and combining all shear walls into an equivalent shear wall. This equivalent frame-shear wall system is analyzed for total lateral loads on the building in the particular direction. Subsequently the forces computed in the equivalent frame are distributed to the component elements from which the equivalent frame was composed in proportion to the lateral stiffness. Equivalent Link frame members Equivalent wall Litt FIGURE 19.4 Equivalent shear wall frame (block frame model) (Khan-Sbarounis, 1964). 19.2.5 Plane Frame Model of Coupled Shear Walls The multi-storeyed shear walls with openings are called coupled shear walls, these can be idealized by a frame with finite joints. The coupled wall is thus represented as a frame except that the finite width of the columns in comparison with the beam is recognized. A typical representation of coupled wall by a frame model is shown in Figure 19.5. L Connecting beam FIGURE 19.5 Modelling of coupled shear wall by a plane frame.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.7.1.3 7.2 7.2.1 7.2.2 Chapier 2 Ductlily Considerations tw Barthquake Resistant Deign) ED Possible Explanation: © the member subjected to axial forces greater than a specified limit shall take both the load bending and axial The minimum dimension of the member shall not be less than 200 mm. However, in frames, which have beams with center-to-center span exceeding 5 m or columns of unsupported length exceeding 4 m, the shortest dimension of the column shall not be less than 300 mm. Possible Explanations: © to avoid very slender columns * to avoid column failure before beams (strong column weak beam concept) © experience from practice with reinforced concrete frames resisting earthquake- induced forces The ratio of the shortest cross sectional dimension to the perpendicular dimension shall preferably be not less than 0.4. Possible Explanation: * Experience from practice with reinforced concrete frames resisting earthquake- induced forces Longitudinal Reinforcement Lap splices shall be provided only in the central half of the member length. It should be proportioned as a tension splice. Hoops shall be provided over the entire splice length at spacing not exceeding 150 mm from centre-to-centre. Not more than 50 per cent of the bars shall be spliced at one section. Possible Explanations: © Lap splices of inadequate length may lead to column distress and even failure. It should be enclosed with transverse reinforcement because of the uncertainty in moment distributions along the height and the need for confinement of lap splices subjected to stress reversals ‘* Longitudinal bars in potential plastic hinge regions should be distributed reasonably and uniformly around the perimeter of the section in order to assist the confinement of concrete Any area of a column that extends more than 100 mm beyond the confined core due to architectural requirements shall be detailed in the following manner. In case the contribution of this area to strength has been considered, then it will have minimum longitudinal and transverse reinforcement as per this code. However if this area has been treated as non-structural, the minimum reinforcement requirements shail be governed by IS 456:1978 provisions minimum longitudinal and transverse reinforcement, as per IS 456:1978. Possible Explanation: © The unreinforced shell may spall as the column deforms to resist earthquake effects. Separation of portions of the shell from the core caused by local spalling creates aaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached 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page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Index 135° hook, 356 2d plane frame model, 327 3d space frame model, 327, 331 Absolute acceleration spectra, 77, 150 response spectra, 151 spectral response, 78 sum method, 172 Absorber mass, 161 Absorbing/transmitting boundaries, 182 Acceleration, 245 Displacement Response Spectrum (ADRS), 79, 154 Accelerogram, 70, 71 Accelerometer, 134 Acceptable risk, 57 Accidental eccentricity, 475 Accuracy, 141 Active, 199 faulting, 97 Adi’, 