NUMBER THEORY

BY MUZAMMIL TANVEER
[email protected]
0316-7017457
 Dedicated
To
My Honorable Teacher
Dr. Muhammad Umer Shuaib
&
My Parents

1
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
Lecture # 01

Integer:

The number which have no decimal no riven ( ) and no under root.

‫     ا ر          اور    ر  ۔‬ ‫ا اد‬

Positive Integer:
The integer in which x > 0 i.e. {1,2,3,…..}

Negative Integer:
The integer in which x < 0 i.e. {−1, −2, −3,…..}

Non-negative Integer:
The integer in which x ≥ 0 i.e. {0,1,2,3,…..}

Non-positive Integer:
The integer in which x ≤ 0 i.e. {0, −1, −2, −3,…..}

Well Ordering Principle:

Let S be a non-empty set of non-negative integers. Then S contains a least
(smallest) element.

Even Integer:
An integer ‘n’ is said to be even if n = 2m where m  Z

Odd Integer:
An integer ‘n’ is said to be odd if n = 2m+1 where m  Z

Division Algorithm:
Let ‘a’ and ‘b’ be any two integers such that b  0 then  unique integers q and r
s.t

a = qb+r ; 0  r < | |

2
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
e.g. a = 12 , b = 5  12 = (5) + 2

& a = −36 , b = −7

−36 = 6(−7) + 6

Divisibility:
Let ‘a’ and ‘b’ be any two integers with b  0 we say that b divides a if  an
integer c such that

a = bc

In this case ‘b’ is called divisor or factor of ‘a’ and ‘a’ is called multiple of ‘b’
and is denoted by ba

e.g 24 & a = 6 , b = 2  6 = 3(2)

Remark:
If there does not exist such integer ‘c’ we say be does not divide ‘a’ and is
denoted by b † a . e.g. 2†5

Remarks:
(i) Every integer a  0 divides 0 i.e a0
(ii) 1 divides every integer a i.e 1-5  -5 = -5(1)
(iii) Every integer divide itself i.e aa
(iv) If ab and bc then ac e.g. 24 and 48 then 28
(v) If ab then abx where x  Z
(vi) If ab and ac the abx+cy
i.e. ab  abx and ac  acy then abx+cy
(vii) If ab and b 0 then | || | i.e. 2-6  |2|  |−6|

Common Divisor:
Let ‘a’ and ‘b’ be any two integers at least one of them is non-zero and
integer ‘c’ is said to be common divisor of ‘a’ and ‘b’ if ca and cb.

e.g. 4 is a common divisor of 8 and 12

3
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
Lecture # 02

Greatest Common Divisor:

Let ‘a’ and ‘b’ be any two integers at least one of them is non-zero. A positive
integer ‘d’ is called Greatest Common Divisor (G.C.D) of ‘a’ and ‘b’ if

(i) d a and d b
(ii) For any other common divisor (say) c of a and b the c d

“It is also known as Highest Common Factor (H.C.F)

Notation:
The greatest common divisor of a and b is denoted by

G.C.D of a and b = (a,b) = d

Remark:
(i) If a b then (a,b) = a
e.g. (2,4) = 4
and (0,0) = not exist
(ii) (a,b) = (| |, | |)

Theorem:
Let ‘a’ and ‘b’ be any two integers at least one of them is non-zero. Then g.c.d
of ‘a’ and ‘b’ exists and is unique.

Proof: Let S be a non-empty set of positive integers of the form ‘ma+nb’

where m,n  Z.

S = {ma+nb ; m,n  Z}

Then by Well ordering principle S contain a smallest element (say) ‘d’ where
d = ax + by ; x,y  z. Now we show that g.c.d of ‘a’ and ‘b’ = (a,b) = d

(i) Observed that d is positive because d  S

(ii) Since d  a
then by division algorithm  unique integers q and r such that
a = qd+r …(1) where 0r<d
 a = q(ax + by) + r
4
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
  a = aqx+bqy +r
 r = aaqxbqy For g.c.d
 r = a(1qx)+(qy)b
 r = pa+sb where p = 1qx , s = qy (i) d0
rS (ii) da & db
(iii) For any other
Which is only possible if r = 0 put in (1) common divisor c
a = qd of a & b then cd

da

Similarly, db

(iii) Let ‘c’ be any integer such that ca and cb. Then
cax and cby
 cax+by
 cd  d = ax+by
Since d satisfy all conditions of definition of g.c.d. Therefore
(a,b) = d

Uniqueness:
Suppose that d1 and d 2 (if possible) are g.c.d’s of a and b.

If d1 is g.c.d then by definition

d 2  d1

 d 2  d1 …..(ii)

Similarly, if d 2 is g.c.d then by definition

d1  d 2

 d1  d 2 …(iii)

From (ii) and (iii)

d1 = d 2

Which show the uniqueness

5
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
Lecture # 03

Remark:
If (a,b) = d then  integer x and y such that

ax+by = d

Co-prime integer or Relatively prime integer:

Two integers ‘a’ and ‘b’ are said to be co-prime integer if (a,b) = 1

Example: Find (4,9) = ?

Solution: 4 and 9 are relatively prime

a=9 ,b=4

9 = 2 (4) + 1

 (4,9) = 1

9x+4y = 1  ax  by  1

1 = 9 – 4(2)
division algorithm   ‫اور‬b         ‫اور‬a     ‫ ان  ا ت    ے‬
1 = 9(1) + 4(–2)

 x = 1 and y = –2 a=qb+r ; 1 r  | |  ‫  ۔‬

Question: (–9,4) = 4     linear combination   ‫آ   اس   د    ا ا د‬g.c.d

 
Solution: a = 4 , b = 4
     ‫م‬     y‫اور‬x   ‫ اور‬
9 = 2(4) + 1

 (–9,4) = 1

In linear combination

–9x+4y = 1

1 = –9(–1)+4(–2)

 x = –1 and y = –2

6
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
Question: (5,12) = ?
Solution: a = 12 , b = 5

12 = 2(5) + 2 ____(i)
2
Here a = 5 , b =2 12
5 = 2(2) +1 5 10
i.e. (5,12) = 1 2

Now in linear combination

12x+5y = 1

1 = 5 – 2(2)

= 5–2[12–2(5)] from (i)

= 5 – 24 +4(5)

= 5(5) – 24

1 = 12(–2) + 5(5)

 x = –2 and y = 5

Question: (13,6) = ?
Solution: a = 13 , b = 6

13 = 2(6) + 1

i.e (13 ,6) = 1

Now in linear combination

13x+6y = 1

1 = 13–6(2)

1 = 13(1)+6(–2)

 x = 1 and y = –2

7
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
Question: (24,7) = ?
Solution: a = 24 , b = 7 3
24 = 3(7) + 3 _____(i) 24
7 = 2(3) +1 7 21
3
(24,7) = 1

Now in linear combination

24x+7y = 1

1 = 7 – 2(3)

= 7 – 2[24 – 3(7)] from (i)

= 7 – 2 (24) + 6(7)

1 = 24(–2) + 7(7)

 x = –2 , y = 7

Question: (34,4) = ?
Solution: a = 34 , b = 4
   ‫آر      اس     وا   اب اس‬g.c.d = zero  
34 = 8(4) + 2

4 = 2(2) + 0 ‫   ۔‬g.c.d
 (34,4) = 2

Now in linear combination

34x + 4y = 2

2 = 34 – 8(4)

2 = 34(1) + 4(–8)

 x = 1 and y = –8

8
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
Question: (76,8) = ?
Solution: a = 76 , b = 8

76 = 9(8) + 4

8 = 4(2) +0

 (76,8) = 4

Now in linear combination

4 = 76 – 9(8)

4 = 76(1) + 8(– 9)

 x = 1 and y = –9

Question: (59,11) = ?
Solution: a = 59 , b = 11

59 = 5(11) + 4 _______(i)