92 Adding reinforcement, 608 Addition of structural walls, 534 Adhered fabric, 603 Algorithmic damping, 142, 143 Alternate load path, 245 Amplification factor, 64, 101, 417 Amplitude parameters, 73 spectrum, 74, 145 Approach direct, 182 substructure, 182 Arching action, 283, 625 Architectural planning, 239 Artificial damping, 143 earthquake motions, 66 Aspect ratio, 472 Asthenosphere, 6, 30 ATC-14 methodology, 505 Attenuation law, 93, 98 relationships, 93, 94 Auxiliary/secondary mass, 160 Average response acceleration coefficient, 255 Axial, 530 Bandage, 614 Bands, 57 Base, 200 isolators, 534 shear, 197 Bi vectors, 164 Basin edges, 63 effects, 63 Battering, 234 Bayesian analysis, 98 Beam column joint, 530 elements, 334 mechanism, 414 Bearing wall system, 240 Bed rock motion, 63 Behaviour factor, 255 of masonry assemblage. 452 Bhuj earthquake, 207 Bihar-Nepal earthquake, 51ae az Bilateral tension, 452 Blind fault, 97 Body Wave Magnitude (MB), 21, 89 reflections, 63 waves, 10 Bond, 530 beam, 501 strength, 450 strength of mortar, 450 Boundary element, 366, 397, 401 Braced sicel frames, 560 Brittle, 192 shear failure, 530 Building foundation, 243 frame system, 240 separation, 234 Buttresses, 534 Cantilevered wall, 471 Capacity based design, 421 demand (C/D), 505 design, 199, 408 diagram, 79, 154 Captive column, 219 Carbon fibre, 542, 547, 604 Cement concrete block construction, 440 grouting, 600 Centre coring, 608 of mass, 475, 492 of rigidity, 475, 476, 492 Chamoli earthquake, 1999, 431 Characteristic of strong motion, 91 Characteristic value, 163 Characteristic-swaying mode, 232 Characteristics of earthquake ground motions, 60 Characterization of accelerogram, 71 of design ground motion, 61 Chord modulus, 454 Classical damping, 170 Close-coupled system, 328 Coherency function, 81 Column splices, 539 sway mechanism, 404, 414 Community buildings, 254 Complete quadratic combination (CQC), 273 Compressional waves, 10 Compressive strength, 449, 450, 452 of mortar, 451 Concrete capitals, 550 jacketing, 565 shear wall, 559° Condition assessment, 506 Confinement, 535 steel sections, 607 with RC elements, 606 Connection failure, 592 Conrad discontinuity, 31 Construction joint, 247 Continenial drift theory. 6 Conventional methods, 535, Convergent boundaries, 7 Convolution integral, 125 Correlation between MMI and PGV, 92 Coupled shear walls, 330, 367 ‘Coupling beam, 367 ‘Crack, 596 Critical damping, 117, 194 Critically damped, 117 ‘Cumulative effective modal mass, 175 Cumulative tilting, 234 Curtains, 398 Curvature ductility, 344 ‘Curvature ratio, 343 Cut-outs, 227 D’alembert’s principle, 116, 260 Damage potential, 84 of a ground motion, 73 of earthquakes, 81 Damageability, 198 Damped circular natural frequency, 118 Damping, 192, 194, 243 coefficient, 194 force, 116, 192, 194 matrix, 158 Deep focus earthquakes, 88 Deflection due to flexural bending, $71 Deflection to shear, 471 Degrees-of-freedom, 194 Design base shear, 253 basis earthquake, 252 criteria, 96 earthquake (DBE). 96 ground motions, 65 lateral force, 253, 270 response spectrum, 101 spectrum, 101, 154 Deterministic zoning method, 56C Diagonal steel bracing, 563 Brasonal str, 436 Diagonalized modal mass matrix, 312 Diaphragms, 227, 469 discontinuity, 237 failure, 592 Digital accelerographs, 135 Direct shear forces, 475 Direction of fault rupture, 61 ‘one of the principal axis, 83 to the fault-slip zone, 83 Discontinued shear walls, 368 Discontinuities/imregularities in the load path, 227 Discontinuous load, 528 Discontinuous shear wall, 227, 368 Displacement ductility, 345 method, 192 pickup, 132 ratio, 347 Dissipation of seismic energy due to material damp, 63 Distributed parameter model, 114 Divergent boundaries, 7 Doppler’s effect, 60 Drift control, 234 Drift related damage, 246 Dry mix, 602 Dual system, 240, 397 Ductile, 192 coupling beams, 367 Ductility, 193, 198, 243, 244, 342, 344 based design, 199 factor, 342, 347 ratio, 342, 343 Duhamel integral, 125 Duration magnitude (Mp), 89 of shaking, 60 scale, 21 Dynamic, 191 analysis procedure, 253 component, 180 degrees of freedom, 113 