11 = 2(4) + 3 _______(ii)

4 = 1(3) + 1 _______(iii)

 (59,11) = 1

Now in linear combination

1 = 4 – 3(1)

1 = 4 – (1) [11–2(4)] from (ii)

1 = 4 – 11 +2(4)

1 = –11 + 3(4)

1 = –11+3[59 – 5(11)]  1 = –11+3(59) –15(11)

1 = –16(11)+3(59)  1 = 59(3) – 11(16)

1 = 59(3) + 11(–16)

 x = 3 and y = – 16

9
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
Question: (37,47) = ?
Solution: a = 47 and b = 37

47 = 1(37) + 10 _____(i)

37 = 3(10) +7 _____(ii)

10 = 1(7) + 3 _____(iii)

7 = 2(3) +1 _____(iv)

 (37,47) = 1

Now in linear combination

47x+37y = 1

1 = 7 – 3(2)

1 = 7 – 2[10 – 1(7)] from (iii)

1 = 7 – 2(10) + 2(7)

1 = 3(7) – 2(10)

1 = –2(10) + 3[37–3(10)] from (ii)

1 = –2(10) +3(37) –9(10)

1 = 3(37) –11(10)

1 = 3(37) –11[47–1(37)] from (i)

1 = 3(37) –11(47) + 11(37)

1 = 14(37) – 11(47)

1 = 47(–11) + 37(14)

 x = –11 and y = 14

Example: Find (256, 1166) = ?

Solution: a = 1166 , b = 256

1166 = 4(256) + 142 ____(i)

10
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
256 = 1(142) + 114 ___(ii)

142 = 1(114) + 28 ___(iii)

114 = 4 (28) + 2 ___(iv)

28 = 14(2) +0

 (256 , 1166) = 2

Now in linear combination

1166x+256y = 2

2 = 114 – 4(28)

2 = 114 – 4[142 – 1(114)] from (iii)

2 = 114 – 4(142) + 4(114)

2 = –4(142) + 5(114)

2 = –4(142) + 5[256 – 1(142)] from (ii)

2 = –4(142) + 5(256) –5(142)

2 = 5(256) –9(142)

2 = 5(256) – 9[1166 – 4 (256)] from (i)

2 = 5(256) – 9(1166) + 36(256)

2 = 1166(–9) + 41(256)

2 = 1166(–9) + 256(41)

 x = –9 and y = 41

11
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
Lecture # 04

Theorem:
Let ‘a’ and ‘b’ be any two integers and ‘k’ be any integer then (ka,kb) = k(a,b)

Proof:

Let (a,b) =d

And (ka,kb) = t

Then we show that

kd = t

Since (a,b) = d

Then there exist integers u and v such that

au + bv = d

 u(ka) + v (kb) = kd ____(i)

We suppose

(ka,kb) = t

 tka , tkb

 tu(ka) , tv(kb)

 tu(ka)+v(kb)

By definition of divisibility

 u(ka)+v(kb) = tr

Put in (i)

kd = tr

 tkd by def. of divisibility

 t  kd _____(ii)

12
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
Now as (a,b) = d

 da and db

 kdka and kdkb

 kd(ka,kb)

 kdt

 kd  t ______(iii)

From (ii) and (iii)

kd = t

or t = kd

(ka,kb) = k(a,b) proved

Corollary:

If (a,b) = d Then show that , =1

Solution:

Given that (a,b) = d

 , =d

By using above theorem (ka,kb) = k(a,b)

d , =d

 , =1

Theorem: If ac and bc and (a,b) = 1 then show that abc
Proof: Since ac and bc

So, by def. of divisibility  integers x and y such that

c = ax & c = by

Also given that (a,b) = 1 then  integers u and v such that

13
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
 au + bv = 1

 acu + bcv = c

a(by) u + b(ax) v = c

ab(yu+xv) = c

 ab(z) = c  z  yu  xv integer

Or c = ab(z)

 abc  by def .of divisibility

Proved.

Theorem: If abc and (a,b) = 1 then ac

Proof: Given that (a,b) = 1

Then  integers x and y such that

ax + by = 1

 acx + bcy = c

As aa  aacx

 abc (given)

 abcy

 aacx+bcy

 ac Proved

14
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
Lecture # 05

Common Multiple:
Let ‘a’ and ‘b’ be any two integers at least one of them is non-zero. An integer
(either positive or negative) ‘m’ is called common multiple of ‘a’ and ‘b’ if am
and b m.

Least common multiple (LCM):

Let ‘a’ and ‘b’ be any two integers at least one of them is non-zero. A positive
integer ‘m’ is called least common multiple of ‘a’ and ‘b’ if

(i) am and b m

(ii) If ‘c’ is any other common multiple of ‘a’ and ‘b’ i.e. ac & bc then
mc.

Notation:
If least common multiple of ‘a’ and ‘b’ is ‘m’ we denote it as [a,b] = m

Remark: If ab then [a,b] = b

n  P1x1  P2x2  P3x3  ......Prxr where Pi ' s are prime number and xi  0

 12  2  2  3
2 1
12   2    3

 72  2  2  2  3  3  30  2  3  5
3 2 1 1 1
  2    3   2    3   5 

P1  2, P2  3 P1  2 , P2  3, P3  5

x1  3, x2  2 x1 1, x2 1, x3  1

n  P1x1  P2x2  P3x3  ......Prxr

r
n   Pi xi
i 1

15
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
Theorem:
Let ‘a’ and ‘b’ be any two integers at least one of them is non-zero where
r r
a   Pi , b   Pi yi . Let M i  max  xi , yi  then show that [a,b] = d where
xi

i 1 i 1
r
d   Pi M i . Also show uniqueness of d.
i 1

Proof:
r
(i) Note that d   Pi M i is positive because all Pi are prime number and
i 1

Mi  0 Three conditions for

(ii) Since M i  max  xi , yi  L.C.M
 xi  M i and yi  M i (i) d is +ve
Pi P
x Mi
and P i P
y Mi
i (ii) ad & bd
xi Mi yi Mi (iii) any integer c
P P and P P i
then dc
r r r r
xi Mi yi Mi
 P P and P P i
i 1 i 1 i 1 i 1

 ad and bd

r
(iii) Let ‘c’ be any other common multiple of ‘a’ and ‘b’ where c   Pi ti
i 1

Since ac and bc

r r r r
xi ti yi ti
i.e. P P
i 1 i 1
and P P
i 1 i 1
i

 xi  ti and y i  ti
 max  xi , yi   ti i
 M i  ti i
Mi t
P  Pi i
r r
Mi ti
 P P i
i 1 i 1

 dc Hence [a,b] = d

16
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
Uniqueness:
Suppose that d1 and d 2 (if possible) are L.C.M’s of a and b

If d1 is L.C.M then by definition

d 2 d1

 d 2  d1 _____(i)

If d 2 is L.C.M then by definition

d1 d 2

 d1  d 2 _____(ii)

From (i) & (ii)

d1  d 2 which show the uniqueness

Theorem:
Let ‘a’ and ‘b’ be any two integers at least one of them is non-zero then

(a,b) . [a,b] = ab

Proof:

Let d = (a,b) and m = [a,b]

  integers r,s and integers u,v such that

a = dr , b = ds (r,s) = 1 ____(i)

and d = au+bv

Also m = [a,b]

  integers t and w such that

m = at & m = bw ______(ii)

d = au+bv

md = m(au+bv)

17
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
 md = mau + mbv

= bwau + atbv

md = ab (uw + tv)

 ab  md ______(iii)

ab drb
Also   rb  by (i )
d d

ab ads
  sa  by (i)
d d

ab ab ab
a , b ; that is a common multiple of ‘a’ and ‘b’.
d d d

ab
 m or md ab _____(iv)
d

From (iii) and (iv)

md = ab

(a,b).[a,b] = ab

Corollary:
If (a,b) = 1 then [a,b] = ab

Proof:

We know that from above theorem

(a,b).[a,b] = ab

Given that (a,b) = 1

1.[a,b] = ab

 [a,b] = ab

18
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
 (i) [6,14] = ?
14 = 2(6) + 2

6 = 3 (2) + 0

 (6,14) = 2

Now (6,14).[6,14] = 6×14

2 . [6,14] = 6×14

[6,14] = 42

If [a, b, c]   a, b  , c 

(ii) [6,14,8] = ?
[6,14,8]   6,14 ,8

First, we find [6,14]

14 = 2(6) + 2

6 = 3 (2) + 0

 (6,14) = 2

Now (6,14).[6,14] = 6×14

2 . [6,14] = 6×14

[6,14] = 42

[6,14,8]   6,14 ,8   42,8

Now 42 = 5(8) + 2

8 = 4(2) + 0 i.e. (42,8) = 2

(42,8) . [42,8] = 42×8

42  8
2 . [42,8] = 42×8   42,8   168
2

 [6,14,8] = 168
19
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
Lecture # 06

Linear Indeterminate equations or Linear Diophantine equations:

An equation with two or more than two variables is called Linear indeterminate
equations or Linear Diophantine equations.

e.g. ax + by = c

or x + βy + γz = 

x + 7y = 31 is satisfied by x = 21 , y = 1 also by x = 3 , y = 4 and also by x = 17

, y = 2 so we have infinite many solutions.

On the contrary the Diophantine equation 15x + 51y = 14 or 2x + 4y = 5 has no

solutions. Thus, we may ask when can a given Diophantine have solutions? We
give it in our next theorem.

Theorem: Let a(0) , b(0) and ‘c’ be any integer then the equation
ax + by = c _____(i)

has a solution iff dc where d = (a,b). If  x0 , y0  is a solution of eq (i) then

b a
general solution of eq (i) is given by x'  x0  t , y '  y0  t where t  Z
d d

Proof:

Suppose eq (i) has a solution (say)  x0 , y0  then

ax0  by0  c ____(ii)

We are to show that dc

Since (a,b) = d (given)

 da and db

 d ax0 and d by0

 d ax0  by0

 dc by eq (ii)

20
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
Conversely:
Suppose dc then by definition of divisibility there exist integer t such that

c = dt

Now as d = (a,b)

  integers u and v such that

au + bv = d

 a(ut) + b (vt) = dt multiplying by t

 ax0  by0  c

where x0  ut , y0  vt , c  dt

  x0 , y0  is solution of eq (i)

Now suppose  x ' , y '  is another solution of eq (i). Then

ax '  by '  c _____(iii)

Subtracting eq (ii) from eq (iii)

a  x '  x0   b  y '  y 0   0

 a  x '  x0    b  y '  y 0  _____(iv)

As d = (a,b)

 da and db

  integers ‘r’ and ‘s’ such that

a = rd , b = sd where (r,s) = 1

Put the values of ‘a’ and ‘b’ in eq (iv)

rd  x '  x0    sd  y '  y0 

r  x '  x0    s  y '  y0  ______(v)

21
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
From (v) we have

s r  x '  x0 

But (r,s) = 1 (relatively prime) holds when

s  x '  x0 

 x '  x0  st

 x '  x0  st

b b
 x'  x0  t  b  sd  s 
d d

Again, from eq (v)

r s  y '  y0 

But (r,s) = 1 holds when

r   y '  y0 

   y '  y0   rt

  y '  y0  rt

 y '  y0  rt

a a
 y '  y0  t  a  rd  r  proved
d d

Question: Find the general solution of 2x + 5y = 6

Solution:

Since (2,5) = 1 and 1  6

Solution of the given equation exists

Now 5 = 2(2) + 1

22
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
  1 = 5  2(2)

Or 2(2) + 5 (1) = 1

Multiplying by 6

2(12) + 5(6) = 6

 x0  12 , y0  6

Now for general solution

b
 x'  x0  t
d

5
x '  12  t
1

x '  12  5t

a
y '  y0  t
d

2
y'  6  t
1

y '  6  2t

To check

When t = 1  x '  7 , y '  4

2x + 5y = 6

2(7) + 5(4) = 14+20 = 6

Satisfied for all value of t.

23
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
Question: Find the general solution of 47x + 37y = 15
Solution: Since (47,37) = 1 and 1  15 so, solution of the
given equation exists

Now 47 = 1(37) + 10 _____(i)

37 = 3(10) + 7 _____(ii)

10 = 1(7) + 3 _____(iii)

7 = 2(3) + 1 _____(iv)

Now 1 = 7  2(3)

1 = 72[10   from (iii)

1 = 7  2(10) + 2(7)

1 = 3(7)  2(10)

1 = 3[373(10)] 2(10) from (ii)

1 = 3(37)  9(10)  2(10)

1 = 3(37)  11(10)

1 = 3(37)  [471(37)] form (i)

1 = 14(37)  11(47)

Or 47(11) + 37 (14) = 1

47(165) + 37(210) = 15

 x0  165 , y0  210

For G.S

b a
x'  x0  t , y '  y0  t
d d

x '  165  37t , y '  210  47t

is the required general solution.

24
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
Question: Find the general solution of 85x + 60y = 20
Solution: Since (85 , 60) = 1 and 5  20 so, solution of the
given equation exists

Now 85 = 1(60) + 25 _____(i)

60 = 2(25) + 10 _____(ii)

25 = 2(10) + 5 _____(iii)

10 = 2(5) + 0

Now 5 = 25  2(10)

= 25 2[60   from (ii)

= 25  2(60) + 4(25)

= 5(25)  2(60)

= 5[851(60)] 2(60) from (i)

= 5(85)  5(60)  2(60)

5 = 5(85)  7(60)

Or 85() + 60 (7) = 5

85() + 60(28) = 20

 x0  20 , y0   28

For G.S

b a
x'  x0  t , y '  y0  t
d d

x '  20  12t , y '  28  17t

is the required general solution.

For check t = 1

x '  32 , y '   45  85  32   60  45   20

25
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
Question: Find the general solution of 34x + 7y = 2
Solution: Since (34, 7) = 1 and 1 2 so, solution of the
given equation exists

Now 34 = 4(7) + 6 _____(i)

7 = 1(6) + 1 _____(ii)

Now 1 = 7  1(6)

= 7 1[34   from (i)

= 7  1(34) + 4(7)

Or 34() + 7 () = 1

34() + 7() = 2

 x0  2 , y0  10

For G.S

b a
x'  x0  t , y '  y0  t
d d

x '   2  7t , y '  10  34t

is the required general solution.