equilibrium, 192 range, 132 Earthen building, 440 Earthquake average power, 84 destructiveness potential, 85 ground motion, 59, 60 nice) CD intensity, 84 potential in a region, 90 protection system, 199 resistant (ER) measures, 577 Effect of inertia, 111 Effect of the duration of application of excitation, 123, Effective peak acceleration (EPA), 85, 92 Eigenvalue, 264 problem, 163 Eigenvector/modal, 262 Elastic half space, 336 Elasticity time history method, 196 Elevators, 222 Embedment ratio, 185 approach, 199 issipating capacity, 347 released, 60 Epicentres, 4 EPV, 92 Equation of motion, 112, 115 Equivalent diagonal strut, 285 harmonic wave, 73 lateral force procedure, 253 modal damping, 334 number of yield cycles, 85 shear wall-frame model, 330 static analysis, 196 static procedure, 253 viscous damping, 199 Evaluate the dynamic response, 137 Evaluation, 505 Excitation by multiple components, 175 function, 314 Expected ground motion, 60 Experimental determination of dynamic charac- teristics, 119 Exterior supplemental devices, 616 Exterior walls, 219 External binding, 621 buttresses, 616 jacketing, 619 Factor, 344 Failure of non-structural components, 592 Far-coupled system, 328 Fault parallel direction, 60 rupture area, 60 rupture parameters, 90ED Gia Faulty construetion, 211 Ferro-cement, 613 Fibre polymer composite jacket, 542 Fibre reinforced plastic (FRP), 603 Field evaluation, 506 method, 505 Finite element, 334 Flexible base parameters, 186 capacities of the beams, 410 diaphragm, 469 floor diaphragms, 332 strength of mortar, 450 tensile, 450 wall, 483 Flexural walls, 464 Flexure, 530 beam model, 328 tensile strength, 455 tension normal to bed joints, 455 tension parailel to bed joint, 455, Fling step, 61 Floating box, 227 box type, 209 columns, 212 column concept, 227 earthquakes, 98 Floor space index, 212 Force balance accelerometer (FBA). 135 flow, 227 Forced vibration, 123 of an MDOF system, 169 of MDOF system, 171 Foundation beams or ties, 246 Foundation input motion, 183 Fourier series, 120 spectra, 144 spectrum, 74 Fragmentation, 398 Free vibration, 117, 162 Frequency content, 74 of a time history, 75 of ground motion, 144 Frictional damper, 535 FRP jacketing, 547 Fundamental, 193 mode, 165 natural period, 255, 486 Gable band, 582 Generalised coordinates, 158 cigenvalue problem, 165 mass, 178 Geometric attenuation, 62, 63 Glass fibre, $42 Global mass reduction, 534 Global/structural retrofitting, 596 Grillage elements, 334 model, 336 Ground motion parameter, 64, 65 Grout, 449, 451, 600 injection, 600 Grouting, 618 Gunite, 602 Gutenberg seismic discontinuity, 32 HWV ratio, 64 Hammering, 215 Hanging wall effect, 62 Harmonic excitation, 120 Hazard maps, 56 Holonomic constraints, 157 Horizontal bands or bond beams, 577 construction joint, 369 framing system, 577 irregularities, 226 resisting elements, 227 seismic coefficient, 465 Hybrid, 199 systems, 201 Hyperstatic, 246 Hyperstaticity, 246 Hysteresis behaviour, 342 Hysteretic damping, 199 IDNDR, 59 Impact echo, $21 Impedance functions, 183 Importance factor, 254, 466 Important service, 254 In-plane (shear) failure, 593, forces. 464 moment, 479 shear, 479 Inclined beam member, 336 Inclined truss member, 336 Incoherence effect, 80Index qa Increase in axial load, 496 Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, 65 Industrial building, 159 Inelastic deformation, 404 Inelastic time history analysis, 197 Inertia force, 116, 192 Inertia matrix, 158 Inertial interaction, 181, 334 Infill walls, 534 Infilled masonry walls, 570 Influence coefficient matrix, 180 Inplane failure, 445 Intensity, 89 attenuation, 49 scale, 13 Intermediate focus carthquakes, 88 Interplate, 5 earthquakes, 88 Intervention, 505 Intraplate, 5 earthquakes, 88 Inundation, 37 Irregular, 226 buildings, 259 shaped plans, 241 Isolated footing, 334 Isolation, 200 Isoseismal, 18 Jacket with high tension materials, $42 Jacketed, 565 Jacketing, 535, 542 Jamb reinforcement, 605, Jamb steel, 498 Kangra earthquake, 51, $5 Killari (latur) earthquake, 56 Kinematic interaction effects, 181 Kinematics, 335 Koyna earthquake, 52, 56 Kutch earthquake, 51, 207 Lack of deformation compatii Land-use planning, 66 Lap splices, 351 Large openings, 227 Lateral force procedure, 253 resistance, 528 strength design, 199 Lehmann discontinuity, 31 Linear dynamic analysis, 196 interaction diagram, 483 static analysis, 196 Lintel, $01 band, 582 Liquefaction, 247 Lithosphere, 6, 30 Load combinations, 409 ground response, 63 Jmember retrofitting, 596 path, 212, 468 resisting system, 239 retrofitting, 533 (richter) magnitude (ml), 89 site effects, 60 Logarithmic decrement, 119 Long duration pulse, 61 Long natural period, 244 Loss of resistance, 246 Losses, 45 Love waves, 11 Low lifting grouting, 600 mass model, 195 parameter model, 114 system, 329 Magnification factor, 414 Magnitude, 89 Masonry assemblage, 452 buildings, 463 cracking, 596 deterioration, 596, 601 infill walls, 219 infills, 282 parapets, 617 unit, 449 wall, 559 Mass and stiffness matrices, 261 inegularities, 211, 232 orthonormal mode shape, 163 reduction, 534 renormalization, 163 Master, 333 Mathematical model, 194 Mathematical modelling, 112aes Maximum: absolute response, 272 considered earthquake, 252 considered magnitude, 56 credible earthquake (MCE), 96 interaction effect, 410 interaction ratio, 387 strain energy input, 78 MDOF system, 157 ‘Mean square acceleration, 84 Measure of severity, 71, 83 Measure of the severity of ground shaking, 81 Mechanical dissipaters, 200 Medvedev-Spoonheuer-karnik (MSK), 13 Member level approach, 533 Member/local, 203 Mercalli intensity scale, 13 Mesosphere, 30 Micro-earthquake, 89 Microtremor data, 64 Mindlin plate element, 335 Minimax property of Rayleigh quotient, 165 Missing mass correction, 177, 270 Modal analysis procedure, 253 combination rules, 171 damping matrix, 312 expansion theorem, 164 mass, 170, 269 participation factors, 171, 270, 315, stiffness, 170 stiffness matrix, 312 shapes, 163, 243, 262 superposition method, 196 truncation, 175 Modified mercalli (MMI) scale, 89 Modulus of elasticity, 453, 470 of rigidity, 470 of rupture, 455 MOHO, 31 Mohorovicic discontinuity, 31 Moment, 22 magnification factor, 414, 424 magnitude, 22, 90 Mortar, 446, 449, 601 Movable joint, 219 (MSK) intensity scale, 89 Muhti-degree-of-freedom, 197 Multiple-support excitation by differential ground, 179 Mutually orthogonal, 163 Muvaffarabad earthquake, 446 ‘Natural mode shapes, 163, 255 period, 193, 243 time period, 262 Near-field, 60 strong motion data, 60 Newton's second law of motion, 115 Non-destructive evaluation, 506, 509 Non-engineered construction, 576 Non-linear dynamic analysis, 197 Non-linear inelastic analysis, 505 Non-linear static analysis, 196 Non-reference site approach, 64 Non-stationary characteristics, 74 Non-structural damage, 245 Non-structural elements, 243 Nonholonomic, 157 Number of significant half-cycles of motion, 62 ‘Numerical algorithm, 142 integration, 141 Occurrence of an earthquake, 99 Oceanic ridges, 6 Onthogonal strength ratio, 455 Orthogonality of mode-shapes, 164 Out-of-plane, 220 bending, 464 buckling, 397 failure, 445, 592 forces, 483 Over strength, 347, 417 factor, 415 Overdamped, 117 Overturning moment, 480, 495 P-A effects, 211, 231 Parapets, 220 Partial resonance, 193, Partial safety factor, 417 Passive, 199 and active control systems, 201 control system, 200 Path effect, 60 Ainterrupted load, 528 firregular load path, $28 Peak ground acceleration (PGA), 91 horizontal acceleration, 73, horizontal velocity, 62 shear force, 271 velocity (PGV), 92(OOS ne) Penetration resistance methods, 520 Perfectly-plastic, 347 Performance-based engineering, 79 Period elongation, 143 of the dominant pulse, 62 Permanent ground displacement, 61 Phase spectrum, 74, 145 Physical coordinates, 316 Piecewise-linear interpolation, 315 Piers, 470 Pile, 335 Pitched roofs, 432 Plane frame idealization, 328 Plane frame models, 328 Plastic hinges, 395, 404 Plinth band, 501, 582 Poisson process, 99 Poisson's ratio, 449 Poor quality of material, 211, 528 Pounding, 233, 507, 592 failure, 215 Power spectrum, 75 Predominant period, 63 Premature deterioration, 398 Prestressing, 