For check t = 1

x '  5 , y '   24  34  5   7  24   2

26
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
Lecture # 07

Theorem: Let a(0) , b(0) and ‘c’ be any integer then the equation
axby = c ___(i)

has a solution iff dc where d = (a,b). If  x0 , y0  is a solution of eq (i) then

general solution of equation is given by

b a
x'  x0  t and y '  y0  t where t  Z
d d
Proof:

Suppose eq (i) has a solution (say)  x0 , y0  then

ax0  by0  c ____(ii)

We are to show that dc

Since (a,b) = d (given)

 da and db

 d ax0 and d by0

 d ax0  by0

 dc by eq (ii)

Conversely:
Suppose dc then by definition of divisibility there exist integer t such that

c = dt

Now as d = (a,b)

  integers ‘u’ and ‘v’ such that

au + bv = d

 a(ut) + b (vt) = dt multiplying by t

 a(ut)  b(vt) = dt
27
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
  ax0  by0  c

where x0  ut , y0  vt , c  dt

  x0 , y0  is solution of eq (i)

Now suppose  x ' , y '  is another solution of eq (i). Then

ax '  by '  c _____(iii)

Subtracting eq (ii) from eq (iii)

a  x '  x0   b  y '  y 0   0

 a  x '  x0   b  y '  y0  _____(iv)

As d = (a,b)

 da and db

  integers ‘r’ and ‘s’ such that

a = rd , b = sd where (r,s) = 1

Put the values of ‘a’ and ‘b’ in eq (iv)

rd  x '  x0   sd  y '  y0 

r  x '  x0   s  y '  y 0  ______(v)

From (v) we have

s r  x '  x0 

But (r,s) = 1 (relatively prime) holds when

s  x '  x0 

 x '  x0  st

 x '  x0  st

28
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
 b b
 x'  x0  t  b  sd  s 
d d
Again, from eq (v)

r s  y '  y0 

But (r,s) = 1 holds when

r  y '  y0 

 y '
 y0   rt

 y '  y0  rt

a a
 y '  y0  t  a  rd  r  proved
d d

Question: Find the general solution of 8x  15y = 20

Solution: Since (8 ,15) = 1 and 120 so, solution of the
given equation exists

Now 15 = 1(8) + 7

8 = 1(7) + 1

And 1 = 8  1(7)

= 8 1[15  

= 8  1(15) + 1(8)

= 2(8)  1(15)

1 = 8(2)  15(1)

× by 20 8() 15() = 20

 x0  40 , y0  20

29
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
 b a
For G.S x'  x0  t , y '  y0  t
d d

x '  40  15t , y '  20  8t

For check t=1

x '  55 , y '  28

8(55) 15(28) = 20

Question: Find the general solution of 67x  45y = 131

Solution: Since (67 ,45) = 1 and 1131 so, solution of the
given equation exists

Now 67 = 1(45) + 22

45 = 2(22) + 1

And 1 = 45  2(22)

= 45 2[67  

= 45  2(67) + 2(45)

1 = 3(45)  2(67)

Or 67(2)  45(3) = 1

× by 131 67() 45() = 131

 x0  262 , y0   393

b a
For G.S x'  x0  t , y '  y0  t
d d

x '  262  45t , y '  393  67t

For check t=1

x '  217 , y '  326

67(217) 45(326) = 131

30
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
Question: If the cost of an apple is Rs.8 and cost of mango is Rs. 15 How
many minimum (least) number of apples can bought from rupees 200.

Solution: Let x represent the number of apple and y represent the number of
mangoes. Then

8x+15y = 200

Since (8 ,15) = 1 and 1200 so, solution of the given

equation exists

Now 15 = 1(8) + 7

8 = 1(7) + 1

And 1 = 8  1(7)

= 8 1[15  

= 8  1(15) + 1(8)

1 = 2(8)  1(15)

Or 8(2) 15(1) = 1

× by 200 8(400) 15(200) = 200

 x0  400 , y0   200

b a
For G.S x'  x0  t , y '  y0  t
d d

x '  400  15t , y '  200  8t

Put t = 26 x '  400  15  26  , y '  200  8  26 

x '  10 , y'  8

To check 8() 5() = 80 + 120 = 200

Hence, we bought 10 apples from 200 rupees.

31
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
Lecture # 08

 13  5  2 Re mainder

2 3
 13  16
5 10 5 15
3 1

R=53=2 R=51=4

Remainder < Divisor

Congruence:
Let ‘a’ and ‘b’ be any two integers and ‘m’ be a fixed positive integer. We say
that ‘a’ is congruent to ‘b’ modulo ‘m’ if ‘m’ divides a b and is denoted by

a  b  mod m  ____(i)

The relation (i) is called congruence ‘m’ is called modulus value of congruence
‘b’ is called remainder/residue of the congruence. If ‘m’ does not divides a  b
we say that ‘a’ is incongruent to ‘b’ modulo ‘m’ and denoted by

a  b  mod m 

Examples:
(i) a=8 , b=5 , m=3

38    

‘a’ is congruent to 5(mod3) or 8  5  mod 3 

(ii) a=8 , b = 5 , m=3

38    

8   5  mod 3 

(iii) a=8 , b = 10 , m=2

28      8   10  mod 3  

32
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
 (iv) a=8 , b = 6 , m=2

28    

8   6  mod 2 

Theorem: Show that the relation of congruence between integers is an

equivalence relation.

Proof:
(i) Reflexive: Let ‘a’ be any integer and ‘m’ be fix (positive) integer
Since ma

 ma  a

 a  a  mod m 

It means that relation of congruence between integer is reflexive.

(ii). Symmetric: Let ‘a’ and ‘b’ be any two integers and ‘m’ be a fix
(positive) integer.

Suppose a  b  mod m 

 mab = m(ba)

 m b  a

 b  a  mod m 

It means that relation of congruence between integers is symmetric.

(iii) Transitive: Let ‘a’, ‘b’ and ‘c’ be any integers and ‘m’ be any fix
(positive) integer.
Suppose a  b  mod m 
And b  c  mod m 

 ma b and mb c

33
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
  m a  b + b  c

 mac

 a  c  mod m 

It means that relation of congruence between integers is transitive. Since the

relation is reflexive, symmetric and transitive. Therefore, the relation is
equivalence.

Equivalence Class:
Since the relation of congruence between integer is an equivalence relation
therefore it partitions set of integers into classes these classes are called
Equivalence classes.

Example: m = 2

0   x x  0  mod 2 


 xx  mod 2 x  0
  0    0,  2 ,  4,....

And 1   x x  1 mod 2 


 xx  mod 2 x  1
 1   1,  3,  5,....

We note that

0  1  0
And 0  1  

34
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
Lecture # 9

Partition:
Let A = {1,2,3,4} A1 and A2 are partition of A if

(i) A1  A2  A
(ii) A1  A2  
(i) m=2
0 , 1 are classes  Re mainder 0,1

0   x x  0  mod 2 

 0   x 2 x0 
0  0, 2 ,  4, 6,......
1   x x  1 mod 2 

1   x 
2 x 1

1  1,  3, 5,......