612 Primary loss, 45 Principal axis, 83 Prism, 451 Probabilistic estimations of ground motion, 98 Propagation delay, 81 Proportional damping, 170 Pseudo relative velocity response spectrum, 76, 148 Pseudodynamic test, 204, 205 Punching shear failure, 549 Push over analysis, 197, 345, 505 Push over curve, 79, 154 Qualitative methods, 505 Quality factor, 25 of workmanship, 528 Quasi -resonance, 193 -static component, 180 -static test, 204, 205 Raft foundation, 335 Random rubble stone masonry, 440 Rapid visual screening method, 505 Rayleigh (L,), 11 dissipation function, 158 quotient, 165 RC or steel frame, 605 Re-entrant, 236 comer, 227, 233 Re-pointing, 601 Rebar locatoriconvert meter, 520 Rebound hammer, 520 Reciprocating machine, 159 Reconstruction, 524 Recurrence relation for constant average accelerator, 140 relation for duhamel integral, 138 Reduced 3d model, 328, 331 eigenvalue problem, 178 Redundancy, 245 Reference site, 63 Regression analysis, 64 Regular, 226 building, 259 configurations, 226 shapes, 241 Rehabilitation, 524 Reinforced concrete beams, 530 construction, 208 frames, 568 infill walls, 563 jacket, 542 jacketing, 543 masonry, 451 shear walls, 565 Reinforcement, 449 Reinforcing steel, 451 Relation between MMI and PGA, 91 Relative displacement response spectra, 76 displacement response spectrum, 148 rigidity, 253 velocity spectrum, 7 Remoulding, 524 Repairing, 524, 596 Representative ground frequency, 153 RESA, 65 Resonance, 25 Restoring force, 192 Retrofitting, 202, 524 Return period, 56, 99 Richter magnitude scale, 19 Rigids and flexible diaphragm, 467 bars, 393 diaphragm, 332, 469 link, 329, 393 Rigidity, 198ED Gz Rima (Assam) eartnquake, $1 Ring of fire, 6 Ritz base vectors, 177 Roof, 501 band, 582 diaphragms, 469 Rotation angle dactility ratio, 343 Rotational ductility factor, 343 Run-up, 37 Rupture directivity effect, 60, 61 Safety level, 57 ‘Screening method, 503 SDOF system, 115 Seismic, 200 Seismic base isolation, 540 base shear force. 465 demand diagram, 79 design code of practice, 60 evaluation, 202, 508 hazard map, 45 hazard zone map, 46 isolation, 571 moment, 90 pickups, 129 regionlisation map, 50 retrofitting, 524 separation, 233 wave propagation, 60 waves, 10 weight, 255 zone map of india, 253 zoning, 45 zoning map, 45, 48, 49, 50 Seismically deficient structures, S05 Seismicity data, 60 Seismo-tectonic setup of india, 53 Seismo-tectonic units, $3 Seismogenic rupture zone, 94 Seismology, 3 Seismometers, 132 Seismoresistant capacity, 239 Semi-active, 199 Serviceability, 198 Servo-accelerometer, 135 Severity of ground motion, 96 Shaking table, 204 Shallow focus earthquakes, 88 Shear, 530 beam model, 329 building model, 113 friction, 369 wall, 464, 470, 534 waves, 10 Shillong earthquake, 51 Shock table, 585 testing, 582 Short column, 219, 50S duration pulse, 61 natural period, 244 Shoterete, 602 Sill band. 582 Single degree-of-freedom, 194 Slaves, 333, Sliding joints, 222 Soft, 211 or weak stories, 209 storey, 231, 404, 414 storey problem, 421 stories, 211, 507 Soil damping, 334 springs, 183 structure interaction, 181, 182, 195, 334 Source effect, 60 Spatial variation of earthquake ground motion, 179 ground motion, 80 strong ground motion, 62 Special confining reinforcement, 389 Specification of MCE, 97 Spectral amplification, 63 analysis of surface waves (SASW), 521 intensity, 85 radius, 142, shapes. 131 Splicing, 369 Splints, 614 and bandage, 614 Splitting tension, 450 Spring force, 116 Square-root-of-the-squares, 272 SRR, 65 SRSS rule, 172 SSI analysis, 181 Stability, 141 Stack pattern, 452 Standard eigenvalue problem, 165 Starting transient, 122 Static, 191 equilibrium, 192 ‘Statically indeterminate, 245Inder) @EED Steady-state magnification factor, 121 Steady-state response, 121 Steel braces, 534 bracing, 570 jacket, 542 moment frames with fluid viscous dampers, 573 Stiffness, 192 matrices, 178 resistance, 192 Stitching of wall comers, 608, 618 Stodola method, 165 Stones bond, 599 through, 599, 619 Strain hardening effects, 417, 423 Strength, 198 Strengthening, 524 of wall with wire mesh, 618 Stress concentrations, 227 Stress-strain curve, 449, 453 Strong column motion data, 64 motion duration, 493 motion studies, 60 ~weak beam, 530 weak beam structure by, 404 Structural damping, 244 dynamics, 112 /global, 203 integrity, 444 level approach, 533 level retrofitiings, 534 masonry, 449 models, 194 overlay, 603 Structure ductility, 345 Strut action, 219 ‘Supplemental damping, 541 amping devices, 535 device, 540 energy dissipation devices, 534 Support motions, 171 Surface apparent velocity of propagation, 81 ground motion, 63 topography. 63 wave (s-wave) magnitude, 21, 89 wave generation, 63 waves, 10 Survivability, 198 Sweeping matrix, 167. 168 Synchronous motion, 162 Tectonic earthquakes, 88 Tectonic map, 51 Theory of elasticity, 285 Three-dimensional model, 194 Time history method, 311 marching schemes, 141 period of the building, 466 TOPI, 209, 217 Torsion, 235 irregularity, 234 Torsional eccentricity, 493 effects, 224 moment, 493 shear forces, 475 Transducers, 129 Transfer function of the soil column at the site, 63 ‘Transform boundaries, 7 Transform fault boundary, 9 ‘Triaxial compression, 452 ‘Truncation of the modal summation, 176 ‘Tsunami earthquake, 36 ‘Tuned mass dampers, 200 Tuning ratio, 121, 130 ‘Two-dimensional plane frame model, 195, 393 Tying of walls with stee! ties, 619 Uhimate displacement, 343 Uhimate limit state, 198 Uncorrelated components of the ground motion, 82 Undamped circular natural frequency, 117 free vibration, 262 system, 260 Under-damped, 117 UNESCO, 59 Uniaxial compression, 452 Unit, 446, 601 impulse response function, 124 Unity equation, 481, 482 University of Roorkee, 65 Unttarkashi, 438 VIA ratio, 73, 92ame Gaz ‘Vector purification/deflation, 167 Velocity pickup, 132 Vertical acceleration, 252 discontinuity, 212 irregularities, 223, 226 reinforcing, 577 setback, 233 steel, 582 strength discontinuities, 507 Vibration, 111 isolation, 127 isolators, 128 spectra, 131 Virtual eccentricity, 483 Visco-elastie damper, 535 Viscous damper, 535, 573 damping, 192 forces, 192 Visual inspection, 506, 509 Wall as strip footing, 334 Ipier fixed, 471 Water tank, 220 Wave propagation effect, 80 in elastic medium, 181 Weak, 211 motions, 64 storey, 230 Web reinforcement, 369 Wide column, 393 Wing walls (side walls), 534 Winkler model, 336 Wire fabric, 613 Wire mesh, 568 Yield condition, 194 displacement, 343 load, 343 penetration, 359 Zero period acceleration (ZPA), 101 Zone factor, 253. 466Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures -ankaj Agarwal Manish Shrikhande This comprehensive and well-organized book presents the concepts and principles of earthquake resistant design of structures in an easy-to-read style. The use of these principles helps in the implementation of seismic design practice. The book adopts a step-by-step approach, starting from the fundamentals of structural dynamics to application of seismic codes in analysis and design of structures. The text also focusses on seismic evaluation and retrofitting of reinforced concrete and masonry buildings. Pe ee Reon Smo R erent Oe Ese ekcy reinforce the understanding of the concepts. Intended mainly as a text for undergraduate and postgraduate students of civil engineering, this text would also be of considerable benefit to practising engineers, architects, field engineers and teachers in the field of earthquake resistant design of ears ABOUT THE AUTHORS Pankaj Agarwal, Ph.D., is Assistant Professor at the Department of Earthquake Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee. He has been engaged in teaching and research in earthquake resistant design of masonry and RC structures, post-damage detection and survey of earthquake affected areas and buildings, and health monitoring Dr. Agarwal is a member of Indian Society of Earthquake Technology (ISET). Manish Shrikhande, Ph.D., is Assistant Professor at the Department of Earthquake Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee. He is a recipient of Young Engineer Award of Indian National Academy of Engineering (INAE) and Career Award of AICTE. Lae tml ISBN 81-203 |) ee WAY UI Dee JN) SUSE