0  1  
 0  1  
(ii) m=3
0 , 1 ,  2
0   x x  0  mod 3
0   x 3 x  0
0  0, 3,  6  9,......
1  x x  1 mod 3
1   x 3 x  1
1  1, 4, 7,10,...., 2, 5, 8, 11,...
35
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
  2   x x  2  mod 3
 2   x 3 x  2
 2  2 ,5,8,11,...., 1, 4, 7, 10,...
 0  1   2   
0  1   2  
(iii) m=4
0 , 1 ,  2 , 3
0   x x  0  mod 4 
0   x 4 x  0
0  0, 4 ,  8  12,......
1   x x  1 mod 4 
1   x 4 x  1
1  1,5,9,13,17...., 3, 7, 11, 15,...
 2   x x  2  mod 4 
 2   x 4 x  2
 2  2 , 6,10,14,18...., 2, 6, 10, 14, 18...
3   x x  3  mod 4 
3   x 4 x  3
3  3, 7,11,15,19...., 1, 5, 9, 13, 17...
 0  1   2   3  
0  1   2  3  
(iv) m=5
0 , 1 ,  2 , 3 ,  4 
0   x x  0  mod 5
0   x 5 x  0
0  0, 5,  10  15,......
1  x x  1 mod 5
36
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
 1   x 5 x  1
1  1, 6,11,16, 21...., 4, 9, 14, 19,...
 2   x x  2  mod 5
 2   x 5 x  2
 2  2 , 7,12,17, 22...., 3, 8, 13, 18, 23...
3   x x  3  mod 5
3   x 5 x  3
3  3,8,13,18, 23...., 2, 7, 12, 17, 22...
 4   x x  4  mod 5
 4   x 5 x  4
 4  4 ,9,14,19, 24...., 1, 6, 11, 16, 21...
0  1   2  3   4  
0   1   2  3   4  
(v) m=6
 0 , 1 ,  2 , 3 ,  4  , 5
0   x x  0  mod 6 
0   x 6 x  0
0  0, 6 ,  12  18,......
1   x x  1 mod 6 
1   x 6 x  1
1  1, 7,13,19, 25...., 5, 11, 17, 23,...
 2   x x  2  mod 6 
 2   x 6 x  2
 2  2 ,8,14, 20, 26...., 4, 10, 16, 22, 28...
3   x x  3  mod 6 
3   x 6 x 3 
37
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
 3  3,9,15, 21, 27...., 3, 9, 15, 21, 27...
 4   x x  4  mod 6 
 4   x 6 x  4
 4  4 ,10,16, 22, 28...., 2, 8, 14, 20, 26...
5   x x  5  mod 6 
5   x 6 x  5
5  5,11,17, 23, 29...., 1, 7, 13, 19, 25...
0  1   2  3   4  5  
0   1   2  3   4  5  
(vi) m=7
0 , 1 ,  2 , 3 ,  4 , 5 , 6
0   x x  0  mod 7 
0   x 7 x  0
0  0, 7 ,  14  21,......
1   x x  1 mod 7 
1   x 7 x  1
1  1,8,15, 22, 29...., 6, 13, 20, 27,...
 2   x x  2  mod 7 
 2   x 7 x  2
 2  2 ,9,16, 23,30...., 5, 12, 19, 26, 33...
3   x x  3  mod 7 
3   x 7 x  3
3  3,10,17, 24,31...., 4, 11, 18, 25, 32...
 4   x x  4  mod 7 
 4   x 7 x  4
 4  4 ,11,18, 25,32...., 3, 10, 17, 24, 31...

38
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
 5   x x  5  mod 7 
5   x 7 x  5
5  5,12,19, 26,33...., 2, 9, 16, 23, 30...
6   x x  6  mod 7 
6   x 7 x  6
6  6 ,13, 20, 27,34...., 1, 8, 15, 22, 29...
0  1   2  3   4  5  6  
0  1   2  3   4  5  6  
(vii) m=8
0 , 1 ,  2 , 3 ,  4 , 5 , 6 , 7 
0   x x  0  mod8
0   x 8 x  0
0   0, 8,  16  24,......
1  x x  1 mod8
1   x 8 x  1
1  1,9,17, 25,33...., 7, 15, 23, 31,...
 2   x x  2  mod 8
 2   x 8 x  2
 2  2 ,10,18, 26,34...., 6, 14, 22, 30, 38...
3   x x  3  mod 8
3   x 8 x  3
3  3,11,19, 27,35...., 5, 13, 21, 29, 37...
 4   x x  4  mod8
 4   x 8 x  4
 4  4 ,12, 20, 28,36...., 4, 12, 20, 28, 36...
5   x x  5  mod8
39
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
 5   x 8 x  5
5  5,13, 21, 29,37...., 3, 11, 19, 27, 35...
6   x x  6  mod8
6   x 8 x  6
6  6 ,14, 22,30,38...., 2, 10, 18, 26, 34...
7   x x  7  mod 8
7   x 8 x  7
7   7 ,15, 23,31,39...., 1, 9, 17, 25, 33...
0  1   2  3   4  5   6  7   
0  1   2  3   4  5  6  7   
(viii) m=9
0 , 1 ,  2 , 3 ,  4 , 5 , 6 , 7  , 8
0   x x  0  mod 9 
0   x 9 x  0
0   0, 9 ,  18  27,......
1   x x  1 mod 9 
1   x 9 x  1
1  1,10,19, 28,37...., 8, 17, 26, 35,...
 2   x x  2  mod 9 
 2   x 9 x  2
 2  2 ,11, 20, 29,38...., 7, 16, 25, 34, 43...
3   x x  3  mod 9 
3   x 9 x  3
3  3,12, 21,30,39...., 6, 15, 24, 33, 42...
 4   x x  4  mod 9 
 4   x 9 x4 
40
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
  4  4 ,13, 22,31, 40...., 5, 14, 23, 32, 41...
5   x x  5  mod 9 
5   x 9 x  5
5  5,14, 23,32, 41...., 4, 13, 22, 31, 40...
6   x x  6  mod 9 
6   x 9 x  6
6  6 ,15, 24,33, 42...., 3, 12, 21, 30, 39...
7   x x  7  mod 9 
7   x 9 x  7
7   7 ,16, 24,33, 42...., 2, 11, 20, 29, 38...
8   x x  8  mod 9 
8   x 9 x  8
8  8,17, 26,35, 44...., 1, 10, 19, 28, 37...
0  1   2  3   4  5  6  7   8  
0  1   2  3   4  5  6  7   8  
(ix) m = 10
0  , 1 ,  2 , 3 ,  4 , 5 ,  6 , 7  , 8 , 9
0   x x  0  mod10 
0   x 10 x  0
0  0, 10 ,  20  30,......
1   x x  1 mod10 
1   x 10 x  1
1  1,11, 21,31, 41...., 9, 19, 29, 39,...
 2   x x  2  mod10 
 2   x 10 x  2
 2  2 ,12, 22,32, 42...., 8, 18, 28, 38, 48...

41
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
 3   x x  3  mod10 
3   x 10 x  3
3  3,13, 23,33, 43...., 7, 17, 27, 37, 47...
 4   x x  4  mod10 
 4   x 10 x  4
 4  4 ,14, 24,34, 44...., 6, 16, 26, 36, 46...
5   x x  5  mod10 
5   x 10 x  5
5  5,15, 25,35, 45...., 5, 15, 25, 35, 45...
6   x x  6  mod10 
6   x 10 x  6
6  6 ,16, 26,36, 46...., 4, 14, 24, 34, 44...
7   x x  7  mod10 
7   x 10 x  7
7   7 ,17, 27,37, 47...., 3, 13, 23, 33, 43...
8   x x  8  mod10 
8   x 10 x  8
8  8,18, 28,38, 48...., 2, 12, 22, 32, 42...
9  x x  9  mod10 
9   x 10 x  9
9  9 ,19, 29,39, 49...., 1, 11, 21, 31, 41...
0  1   2  3   4  5   6  7   8  9  
0  1   2  3   4  5  6  7   8  9  

42
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
Theorem: Let ‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’ and ‘d’ be any integers and ‘m’ be fixed positive
integer. If a  b  mod m  and c  d  mod m  . Then

(i) a  c  b  d  mod m 
(ii) a  c  b  d  mod m 
(iii) ac  bd  mod m 

Proof: (i) Given

a  b  mod m  , c  d  mod m 

By definition of congruence

 m ab and m cd

 m abcd

 m  a  c   b  d 

 a  c  b  d  mod m 

(ii). Given

a  b  mod m  , c  d  mod m 

By definition of congruence

 m ab and m cd

 m a  b  c  d 

 m abcd

 m  a  c   b  d 

 a  c  b  d  mod m 

(iii). Given

a  b  mod m  , c  d  mod m 

43
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
 By definition of congruence

 m ab and m cd

 m  a  b c and m c  d b

 m ac  bc , m bc  bd

 m ac  bc  bc  bd

 m ac  bd

 ac  bd  mod m 

Theorem: If a  b  mod m  then show that a n  b n  mod m 

Proof: Given
a  b  mod m 

By definition of congruence

 m ab

 m  a  b   a n 1  a n  2b  ....  b n 1 

 m a n  bn

 a n  b n  mod m 

Remark: The converse of above theorem is not true in general.

e.g. a=8 ,b=4,m=3,n=2

 82  42  mod 3 But  8  4  mod 3 

Some formula’s a 2  b 2   a  b  a  b  , a 3  b 3   a  b   a 2  ab  b 2 

a 4  b 4   a  b   a 3  a 2 b  ab 2  b 3  , a5  b5   a  b  a4  a3b  a2b2  ab3  b4  ,

an  bn   a  b  an1  an2b  an3b2  .....  bn1 

44
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
Lecture # 10

Question: Find remainder when 257 is divisible by 13

Solution: Since 64   1 mod13 

 26   1 mod13

6 9 9
  2    1  mod13
 254   1 mod13

 23.254   1.23  mod13

 257   8  mod13

 257  5  mod13  8  13  5

 Remainder = 5

Question: Find remainder when 5 48 is divisible by 12

Solution: Since 25 1 mod12 

 52 1 mod12 

2 24 24
 5   1  mod12 
 548  1 mod12 

 Remainder = 1

Question: Find remainder when 3101 is divisible by 10

Solution: Since 81 1 mod10 

 34 1 mod10 

4 25 25
 3   1  mod10 
 3100  1 mod10 
45
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
  3.3100  1.3  mod10 

 3101  3  mod10 

 Remainder = 3

Question: Find remainder when 247 is divisible by 3

Solution: Since 4 1 mod 3 

 2 2 1 mod 3

2 23 23
  2   1  mod 3
 2 46  1 mod 3

 2.2 46  1.2  mod 3

 247  2  mod 3

 Remainder = 2

Question: Find the remainder when sum of the given series is divisible by 4
1!+2!+3!+….+100!

Solution: Since 4!  0  mod 4 

 4! 5! 6! ....  100!  0  mod 4 

 1! 2! 3! 4! ....  100! 1! 2! 3! mod 4 

 1! 2! 3! 4! ....  100!  9  mod 4 

 1! 2! 3! 4! ....  100! 1 mod 4 

Question: Find the remainder when sum of the given series is divisible by 15
1!+2!+3!+….+1000!

46
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
Solution: Since 5!  0  mod15 

 5! 6! ....  1000!  0  mod15 

 1! 2! 3! 4! 5! 6! ....  1000! 1! 2! 3! 4! mod15 

 1! 2! 3! ....  1000!  33  mod15 

 1! 2! 3! ....  1000!  3  mod15 

Remainder = 3

47
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
Lecture # 11

Theorem: If a  b  mod m  then show that f  a   f  b  mod m 

Proof: Given that a  b  mod m  ___  i 

 ax  bx  mod m  ___  ii 

 ax 2  bx 2  mod m  ___  iii 

. .

. .

. .

 ax n 1  bx n 1  mod m  ___  iv 

From (i) , (ii) , (iii) and (iv) we have

a  ax  ax 2  ...  ax n 1  b  bx  bx 2  ...  bx n 1

f  a   f  b  mod m 

 f  a   a0  a1 x  a2 x 2  ....  an1 x n 1

Theorem: If a  b  mod m1  and a  b  mod m2  then show that

a  b  mod  m1 , m2   where  m1 , m2  is called L.C.M of x1 , x2

Proof: Since a  b  mod m1  and a  b  mod m2 

 m1 a  b , m2 a  b

Multiplying by m2

 m1m2 m2  a  b 

  m1 , m2   a  b 

 a  b  mod  m1 , m2  

48
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
Complete Residue System (CRS)
Let a1 , a2 ,...,a k  be a set of integers and m be a fixed positive integer we say
that the set a1 , a2 ,...,a k  forms a complete Residue system modulo m (denoted
by CRS (mod m)) if

(i)  ai  a j  mod m   i  j
(ii) For any integer n there exist a unique ai such that
n  ai  mod m 

Example: Check the set forms CRS {11,12,13} , m = 3

Solution: (i) Condition
11  12  mod 3   3†11  12

12  13  mod 3   3†12  13

11  13  mod 3   3†11  13

1st condition satisfied

(ii). For 2nd condition for any other integer

25  13  mod 3   3 25  13

Example: Show that the set {6,7,8,9} , m = 4 from CRS.

Solution: (i) 1st condition
6  7  mod 4 

6  8  mod 4 

6  9  mod 4 

7  8  mod 4 

7  9  mod 4 

8  9  mod 4 

49
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
(ii). 2nd condition

For any other integer

10  6  mod 4 

Example: Show that the set {6,7,10,9} , m = 4 forms CRS.

Solution: 1st condition
6  7  mod 4 

6  10  mod 4 

Which is not true. The given set not forms CRS.

Theorem: Let A = a1 , a2 ,...,a k  be a set of integers then ‘A’ forms CRS (mod
m) if k = m.

Proof: We know {0,1,2,….,m1} forms a CRS (mod m) hence for each j ,

1  j  k  unique i such that 0  i  m  1 and

a j  i  mod m 

Thus k  m. But then a1 , a2 ,...,a k  is also a CRS (mod m). Hence  i
0  i  m1 ,  unique j 1  j  k such that

i  a j  mod m 

 mk

By combining the above result i.e. km&mk

 m=k

Alternate definition:
The set A = a1 , a2 ,...,a k  forms a CRS (mod m) if

(i) A contain exactly m elements

(ii) ai  a j  mod m   i j

50
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
Example: Show that the set {81,82,83,84} , m = 4 forms CRS.
Solution: (i) Observe that A contains exactly 4 elements. Condition (i)
satisfied.

(ii). 81  82  mod 4 
81  83  mod 4 
81  84  mod 4 
82  83  mod 4 
82  84  mod 4 
83  84  mod 4 

Condition (ii) satisfied. Hence the given set forms CRS.

Exercise: Let  x1 , x2 ,.... xm  be a CRS (mod m) and a,b  Z such that (a,m) = 1
then show that the set A  ax1  b, ax2  b,....a xm  b forms CRS (mod m)

Solution: (i) Observe that A contain exactly m elements.

(ii). Now we show
axi  b  ax j  b (mod m ) i j

Suppose axi  b  ax j  b (mod m ) i j

 axi  ax j (mod m ) i j

Since (a,m) = 1 then

xi  x j (mod m ) i j

A contradiction against the fact that the given set  x1 , x2 ,....xm  forms a CRS
(mod m). So our supposition is wrong. Thus
axi  b  ax j  b (mod m ) i j

Hence set A forms CRS (mod m)

Remark: The set {0,1,2,…, n  1} always form a CRS (mod n)

51
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
Example: A = {81,82,83,84} , m = 4
The least residues of A (mod 4) are {1,2,3,0}

By using remark, the given set forms CRS (mod 4)

Example: A = {81,82,84,88} , m = 4
Solution: The least residues of A (mod 4) are {1,2,0,0} which are not
remainder of 4 i.e {0,1,2,3}. Hence the given set not forms CRS (mod 4).

52
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
Lecture # 12

Reduced Residue System (RRS)

A set of integers a1 , a2 ,..., a k  forms a Residue system modulo ‘m’ (denoted by
RRS (mod m)) if

(i)  ai , m   1  i
(ii) ai  a j  mod m  i j
(iii) For any integer n where (n,m) = 1 there exist a unique ai such
that
n  ai  mod m 

Example: Check the set forms RRS {1,3,5,7} , m = 8

Solution: (i) Since (1,8) = (3,8) = (5,8) = (7,8) = 1
(ii).

1  3  mod 8 

1  5  mod 8 

1  7  mod 8 

3  5  mod 8 

3  7  mod 8 

5  7  mod 8 

(iii). n = 15  (15,8) = 1

And 15  7  mod 8 

Hence the given set makes RRS.

53
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
Euler  function:
Let n be a +ve integer (n  1) we define Euler  function as follows

 n if n  1

  n   The number of  ve int egers less than
 and co  prime to n if n 1


e.g. If n = 1 then (1) = 1

If n = 2

(0,2) = 2 , (1,2) = 1

1 & 2 are co-prime

(2) = 1

If n = 3

(0,3) = 3 , (1,3) = 1 , (2,3) = 1

1 & 3 and 2 & 3 are relatively prime

(3) = 2

If n = 4

(4) = 2

If n = 5

(5) = 4

If n = 13

(13) = 12

Remark : (i) If P is prime number then (P) = P1

(ii). The set {1,2,3,..,P1} always forms a Reduced Residue system (mod P)
where P is a prime number.

54
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
Theorem: If a1 , a2 ,...,a k  is a Reduced Residue system (mod m) then
k = (m).

Proof: t1, t 2 ,..., t  m be the (m) integers that are less than m and co-prime to

 
m. We show t1 , t 2 ,..., t  m  is a RRS (mod m)

Suppose ti  t j (mod m) 1  ti , t j  m

 m ti  t j ___ 1

But 1  ti , t j  m

 ti  t j < m hence (i) cannot be possible unless ti  t j  0

Next, let ‘b’ be an integer such that (n,m) = 1. By division algorithm

n = qm + r ; 0r<m

And the quotient q = 0 if n < m and q  1 if n > m. Also (r,m) = 1. Hence r  ti

for some i 1  i  (m) and n  r  ti  mod m 

Since  i 1  i  k ( ai , m) 1  a unique l 1  l  (m)  ai  ti  mod m 

 k    m

Similarly, (m)  k

 k = (m)

Alternative definition:
A set a1 , a2 ,...,a k  forms Reduced Residue system (mod m) if

(i) k = (m)
(ii)  ai , m   1  i
(iii) ai  a j  mod m   i  j

55
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
Example: Check the set forms RRS {1,3,5,7} , m = 8
Solution: (i) Since (m) = 4
(ii). 1  3  mod 8 

1  5  mod 8 

1  7  mod 8 

3  5  mod 8 

3  7  mod 8 

5  7  mod 8 

Hence the given set form RRS.

Exercise: If  x1 , x2 ,.....x  m   is a RRS (mod m) and a  Z such that (a,m) = 1.

 
Then show that the set A = ax1 ,a x2 ,.....a x  m  forms RRS (mod m)

Solution: (i) Observe that the given set has exactly (m) elements

 
(ii). Since x1 , x2 ,..... x  m  forms RRS (modm)

So  x1 , m    x2 , m   ....,  x  m  , m   1

 
Then  ax1 , m    ax2 , m   ...., ax  m  , m  1   a , m   1

 
(iii). Since x1 , x2 ,..... x  m  forms RRS (mod m)

So x1  x2  mod m 

x2  x3  mod m 

x  m 1  x  m   mod m 

56
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
Then ax1  ax2  mod m 

ax2  ax3  mod m 

ax  m 1  ax  m   mod m 

Since all conditions are satisfied. Hence the given set forms RRS (mod m)

Prime Number:
A positive integer n > 1 is called prime if ‘n’ has exactly two integer divisors
namely 1 and ‘n’ itself otherwise ‘n’ is called composite number.

Composite Number:
A positive number n > 1 is called composite if ‘n’ has at least three positive
divisors.

Perfect Number:
A positive integer ‘n’ is called perfect if the sum of its positive divisor is twice
of the number ‘n’.

Examples n=6

Divisor of 6 = 1,2,3,6

Sum of divisor = 1+2+3+6 = 12 = 2(6)

 6 is perfect number

n = 28

divisor of 28 = 1,2,4,7,14,28

Sum of divisor = 1+2+4+7+14+28 = 56 = 2 (28)

 28 is perfect number.

57
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
Twin Primes:
Let ‘n’ be a positive integer , if n  1 and n +1 are prime number then these
prime number are called twin primes.

n=4

n1 = 3 is prime number

n+1 = 5 is prime number

 3 and 5 are twin primes.

Prime Triplet:
Let ‘P’ be a prime number if P+2 and P+4 are prime then the triplet (P,P+2,P+4)
is called Prime Triplet

e.g. P=3

P+2 = 5

P+4 = 7

(3,5,7) is called Prime Triplet.

Powerful integer:
A positive integer ‘n’ is powerful if whenever a prime ‘P’ divides ‘n’. P2 also
divides ‘n’.

e.g. n=8

P=2 , 28

P2 = 4 , 48  8 is powerful.

Exercise: The smallest divisor of an integer is prime.

Solution: Let d > 1 be the smallest divisor of an integer ‘n’.
Let d1 be any divisor of ‘d’. Then 1 d1 d . Suppose d1  1. Then d1d and dn
 d1n but d1  d  d1= d. Hence only divisors of ‘d’ are 1 and ‘d’ itself.

 ‘d’ is prime. Hence the smallest divisor of an integer is prime.

58
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
Exercise: Let P be a prime and ‘a’ be any integer then show that either Pa or
(a,P) = 1.

Solution: If P a we have nothing to prove. But if P † a then we show that

(a,P) = 1

Let d = (a,P)  da and dP

Since P is prime d = 1 or d = P. If d = P then Pa , not possible. Hence d = 1

 (a,P) = 1

Exercise: Fundamental theorem of Arithmetic

OR

“Every integer can be decomposed as a product of prime number.”

Proof: Suppose there exist an integer n > 1 which is not a product of primes.
Let ‘m’ be the smallest then ‘m’ is not a prime and hence m = ab; 1 < a , b < m.
But then by choice of ‘m’ both ‘a’ and ‘b’ are products of primes. So, ‘m’ is a
product pf primes. A contradiction, hence every integer can be decomposed as a
product of prime number.

59
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
Lecture # 13

Question: Let ‘m’ be a positive integer, ‘a’ and ‘b’ any integers. The Linear
congruence a x  b  mod m  has a solution if and only if db , d = (a,m).

Solution: Suppose the linear congruence a x  b  mod m  has solution exist

a x  b  mod m 

 m ax  b  by definition of congruence

 ax  b  my

 ax  my  b

If (a,m) = d then db

Conversely: If db then we show a x  b  mod m  has solution exist

Let x0 be the solution of a x  b  mod m  then

a x0  b  mod m  ____  i 

Let x' be another solution of a x  b  mod m  then

a x '  b  mod m  ____  ii 

From (i) and (ii)

a x '  ax0  mod m  ____  iii 

Since (a,m) = d

 da and dm

 a = dr and m = ds where(r,s) =1

Put in (iii)  dr x '  drx0  mod ds 

'
 ds drx  drx0

60
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
  ds dr  x '  x0 

 s r  x '  x0 

Since (r,s) =1 only possible if

s x '  x0

 x '  x0  hs

 x '  x0  hs ____  iv 

By Division Algorithm

h = dq +t ; 0t<d

(iv)  x '  x0  dqs  ts

tm m
x '  x0  mq   ds  m , s 
d d

m
x '  x0  t.
d

Therefore, the congruence a x  b  mod m  has solution x0 . Hence solution

exist.

Question: Under what conditions solution the system of linear congruence

having monic leading coefficients. Justify your answer?

Solution: A general system of simultaneous linear congruences

a1 x  b1  mod n1 

a2 x  b2  mod n 2 

. .

. .

ar x  br  mod n r 

61
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
can be simplified to form x  c1  mod m1 

x  c2  mod m2 

x  cr  mod mr 

by dividing each congruence through by  ai , ni  then multiplying by the inverse

ni ai
mod mi  of the coefficient . The simplified system may or
 ai , ni   ai , ni 
may not be solvable but in any case, it must have the same set of solution as the
original system. Hence, the linear congruence having monic leading
coefficients.

Example: The system x  8  mod12  , x  6  mod 9  has no solutions. Since,

the first congruence implies that x  8  2  mod 3 but the second implies that
x  6  0  mod 3 and these are incompatible with each other.

Question: Solve the system of linear congruence

x  2  mod 3

x  4  mod 5 

x  5  mod 6 

Solution: Gcd (5,3) = 15 3 = 12

Gcd (6,5) = 16 5 = 11

Gcd (6,3) = 36 3 = 33

x  2  mod 3

 3x2

62
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
  x 2 = 3k where k is integer

 x = 2 + 3k ____(i)

x  4  mod 5 

2  3k  4  mod 5 

3k  4  2  mod 5 

3k  2  mod 5 

2k  2  mod 5 

k  1 mod 5 

k  4  mod 5

 5k 4

 k  4  5k ' where k ' is any integer

k  4  5k ' put in  i 

x  2  3  4  5k ' 

x  2  12  15k '

x  14  15k ' ___(ii )

x  5  mod 6 

14  15k '  5  mod 6 

15k '  9  mod 6 

15k '  3  mod 6 

3k '  3  mod 6 

k '  1 mod 6 

63
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
  6 k' 1

 k '  1  6k ''

 k '  1  6k '' put in (ii )

x  14  15 1  6k '' 

x  14  15  90k ''

x  29  90k ''

x  29  90k ''
 90 x  29

 x  29  mod 90 

Question: Solve the system of linear congruence

x  5  mod 6 

x  4  mod11

x  3  mod17 

Solution: Gcd (6,11) = 111 6 = 15

Gcd (11,17) = 117 11 = 16

Gcd (6,17) = 117 6 = 111

x  5  mod 6 

 6x5

 x 5 = 6k where k is integer

 x = 5 + 6k ____(i)

x  4  mod11

5  6k  4  mod11
64
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
 6k  4  5  mod11

6k  1 mod11

6k  10  mod11

5k  10  mod11

k  2  mod11

k  9  mod11

 11k 9

 k  9  11k ' where k ' is any integer

k  9  11k ' put in  i 

x  5  6  9  11k ' 

x  5  54  66k '

x  59  66k ' ___(ii )

x  3  mod17 

59  66k '  3  mod17 

66k '  3  59  mod17 

66k '  56  mod17 

66k '  12  mod17 

15k '  12  mod17 

2k '  12  mod17 

k '  6  mod17 

k '  11 mod17 

65
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
  17 k '  11

 k '  11  17k ''

 k '  11  17 k '' put in (ii )

x  59  66 11  17 k '' 
x  59  726  1122k ''

x  785  1122k ''

x  785  1122k ''

 1122 x  785

 x  785  mod1122 

Question: State and prove Wilson’s theorem.

Statement: An integer P is prime if and only if  P  1!  1 mod P 

Proof: Suppose P is prime. Let ‘a’ be an integer such that 1 a  P1. Then
(a,p)=1 . Hence the congruence ax  1 mod P  has a unique solution (mod P)
(say) b

 ab  1 mod P 

Also, if b  a  mod P  then

a 2  1 mod P 

 P a2  1 P a 1 or P a 1

Thus for each integer b  { 2,3,….,P2} such that bc  1 mod P 

Therefore, by pairing bs 1< b < P1 with cs 1< c < P1  bc  1 mod P  we get

1.2.3......  P  1  1.  P  1 mod P 

1.2.3......  P  1  1 mod P 

66
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
   P  1!  1 mod P 
Conversely: Suppose that   P  1!  1 mod P  and dP 1 d < P

Clearly d is a factor of  P  1!

 d  P  1!

As  P  1!  1 mod P 

 P  P  1!  1

 d  P  1!  1

 d1

 d 1 Hence P is prime

Question: State and prove Chinese Remainder theorem?

Statement: The linear system of congruence x  ai  mod mi  where the
moduli are pair wise relatively prime and 1  i  k has unique solution
m1 , m2 ,...mk

Proof: The proof consists of two parts. First, we will construct a solution and
then show that it is unique modulo m1 , m2 ,...mk

(i) Let M  m1 , m2 ,...mk and M i  M mi where 1  i  k

Since Gcd  M i , mi   1 i
Also M i  0  mod j  where i j
Since  M i , mi   1
So M i yi  1  mod mi 

has a unique solution say yi (yi is in fact the inverse of Mi modulo mi)

Let x  a1 M i y1  a 2 M 2 y 2  ....  ak M k y k

To show M is a solution of linear system we have

67
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
 k
x   ai M i yi  a j M j y j
i 1
i j

k
x   ai .0  a j .1  mod j 
i j

x  0  aj mod j

x  aj  mod j  1 j  k

(ii) To show that solution is unique.

Let x0 and x1 be two solutions of the system. We shall show that
x0  x1  Mod M 
Since x0  a j  mod m j 
And x1  a j  mod m j  for 1  j  k
x1  x0  a j  a j  mod m  j

x1  x0  0  mod m  j

m j  x1  x0   0
m j x1  x0 for 1  j  k
m1 , m2 ,...mk x1  x0
where M  m1 , m2 ,...mk
 M x1  x0
 x1  x0  0  Mod M 
 x1  x0  Mod M 

Thus any two solution of linear system are congruent modulo M , so the
solution is unique modulo M.

Question: Let ‘a’ and ‘b’ be any two integers and ‘m’ be a positive integer
show that of n a  nb  mod m  then a  b  mod m  where gcd (m,n) = 1

Solution: Given that n a  nb  mod m 

 m na  nb  by definition of congruence

68
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
  m n  a  b

 m a b

 a  b  mod m 

Question: Let ‘a’ and ‘b’ be any two integers and ‘m’ be a positive integer.
Show that if a  b  mod m  then a n  b n  mod m 

Solution: Given that a  b  mod m 

By definition of congruence

 m ab

 m  a  b   a n 1  a n  2b  ....  b n 1 

 m a n  bn

 a n  b n  mod m 

Question: Define Fermat numbers and show that any two Fermat numbers are
relatively primes.

Fermat numbers: The number of the form 2k 1 is a prime then k  2m for

m
some integer m; so that 2k 1  22  1  Fm the number of this form is called
Fermat number.

Take any two distinct Fermat numbers, say Fa  Fb

Let d  gcd  Fa , Fb  . We know Fa Fb  2

Using the definition of d , d Fa and hence d Fb  2

Since we also know that d Fb it follows that d Fb   Fb  2 

 d2

But all Fermat number are odd and therefore d cannot be 2. So, d = 1 and the
numbers Fa and Fb are relatively prime.
69
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
Question: State and prove Unique Factorization theorem.
Statement: Every integer n > 1 can be expressed as a product of primes and
this representation is unique except for the order in which they are written.

Proof: We prove the theorem by induction on ‘n’

For n =2  2 = 2 (true)

Let us suppose that the statement is true for n = 2 ,3 , 4 ,…,k

Now prove it for n = k+1

If k+1 is prime. Then the induction is complete. If k+1 is composite. Then it can
be written as

k  1  k1 k2

Then by induction hypothesis k1 k2 can be expressed as product of prime. So,

induction is complete and theorem is true i.e. n  P1 P2 P3 ,....Pr where Pi for
i = 1,2,3,….,r are primes

For uniqueness

Let n  P1 P2 P3 ,....Pr where i = 1,2,3,….,r

And n  q1q2 q3 ,....q s where j = 1,2,3,….,s

Then q1q2 q3 ,....q s  P1 P2 P3 ,....Pr ______ 1

Then we cancelled common factors from both sides of (1) we obtained

q1q2 q3 ,....q i  P1 P2 P3 ,....Pj ___  2 

Then by result, If P P1 P2 P3 ,....Pk where Pi for i  1, 2,3,...k are the primes

then P  Pi for i  1, 2,3,...k  q1 q1q2 q3 ,....q i

Therefor q1 P1 P2 P3 ,....Pj  by  2 

Then by above result q1  Pj for i  1, 2,3,... j which is contradiction. Hence

this prove the uniqueness theorem.

70
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer