COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN OF

SUBSTATION SWITCHING SCHEMES

A Thesis
Submitted to the College of Graduate Studies and Research
in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements
for the Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
in the
Department of Electrical Engineering
University of Saskatchewan

Pramod Dhakal
Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
October 2000

The author daims copyright. Use shall not be made of the material contained herein
without proper acknowledgment, as indicated on the copyright page.
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 COPYRIGHT

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The author expresses his deep gratitude and appreciation to Prof. M.S. Sachdev and Prof.
T.S. Sidhu for their supervision of this work. Proper advice at critical moments and
continuous encouragements received from the professors made the author to stay focussed
till the completion of this work. Opportunity provided by Prof. Sachdev to work in this
project, which provided an interesting blend of experiences that proved to be valuable in
the professional career of the author, is deeply appreciated. His special interest in the
project have been greatly helpfu1.

The author expresses his appreciations and thanks to Prof. Garry Walker, Prof. Kunio
Takaya, Prof. Spiro Yanacopolus, Prof. Ron Bolton, Prof. Numl Chaudhury, who provided
for valuable guidance and advice during this research. Sincere thanks go to Prof. Tony
Kusalik and Prof. Jean Paul Tremblay for providing valuable time and suggestions,
specially for providing good insight in object-oriented techniques and algorithm
development. Special thanks to Mr. I.J. Macphedran for his help in the software setup and
debugging.

The author expresses his deep appreciation to friends who heIped him in many ways during
his snidies. Special thanks go to Heichman, Karki, Shakya, Adhikari, Tiwari, and Dyck
families. Encouragements received from Dr. Anant Jalnapurkar, Mr. Rajesh Karki, Mrs.
Jeannine Minielly and Mr. Joe Monahan during the last stretch of the completion of the
work are greatly appreciated. Encouragements from Prof. Sachdev, Prof. Sidhu and Dr.
Jalnapurkar were especially important and are highly regarded by the author. Special thanks
go to Mrs. Sachdev for her wonderful support.

Sincere thanks go to author's family whose patience, support and help were important for
his success. His son, Prashanta, is specially thanked for typing some of the content of the
thesis, drawing of some figures and preparing the table of content.
 ABSTRACT

Every switching operation in a power substation must be executed after proper evaluation
of its consequence. Often, switching actions for various operating conditions and
contingencies are pre-detennined by using the control engineer'sknowledge and previous
experience. When needed, these actions are carried out by either a computer or an operator.
However, it is difficult for an operator to know ail the operating conditions and
contingencies in advance. An on line decision-making tool can provide an operator with
the most appropriate switching decisions for the present system configuration and system
state so the continuity and quality of power supply can be maintained by implementing
those switching decisions. Since the circuit configuration varies from one substation to
another, such decision making tools developed for one substation may not be applicable to
another substation.

This thesis presents a technique to design digital computer based substation switching
schernes. The technique is applicable to ail practical substations. The rules of interlockhg
and sequence switching used by the schemes are generalized and are not based upon a
particular substation configuration. While k i n g applicable to al1 substations, these schemes
also enure the most appropriate switching operations with minimum operator intervention.
The switching schemes ensure the safety of the system before making any switching action.
They assist human operators in the evaluation of abnormal circumstances and are easy to
integrate with other monitoring, control and protection systems.

A software application for developing switching schemes for substations was developed
by using the techniques presented in this thesis. Switching schemes were developed for
eight substations by using the semi-automated design tools provided with the application.
The switching schemes were then tested for their correct operation. Results of the tests
showed that the technique developed by the work presented in this thesis can provide
appropriate switching scheme for a substation of any practical configuration.
 iv

Table of Contents

COPYRIGHT
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
ABSTRACT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF TABLES

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Electric Power Systems
1.2. Role of Substations in a Power System
1.3. Trends in Substation Operation
1.4. Objectives of the Research
1S. History of the Research
1.6. Contributions of the Research
7 Outline of the Thesis

2. SUBSTATIONS
2.1. Composition and Placement
2.2. Role of Substation Equipment
2.2.1. Circuit breakers
2.2.2. Load-break switches
2.2.3. Isolating switches
2.2.4. Grounding switches
2.2.5. Fuse switches
2.2.6. Busbars
2.2.7. Transfomers
2.2.8. Reactors
2.2.9. Instrument transfomers
2.3. Substation Configurations
2.3.1. Single busbar arrangement
2.3.2. Sectionalized single busbar arrangement
2.3.3. Double busbar arrangement
 2.3.4. Double busbar with by-pass isolator arrangement
2.3.5. Two circuit breaker arrangement
2.3.6. Sectionalized duplicate busbar arrangement
2.3.7. Main-and-trans fer bus arrangement
2-33 Ring busbar arrangement
2.3-9. Breaker-and-a-half arrangement
2.3.10 Multiple bus arrangement
2.4. Surnrnary

3. SUBSTATION SWlTCHING
3.1. Types of Switching Operations
3.2. Interlockmg
3-3. Developments in Interlocking Techniques
3.4. Sequence Switching
3.5. Developments in Substation Switching
3S.1. Use of expert systems
3.6. Surnrnary

4. SWITCHING DATA AND PROCEDURES

4.1. Basic Switching Procedures
4.1.1. Opening and closing of a switch
4.1.2. Bypassing a component
4.1-3. Operating switches in a branch
4.1.4. Connecting a line to a busbar
4.1S. Disconnecting a line from a busbar
4.1.6. Connecting busbars
4.2 Advance Switching Procedures
4.2.1. Identifying equipment to be taken out of service
4.2.2. Determinhg of isolation boundaiy
4.2.3. Identiwing affected circuits
4.2.4. Rerouting of flow of power
4.2.5. Isolating an equipment
4.2.6. Grounding an equipment
4.2.7. Restonng circuits
4.3. Formulation of Constraints
4.3.1. General
 4.3.2. Circuit breakers
4.3.2.1. Opening operation
4.3.2.2. Closing operation
4.3.3. Load-break switches
4.3.4. Isolators
4.3.5. Grounding switches
4.3.6. Transformers
4.3.7. Sequence switching
4.3.8. Substation specific constraints
4.4. Data Requirements and Data Structures
4.4.1. Switches
4.4.2. Nodes
4.4.3. Busbars
4.4.4. Input-output nodes
4.4.5. Transformers
4.4.6. Reactors and capacitors
4.4.7. Measuring instruments
4.4.8. Substation
4.4.9. Power System
4.4.10. Bus data of the system
4.4.1 1. Line data of the system
4.5. Levels of Interlocks
4.5.1. Component level interlocks
4.5.2. Substation level interlocks
4.5.3. System level interlocks
4.5.4. Manual interlocks
4.6. Summary

5. SWITCHING TECHNIQUE - MAJOR COMPONENTS

5.1. Status Handling
5.1.1. Uniform status storage and processing protocol
5.1.2. Syntax for specifying status
5.1.3. Handling of on-line status
5.1.4. Handling of power flow results
5.2. Substation Topology
5.2.1. Topology representation
 vii

52.2. Topology determination

Searching of Power Flow Paths
Determination of Switching Sequence
5.4.1. Connecting two nodes
5.42. Disconnecting two nodes
Generalized Sequence Switching Technique
Generalized lnterlocking Technique
Summq

6. IMPLEMENTATION
Tools and Techniques
Substation Modelling
6.2.1. Convention
6.2.2. Composition of a switching system
6 - 2 3 . Component relationships
Data Compilation
Graphicd User Interface
6.4.1. Role of W U
6.4.2. Tool box and substation diagrams
Editing Interlocks
Implementation of Status Management Unit
Implementation of interlock Management Unit
6.7.1. Implementation of Lock Units
6.7.2. Compilation of text based expressions
6.7-3. Evaluation of interlocks
6.7-4. Determination of loc ked state
Implementation of Command Handler Unit
6.8.1. Switching operations
6.8.1.1. Close or open a switch
6.8.1.2. Connect a node to another node
6.8.1.3. Disconnect a noàe from another node
6.8.1.4. Isolate node
6 -8.1-5. Isolate a series component
6.8.1.6. Bus transfer
6.8.2. Supporting modules
 6.8.2.1. Topology tracer
6.8.2-2. Energized node detector
6.8.2.3. Detector of the making or breaking of currents
6.8.2.4. Path tracer
lntegrating with System Data
6.9.1. Load flow data formats
6.9.2. Linking the substation data with the load-flow data
6.9.3. The role of the user in the integration
Graph Plotting
6.10.1. Prerequisites for running the graph plotting program
Summary

7. RESULTS
Test Substations
7.1.1. Test Substation 1
7.1.2. Test Substation 2
7.1.3. Test Substation 3
7.1.4. Test Substation 4
7.1 S. Test Substation 5
7.1.6. Test Substation 6
7.1.7. Test Substation 7
7.1.8. Test Substation 8
Preparation of Switching Schemes
7.2.1. Preparing of user interface
7.2.2. Entering and initializing component data
7.2.3. Developing interlock logic
Complex Interlocking Schemes
Testing Interlofking Schemes
Switching Sequence Test
7-5. 1. Connecring and disconnecting lines
7.5.2. Transferring busbars
7.5.3. Isolating switches
7.5.4. Isolating busbars
7.5-5. Bypassing faulty equipment
 7.6. Summary
8. SUMMARY CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
8.1. Summary
8 -2. Conclusion
8.3. Suggestions for Future Work
REFERENCES
APPENDICES
A. Decoupled Power Flow Caiculations
B. Selection of Programming Language and Development Environment
C . Major Classes in the SSP
D. Graphical User Interface
E. Converting Infix Expressions into Postfix Expressions
F. Load Flow Data Formats
G. Load-fïow Input Data for a 9 Bus Test System
H. Test Results
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 Substations in a sarnple power system.

Figure 2.2 Symbols of equipment commonly used in substations.
Figure 2.3 Location of trmsducers in a 765kV substation.
Figure 2.4 A typical single-busbar system.
Figure 2.5 A typicai sectionalized single-busbar system.
Figure 2.6 A typical double busbar arrangement.
Figure 2.7 A typical double busbar with by-pass isolator arrangement.
Figure 2.8 A typical two circuit breaker system.
Figure 2.9 A sectionalized two circuit breaker system.
Figure 2.10 A main-and-transfer busbar arrangement.
Figure 2.1 1 A ring busbar arrangement.
Figure 2.12 A breaker-and-a-half system.
Figure 2.13 A multiple busbar system.
Figure 3.1 A single busbar substation and its equivalent circuits.
Figure 3.2 A feeder circuit and its interlock logic circuit.
Figure 3.3 A flowchart for checking the security of a substation.
Figure 3.4 Initial and final configurations of a substation.
Figure 4.1 A substation with bus coupling circuit.
Figure 5.1 A segment of a substation circuit.
Figure 5.2 Illustration of a shunt path.
Figure 5.3 A bus-transfer process under progress.
Figure 5.4 A section of a double-bus substation.
Figure 6.1 Composition of a switching system.
Figure 6.2 Decomposition of components into specialized classes.
Figure 6.3 Relationship of a component with various modules.
Figure 6.4 The toolbox.
Figure 6.5 Sequence of events in interlock modification.
Figure 6.6 Logical relationship of DLS,LS and OLS with LOCKED
status.
Figure 7.1 A section of a double busbar substation.
Figure 7.2 A section of a main-and-transfer busbar substation.
Figure 7.3 A combination of double busbar and two circuit-breaker
sections.
Figure 7.4 A part of a sectionalized double busbar substation.
Figure 7.5 A substation with a combination of double busbar and main-
and-transfer busbar sections.
Figure 7.6 A 76SV double busbar substation with bypass isolators.
Figure 7.7 A 400kV double-busbar substation with by-bass isolators.
Figure 7.8 A three section substation.
Figure 7.9 Data k i n g entered for a switch in the GUI environment of
the SSP.
Figure 7.10 Circuit segment patterns that build Test Substation 6.
Figure 7.1 1 Command k i n g issued to open isolator 1 1.
Figure 7.12 The SSP refuses to operate isolator 1 1.
Figure 7.13 Command being issued to open circuit breaker B3.
Figure 7.14 The SSP warns about the consequences and asks the operator
to confirm the operation.
Figure 7.15 The SSP opens the circuit breaker B3.
Figure 7.16 Command k i n g issued to close grounding switch G4 1 .
Figure 7.17 The SSP refuses to close G4 1 and displays the interlock
constraint that blocked the operation.
Figure 7.18 Command being issued to connect line 7L4 to a busbar.
Figure 7.19 The status of switches after the SSP connects line 7L4 to
Bus 1.
Figure 7.20 Command k i n g issued to transfer lines from Bus 1 to Bus2.
Figure 7.21 The substation after the SSP transferred lines from Bus 1 to
Bus2.
Figure 7.22 Command is k i n g issued to isolate circuit breaker C4.
Figure 7.23 The substation after the SSP isolated circuit breaker C4.
Figure 7.24 Command k i n g issued to isolate Bus 1 on Test Substation 1.
Figure 7.25 The state of the substation after isolating Bus 1.
Figure 7.26 Command being issued to bypass circuit breaker C4 from
power flow paths to be formed in future.
Figure 7.27 Command being issued to connect line 7L4 to the busbar
after issuing the comrnand to bypass C4.
Figure 7.28 Connection made between line 7L4 and Bus1 while
bypassing C4.
Figure A.1 Procedure for load flow calculations.
Figure A.2 Procedure for LU factorization of Jacobian matrix.
Figure G.1 Power flow input data of the nine bus power system.
Figure G.1 Single line diagram of the nine bus power system..
Figure H.1 Cornmand k i n g issued to close isolator 4.
 xii

Figure H.2 The SSP refuses to close isolator 4.

Figure H.3 Command being issued to open isolator 4 after the bus
coupler circuit was closed.
Figure H.4 The SSP closes isolator 4.
Figure H.5 Command k i n g issued to open isolator 2.
Figure H.6 The SSP refuses to open isolator 2.
Figure H.7 Cornmand being issued to open isolator 4.
Figure H.8 The SSP opens isolator 4.
Figure H.9 Cornmand being issued to open isolator 13.
Figure H.10 The SSP opens isolator 13.
Figure H. 11 Command k i n g issued to close isolator 8.
Figure H.12 The SSP refuses to close isolator8.
Figure H.13 Command k i n g issued to open isolator 13.
Figure H.14 The SSP refuses to open isolator 13.
Figure H.15 Command being issued to open circuit breaker B2.
Figure H.16 The SSP wams about the interruption of current and gibes
the operator a chance to cancel the operation.
Figure H.17 Conunand being issued to close isolator 1.
Figure H.18 The SSP has closed isolator 1 and a new comrnand to close
isolator 2 is being issued.
Figure H.19 The SSP has closed isolator 2 and a command is k i n g issued
to close circuit breaker £35.
Figure H.20 The SSP has closed circuit breaker B5 and a cornmand is
being issued to close isolator 6.
Figure H.21 The SSP has closed isolator 6 and a cornmand is k i n g issued
to open circuit breaker B2.
Figure H.22 The SSP has opened circuit breaker B2 and a command is
being issued to open isolator 5.
Figure H.23 Cornmand being issued to open isolator 12.
Figure H.24 The SSP opens isolator 12.
Figure H.25 Cornmand being issued to open isolator 143.
Figure H.26 The SSP refuses to operate 143 and displays the reason for
the refusal.
Figure H.27 Cornmand k i n g issued to open circuit breaker C4.
Figure H.28 The SSP wams about the interruption of current, and gives a
chance to cancel the closing operation.
Figure H.29 The SSP has closed C4 and a command is k i n g issued to
open isolator 143.
 xiii

Figure H.30 The SSP has opened isolator 143 and a command is k i n g
issued to open isolator 141.
Figure H.31 The SSP has opened 141 and enabled grounding switches
G41 and G42.
Figure 8.32 Command k i n g issued to close grounding switch G42.
Figure H.33 The SSP closes grounding switch G42 and disables isolator
143 and circuit breaker C4.
Figure H.34 Cornmand is k i n g issued to close grounding switch G4 1.
Figure H.35 The SSP has closed grounding switch G41 and has disabled
isolators 141 and 142.
Figure H.36 Command is k i n g issued to close circuit breaker CO.
Figure H.37 Switches Il 2,122,132,143 and 152 are enabled.
Figure H.38 Command k i n g issued to disconnect Loadl from the bus.
Figure H.39 The SSP disconnects Load 1 from Bus 1.
Figure H.40 Command k i n g issued to disconnect Source 1 from busbars.
Figure H.41 The SSP disconnects Source 1 from busbars.
Figure H.42 Command being issued to connect Source1 to Load 1.
Figure H.43 The SSP connects Source l with Loadl .
Figure H.44 Command to disconnect Loadl from the bus.
Figure H.45 State of the substation after disconnecting Loadl and Load3
from the busbars.
Figure H.46 Command to connect Load 1 to the busbar.
Figure EL47 Loadl and Load3 connect back to the busbars.
Figure H.48 Declaring isolator 9 as unhealthy.
Figure H.49 Connecting Load2 to the busbar.
Figure H.50 Load2 is connected to Bus 1 while avoiding switch 9.
Figure H.51 Cornmand k i n g issued to discount line 7L4 from the
busbars.
Figure H.52 The status of switches after the SSP disconnects line 7L4
from the busbars.
Figure H.53 Command k i n g issued to trmsfer lines from Bus1 to Bus2
Figure H.54 The substation after the SSP transfers the lines from Bus I to
Bus2.
Figure H.55 Command k i n g issued to isolate circuit breaker B6.
Figure H.56 The substation after the isolation of B6 and the switching
sequence required to isolate it.
Figure H.57 Cornmand k i n g issued to isolate Bus1 on Test Substation 5.
Figure H.58 The state of the substation after isolating Bus 1.
 xiv

Figure H.59 Command being issued to isolate Bus 1.

Figure H.6û The status of the substation after isolating Bus 1.
Figure H.61 Command being issued to declare isolator 9 as not healthy.
Figure H.62 The SSP has declared and a comrnand is being issued to
connect Load2 to the busbar.
Figure H.63 The substation after the SSP connects Load2 to Bus 1 while
avoiding isoiator 9.
Figure H.64 Command k i n g issued to disconnect source 7L4 from the
busbar.
Figure H.65 Switching and final configuration of the substation after
disconnecting line 7L4.
Figure H.66 Cornmand being issued to bypass circuit breaker C4 from
power flow paths to be formed in future.
Figure H.67 Command k i n g issued to connect line 7L4 to the busbar
after issuing the command to bypass C4.
Figure H.68 Connection made between line 7L4 and Bus 1 while
bypassing C4.
Figure H.69 Nine bus power system whose Bus3 represents the substation
under test.
Figure H.70 Command k i n g issued to edit data that relate the substation
with the poser system.
Figure H.71 The system bus number that corresponding to the substation
k i n g specified.
Figure H.72 Load and Generator data k i n g specified.
Figure H.73 Propeïties of node connecting to the rest of the power system
k i n g specified.
Figure H.74 Load-flow program k i n g launched.
Figure H.75 Graph plotting program k i n g launched.
Figure H.76 Conclusion of the load-flow analysis.
Figure H.77 Command k i n g selected to plot and the actual plot of the
voitage levels at system buses.
Figure H.78 A plot of the current magnitudes at system lines.
Figure H.79 Display of the load-flow output data in numeric form dong
with the graphical plot.
 List of Tables
TabIe 4.1 Switching device data
Table 4.2 Node data
Table 4.3 Busbar data
Table 4.4 Input-output node data
Table 4.5 Transformer data
Table 4.6 Reactor data
Table 4.7 Measuring instrument data
Table 4.8 Substation data
Table 4.9 Power system data
Table 4.10 System bus data
Table 4.11 System line data
Table 5.1 The status key words and their meanings
Table 5.2 Data before energizing Bus 1
Table 5.3 Data after energizing Bus 1
Table 5.4 Data before energizing node 7
Table 5.5 Data after energizing node 7
Table 5.6 Data before energizing node 4
Table 5.7 List of adjoining nodes
Table 5.8 Modified list of adjoining nodes
Table 5.9 Comrnand names
Table 6.1 Structure of a class
Table 6.2 Evaluation of a postfix expression
Table E.1 Input-precedence, stack-precedence and rank values
 xvi

List of Acronyms

SSP Substation Switching Scheme Development Package

SMU Status Management Unit
IMU Interlock Management Unit
CHU Cornrnand Handler Unit
wu Windows Interface Unit
WMW Windows Main Interface Unit
GUI Graphical User Interface
LU Lock Unit
LS Lock String
DLS Default Lock String
OLS Override Lock String
CLOS A computer language, Common Lisp Object System -

GND Grounded
MVA Mega Volt Ampere
MFC Microsoft Foundation Classes
StS Status of a component
tststs Status of a component to be tested for some state information
Topo Topology
 xvii

List of Syrnbols
Active power
Reactive power
Real part of an element of the bus-admittance matrix
Imaginary part of an element of the bus-admittance matrix
Phase angle of bus voltage relative to that of the slack bus
Resistance
Reactance
Impedance
Jacobian matrix
Apparent power
Nurnber of buses
Voltage
Current
To my mother Dhanakala and father Dharmagat

- Prarnod
 1. INTRODUCTION

Electric power systems generate, transmit. and distribute electric energy. Switching
stations are strategically placed in power systems to supply power to al1 customers.
Switching operations are perforrned to direct the energy to desired routes. An improper
operation c m adversely affect a large part of the system. Comprehensive interlocks and
cornputer based decision-making tools, incorporated in substation control systems, can
assist operators in making appropriate switching decisions. This chapter emphasises the
need for these tools and outlines the objectives for the research work that is described in
this thesis.

1.1. Electric Power Systems

A power system is composed of generation, transmission, and distribution subsystems.
Electric power is produced in generating plants that are usually located far away from load
centres. Power generated by the plants is transported over transmission lines to load centres
that are scattered over wide geographical areas. The transmission lines usually form
interconnected networks.

Power systems use electricd equipment such as generators, transfoxmers, circuit breakers,
reactors. capacitors and other devices. Generators convert mechanical energy to the
electrical fom at voltages that are mostly in the 15 kV range. Much higher voltages are
used for transmitting energy over long distances so that the line losses are limited to a few
percent of the transrnitted energy. Conversion to higher voltages is achieved by using step-
up transformers. At the load ends, transformers are used to lower the voltage levels to 5-34
kV range. Energy is then transported to customers' locations where the voltage is further
reduced for their use.

Providing power to customers at acceptable levels of quality and availability is a complex

process. The performance of the system is continuously monitored, and the continuity of
power supply is maintained by sometimes by reconfiguring the network as the state of the
system changes. Switching and control actions are canied out in response to randomly
occuning events such as equipment overloading, equipment failure, and system
disturbances. When an component is isolated for maintenance. the system is reconfigured
so that power supply to the customers is not interrupted. These switching and control
actions are performed at the substations.

1.2. Role of Substations in a Power System

Substations interconnect generation, transmission and distribution subsystems. Switching
and control actions are performed at substations t o maintain the continuity of power supply
and to ensure that voltages at the loads are maintained at the desired levels. The continuity
of power supply is maintained by reconfiguring the transmission and distribution networks
as the system experiences faults, overload of equipment and voltage-lirnit violations caused
by insufficient or excessive reactive power generation.

Changes in the configuration of a transmission network are implemented by operating

appropriate switches that are usually located in substations. Switching actions taken in one
substation redistribute power flows and change the voltage profile in the system. Because
an improper operation can adversely effect a large part of the network, switching operations
rue planned and their consequences are analysed before implementing them. The purpose
of the analysis is to ensure that the operations d o not result in undesirable outcornes, such
as equipment overload, over-voltages, under-voltages and faults.
Significant progress in the monitoring and control techniques has been made in recent
decades. A brief description of these developments is provided in the next section.

1.3. Trends in Substation Operation

The development of devices for making and breaking electric circuits took a long period
of time. In the early days, the arc that formed on the opening of switches used to cause
substantial darnage to the substation equipment. Attendants had to chop the arc by using
insulated hatchets. The quenching of an arc was, therefore, a major concern in substation
performance. The quick-break knife-switch was perhaps the earliest form of a
circuit-breaker [ 11.

During the first quarter of the 20th century, a more effective approach for the making and
breaking of current in power circuits was developed; this consisted of immersing the
knife-switches in minera1 oil. The mechanism of arc formation was better understood by
the late 1902's. This led to the development of arc-controlling devices. The study of arc
formation and arc quenching mechanisms eventually led to the development of modem
circuit-breakers.

Along with the development of circuit breakers, advancements were made in the
monitoring and control systems. Protective relays detect defective lines and equipment, and
abnormal operating conditions. They initiate, or permit, switching of circuit breakers.
Monitoring systems continuously supervise the conditions of a power system and keep the
operators informed about the state of the system. Regulating systems adjust the settings of
the equipment when a parameter deviates from its predeterrnined limits. Co-ordinated
efforts of monitoring, control and protection systems, and the system operators, make it
possible to maintain continuity and quality of power supply. To make the control and
protection system more versatile and comprehensive, they are now designed as
rnicroprocessors-based systems with specifically developed software programs.
Increasing demand for electricity throughout this century has forced power systems to
become larger and more complex. Lines of high and extra-high voltages are k i n g used to
transmit large arnounts of power. Complex switching arrangements are k i n g used to attain
the desired levels of flexibility and reliability, and to maximize the utilization of
investment. With a trend towards deregulation and increased cornpetition, utilities are
loading the systems closer to their designed lirnits. These factors have increased the
complexity in planning, design and operation of power systems. Large amounts of
information must, therefore, be analysed when making switching decisions so that the
integrity of the system is maintained.

Electric utilities have k e n using computers for planning, design, and operation of power
systems since 1929 [2]. Early applications were limited due to the inadequate capacity of
the computers. Power flow programs were the first large scale applications that were
implemented on modem digital computers. Many new applications have been developed
over the years. Analysis of system performance and effectiveness of alternative switching
plans are two exarnples of such applications.

Despite al1 the advancements in digital computing technology, most operations are
performed manually by operators usir.g predefined guidelines. The exceptions are the
protection and restoration switching that is done by dedicated relays. It, however, takes
substantial time and tedious work to manuaily generate proper switching sequences.
Computer-based substation switching schemes can expedite the decision making process
and help avoid human errors.

Cornputer-based switching systems can continuously monitor the state of a power system,
perfonn on-line analysis of the system and initiate operations to change the system
configuration for maintaining its integrity. The switching decisions made in individual
substations cm, therefore, give proper considerations to the security of the power system.
The work that is reported in this thesis was carried out to further the developrnent of
computer based switching schemes for substations.

1.4. Objectives of the Research

Switching scheme for each substation is designed specifically for its unique configuration.
Substation data. substation configurations and specifications of the switches are provided
to third party contractors for developing switching schemes. Utilities incur these expenses
every time the scheme is to be modified to match the changes in the configuration of a
substation. The utility personnel, who have the most knowledge and experience in
operating their substations, cannot develop the switching schemes on their own because
proper tools for developing these schemes are not available.

The work on substation switching presently reported in the literature has focussed mainly
on the development of approaches to handle interlock requirernents and to generate optimal
switching sequences. Procedures for implementing these approaches are complex and
require knowledge of hardware and software engineering. There is no work reported in the
literature for developing a framework that simplifies the procedures of developing the
switching schemes.

A desirable scenario is that the engineers and programmers with specialized knowledge
study the pnnciples that govem substation switching and develop a framework that would
allow operating engineers to develop switching schemes for their substations. The
framework should searnlessl y overcome the hardware and software engineering
complexities to allow the developers to focus on the working of the substations. The
motivation of this research was to develop such a frarnework. Keeping this in mind, the
following objectives for the research work reported in this thesis were established.
1. Design a framework that accelerates the development of switching schemes
without the need for considering the complexities for hardware and software
irnplementations.
 2. Automatically incorporate accepted operating practices in the switching
schemes generated by the framework.
3. Examine the feasibility of developing a computer aided design and
development tool based on the established framework.

1.4. History of the Research

The author as a part of his Master's thesis [3] did preliminary work for this research.
Substation equipment and most cornrnonly used substation configurations were studied. A
set of generalized constraints for operating substations were established. It was perceived
during the research that it is possible to develop a generalized substation-switchingscheme
applicable to al1 practical substations. Also a preliminary generalized switching scheme was
developed. The approach used at the time was based on complex data structures and tightly
coupled subroutines. It was realized that it is not easy to develop a robust system based o n
that approach.

This research project was then launched to find a robust approach. It was realized early
enough that it is difficult to develop an optimal switching scheme that is also pneric and
takes care of al1 existing and future substation configurations. If attempted. this would
introduce undesirable complexities in development, validation, and maintenance
procedures. The development of a framework that implements only the principles
governing substation switching practices was identified to be a better approach. The
framework should include a mechanisrn for adding new constraints and syntactic and
semantic rules for providing the constraints. If developed, the framework would be suitable
for developing switching schemes for substations of different configurations.

1.5. Contributions of the Research

This work has made tangible contributions towards the development of substation
switching schemes. Major contributions of the work include the following:
1. Procedures for analysing substation-switching problerns are established.
 A frarnework that has the following characteristics has been developed.
Automatically incorporates the established practices in substation
operation.
a Provides facility, and syntactic and semantic rules, for adding new
constraints for handling situations that arise in individud
substations.
a Automatically generates the scheme based on the constraints
provided to the framework.
a Provides an integrated design, development and test environment.
a Seamlessly overcomes the complexities in developing switching
schemes.
a Facilitates an iterative development procedure so that the design is
not required to be perfect the first attempt.
a Provides a tool for system planning and system operating personnel.

The work that is reponed in this thesis would allow the utilities to design switching
schemes for their substations without the help of third party experts. The utilities could
refine the schemes over time and modify them in future to incorporate the changes in the
configurations of substations.

The searnless handling of the complexities of the schemes, automatic incorporation of

accepted operating practices. and incorporating the operating practices in this frarnework-
based approach substantially reduce the effort and time required to develop switching
schemes cornpared to the effort and time spent on their development at this time.

1.6. Outline of the Thesis

This thesis describes a technique for developing a framework that simplifies and expedites
the design and implementation of safety interlocks, and generates and validates substation-
switching sequences. The thesis starts by providing the background information in
substations layouts and switching operations. The technique for developing the frarnework,
irnplementation of the technique, results of tests conducted on the implemented frarnework,
and conclusions are then presented.

Substations and their role in a power system are described in Chapter 2. Major switching
devices are introduced and some commonly used substation configurations are described.
The switching operations are categorized considering their roles.

Different types of switching operations are described in Chapter 3. The importance of using
cornputer-based interlocks over traditionaily used mechanical interlocks is outlined. The
need to operate switches in a desired sequence and issues involved in determining the
sequence are presented. Chapter 3 also reviews the ongoing research in substation
switching and summarises the previously published reports.

The operating constraints of switches are largely due to their design and the way the
switches are used. Chapter 4 examines the operating constraints of the equipment used in
substations. The data required for developing interlocking schemes and switching
sequences are identified. The steps involved in detennining switching sequences are
identified.

The techniques for the development of generalized interlocking schemes and switching
sequences are described in Chapter 5. The network graph processing technique used in this
work is aiso presented.

The developed techniques were implemented in the form of a software package, called
Substation Switchng Scheme Development Package (SSP). Appropriate tools and
techniques were investigated and used to implement the concepts described in Chapters 4
and 5. Object-oriented methodology was used to implement the concepts. Chapter 6
introduces the object oriented approach from the perspective of designing substation
switching schemes. The chapter also describes the techniques used to represent a substation
and to implement the interlocking and sequence switching concepts.

The concepts were tested using eight substations. An analysis of the substations and sample
results obtained from the tests are presented in Chapter 7. The results show that the
developed concepts are valid for implementing proper interlocks in the substations, and for
generating switching sequences.

A summary of the thesis and conclusions drawn from the research work are presented in
Chapter 8. Suggestions for further research are also provided.

This thesis also includes seven appendices. The decoupled Newton-Raphson load flow
calculation technique used in the load flow program for predicting the voltage and current
profiles in a power system is presented in Appendix A. The main criteria used to select the
language and tools for developing SSP are listed in Appendix B. The main classes of
components used in SSP are listed in Appendix C.

Main features of the graphical user interface environment of SSP are described in Appendix
D. A method of converting logical expressions from infix forrn to postfix form is presented
in Appendix E. Two data formats, the "IEEE Common Data Format" and the "Reduced
Data Format," used to share and exchange load flow data among applications are described
in Appendix F. The input data for conducting the power flow study of a sarnple power
system are provided in Appendix G. Additional test results are presented in Appendix H
to supplement those provided in Chapter 7.
 2. SUBSTATIONS
Substations interface generation, transmission and distribution subsystems of a power
system. Isolating switches and circuit breakers, installed in substations, perform switching
operations to control power flows. Large substations are often formed by combining bays
that use definite patterns for connecting input-output lines to busbars. The strength and
weaknesses of a substation can be analysed by exarnining the topology of its bays. The
concepts used in designing substations, including the layout of the equipment, are
introduced in this chapter. The comrnonly used configurations of substations, and their
advantages and disadvantages are also described.

2.1. Composition and Placement

Substations are nodes of a power sysiem network where transmission and distribution lines
meet. They are composed of elements, such as circuit breakers, isolators, transformers,
busbars, reactors, capacitors and grounding switches, as well as systems that protect,
monitor and control them. The switches, which are provided in substations, are operated
to change the topology of the network. The switches must be operated in specified orders
to interrupt, restore or regulate the flow of power on lines connected through the substation.

Power lines emanating from different geographicai locations converge at busbars of a

substation. The voltages of the lines are changed by using transformers, so that al1
connections to a busbar are at a common operating voltage. Circuit breakers are placed
between the lines and the busbars so that a line can be disconnected from the system when
a fault occurs on it. Figure 2.1 shows a power system that has six substations and lines
connecting them. Energy sources, loads, transformers, busbars and circuit breakers are
shown in this figure. Isolators and ground switches, and monitoring, control and protection
equipment are not shown in this figure.
 1 Transmission Substation

Subtransrnission
Network

To lower voltage --
network Distribution X
Substation !
1 I

Local ~ e s r a t o r ~ r i r n aFeeders
r~
Legend:
@ = Generator -=
-
Busbar + = Load
= Transformer -- = Substation 0 = Circuit Breaker

Figure 2.1. Substations in a ~amplepower system.

At the substations of major generating stations, voltage is stepped up for uansmitting power
over long distances. These substations are called high-voltage (HV) substations, whose
typicai operating voltage ranges from 200 to 765 kV.A sub-transmission network connects
HV substations to distribution substations that are located near load centres. The operating
voltage of sub-transmission systems ranges from 69 to 150 kV. Distribution substations
receive power from sub-transmission networks, transform the voltage to a lower level and
deliver power to distribution feeders at voltages ranging from 2.5 to 35 kV.The distribution
lines feed transformers that reduce the voltage further and supply power to consumers.
Transmission and distribution substations are shown in Figure 2.1.

The switching arrangements shown in Figure 2.1 are simple. The arrangements are usually
more complex than those shown in the figure. The complexity depends on several factors,
such as the degree of flexibility required, the importance of the substation, and the cost of
equipment.

The higher the operating voltage. the more is the damage due to faults and undesirable
operations. Also, faults in HV substations can intempt power to large areas. Transmission
substations, therefore, use redundant switches and, consequently, their configurations are
more complex than those of distribution substations.

Most substations have a control room and a switchyard. The monitoring, control and
protection devices are housed in the control room. The control room equipment also include
low voltage switches, indicating and measuring instruments, relays, control panels,
communication devices and the operators' console. High voltage equipment and
transducers are located in the switchyard. The high voltage equipment include circuit
breakers, isolators, grounding switches, fuse switches, busbws, power transformers,
lightning arresters, reactors, capacitors,current transformers, potential transformers, power-
1ine-carrier transceivers, and other devices. Figure 2.2 shows symbols for the equipment
commonly used in substations. Each equipment plays a specific role in a substation. These
roles are described in the next section.
 Lightning arrester
Grounding switch

Transformer

Three-winding transformer

Bushing

Circuit breaker

Isolator

Motorized isolator

Load-break switch

Busbar

Reactor
Capacitor

Voltage transformer

Capacitor-coupled voltage transformer

Current transformer

Figure 2.2. Symbols of equipment comrnonly used in substations.

13
2.2. Role of Substation Equipment
An equipment used in a substation plays an important role in the operation of the power
system. The capabilities and limitations of the power equipment and their role in substation
operation are outlined in this section.

2.2.1. Circuit breakers

Circuit-breakers are used to make o r break electric currents in circuits during normal
operation of the system, during system faults and during system disturbances. Most high-
voltage circuit breakers are physically located in the switchyard but are operated from
panels provided in the control room.

A circuit-breaker is expected to have the following characteristics [l].

1. It must be capable of closing on to and carrying full load currents.
..
II. It must have an appropriate mechanism to automatically disconnect the
load under prescribed conditions.
...
111. It must be able to successfully intempt short-circuit currents flowing
through the lines controlled by it.
iv. The gaps between its contacts must not flash-over when the circuit breaker
is open.
v. The circuit breaker, when closed on to a circuit in which a fault exists,
must be able to reopen to isolate the faulted section without k i n g
damaged.
vi. It must be capable of withstanding the flow of short-circuit currents until
they are intempted by an adjoining circuit breaker.
vii. It must be capable of withstanding the electro-magnetic forces and thermal
stresses caused by the flow of short-circuit currents.

2.2.2 Load-break switches

Load-break switches, also called load-breaking fault-making switches, are used to open
circuits carrying full load currents. These switches can not intempt fault currents. Load
break switches are sometimes used instead of circuit breakers. The purpose is to increase
the flexibility while reducing the number of circuit breakers and, therefore, the cost of the
substation.
The cost of a load-break switch is rnuch less compared to the cost of a circuit breaker. By
using a combination of a load-break switch and a fuse, fault clearing and circuit isolation
can be achieved. Because of its low cost, this combination is frequently used in distribution
systems.

A load-break switch must be able to perform the following functions [ 11:

1. It must be capable of breaking the rated load currents.
..
11. It must be capable of intemipting small inductive and capacitive
currents experienced while disconnecting unloaded trmsformers,
cables and overhead lines.
...
III. It must be able to close on to a faulted circuit without being
damaged.
iv. It must be capable of carrying the fault currents while they are k i n g
intempted by another device.

2.2.3 Isolating switches

Isolating switches (also called isolators. disconnects. disconnecting switches) are used to
disconnect circuit-breakers. sections of busbars and parts of the system. These switches are
also used to transfer circuits from one busbar to another and to provide flexibility during
system operation.

An isolator is used to open a circuit only after the flow of current has been intempted by
another device. Isolators are able to cany normal as well as short circuit currents. These
switches are slow moving devices but are inexpensive compared to load switches and
circuit breakers.

These switches must be able to:

1. cany normal load currents continuously,
..
il. carry fault currents until they are cleared by an intempting device and,
...
111. rnake and break small currents when the voltage difference across their
terminais is not significant.
The open and closed status of an isolator c m be visudly verified. Often, video carneras are
placed at strategic locations in a switchyard to visually inspect the operation of an isolator
without leaving the control room. These cameras are remotely controlled and can be
pointed towards selected equipment in the substation.

2.2.4. Grounding switches

A grounding switch is used for connecting equipment to ground after it has been isolated
from the system. Before performing maintenance, an equipment must be isolated and the
charge trapped on it must be drained. Lmpedances are often used in the ground leads for
limiting the flow of currents in case the equipment happens to be energized.

Some load switches, such as oil switches used in ring main distribution substations, have
integral facilities for grounding the circuit [ I l . In some designs, a common switch blade
moves from the "on" position to the "off "position and then to the "earth" position. In other
designs, separate blades are used for line switching and for grounding. They are interlocked
to prevent inadvertent grounding of the circuit while the circuit breaker is closed. The
grounding must always be a deliberate action.

2.2.5. Fuse switches

These are either load switches or isolators equipped with fuse elements. The fuses are used
to protect equipment and lines from over-current. Fuse switches are used instead of circuit-
breakers in distribution networks. When a fuse operates to open the line, it must be
manually replaced by a new one.

2.2.6 Busbars

Busbars, or buses, are conductors. or group of conductors, that serve as a common

connection for two or more circuits. Al1 power lines converging to a substation ultimately
meet each other at the busbars. Electrically, they are nodes where several network branches
converge.

The busbars experience forces when currents flow in them. These forces c m be great when
short-circuit currents flow. A busbar must be able to withstand the forces caused by the
flow of fault currents.
A transformer is a major component of a substation. Two circuits operating at different
voltages can be connected by an appropriate transformer. A power transformer can be of
a two-winding. or multi-winding type. Transfomers are equipped with taps for regulating
the voltage at one of its terminals.

2.2.8. Reactors and capacitors

Reactors and capacitors are used to regulate voltage in a power systern [ 2 ] .These devices
can be connected in series with a circuit or between the phase conductors and the ground.
In modem substations, reactors are often thyristor controlled devices, which are called static
VAR compensators.

2.2.9. Instrument transformers

Crucial information on the state of the power system and the substation equiprnent is
acquired by measuring various pararneters. The measuring, monitoring, control and
protection devices measure and use pararneters such as current. voltage. power factor,
frequency. active power, reactive power. direction of power flow. load balance. and phase
angles. These parameters are measured by using two types of analog sensors, current
transformers (CT) and voltage transformers (VT). These transducers provide the
instantaneous values of currents and voltages. The remaining parameters are derived from
these measurements. Figure 2.3 shows the placement of instrument transformers in a
typical substation.

Older substations have instruments that are operated by analog signals from the transducers.
In modem substations,currents and voltages are acquired in the form of quantized samples
using analog to digital converters. The samples are then processed by digital signal
processors to estimate the desired parameters.
2.3. Substation Configurations

The following factors influence the selection of a switching arrangement for a substation:
Locally prevailing environmental conditions
Geographical conditions
importance of the substation
Level of required operational flexibility
0 Cost
Reliability
The main goal in any design is to provide a simple arrangement that would provide the
desired flexibility in operation. Analytical studies c m be performed to compare the costs
and benefits of different arrangements.

A study of the existing substation configurations shows that certain switching arrangements
are often repeated. One or two typical arrangements of bays appear to be used repeatedly
in a substation. For example, the substation shown in Figure 2.3 has two types of bays
identi fied by dashed boxes.

A substation is identified by the pattern of bays used to make it. Some commonly used
configurations are introduced and their advantages and disadvantages are described in this
section.

2.3.1. Single busbar arrangement

This is the simplest busbar arrangement in which a single set of busbars is used in the
substation. Al1 circuits are connected to this busbar. This arrangement is used in small
substations and some generating stations. Figure 2.4 shows the switching arrangement of
a typical single busbar substation.

A circuit breaker is placed in each line so that it can be disconnected from the rest of the
system. Isolators are provided at both ends of a circuit breaker. When taking a circuit
breaker. say B l shown in Figure 2.4, out of service, the following operations are
performed:
765 kV Substation 5
Figure 2.3: Location of transducers in a 765kV substation.
19
 9
open circuit breaker B 1,
O
open isolators 1 and 2.
The circuit breaker is opened to break the current flowing in the circuit. The isolators are
then opened and break low levels of currents associated with the stray capacitances of the
circuit.

To energize Line 1, the following operations are performed:

8 close isolators 1 and 2,
8 close circuit breaker B 1.
The isolators are closed but they do not establish the flow of current. The circuit breaker
is operated. after the contacts of the isolators have reached their final positions. to establish
the flow of current in the circuit.

2 / 8/
L
1
Line 1 Line 2 Line 3
T
Line 4

Figure 2.4. A typical single-busbar system

A single busbar substation is the least expensive substation arrangement.The disadvantages

of using this configuration are that the entire substation is shut down when
8 a busbar fails.
 a circuit-breaker fails, or
maintenance is to be perfonned on the busbar.

2.3.2 Sectionalized single busbar arrangemec.t

A sectionalized single busbar arrangement is sirnilar to the single busbar arrangement

except that the busbar is divided into sections which are connected by sectionalizing
switches. A typical sectionalized single busbar arrangement is shown in Figure 2.5. The
figure also shows fireproof walls that separate the sectionalizing circuit breaker from the
bus sections to reduce the fire hazard. Before the two sections are connected to each other,
the two systems must be synchronized. The sectionalizing circuit breaker. B7 shown in
Figure 2.5, helps to synchronize the two sections when they are to be connected together.

Source 1 Source 2
Fire Walls
Q 9
,
Section 12 . 5
11 2
1 Section 2

Line 1 Line 2 ~ i i 3e Line 4

Figure 2.5. A typical sectionalized single-busbar system.

If generator, Source 2 shown in Figure 2.5. is to be taken out of service. the following
operations must be performed.
O Close isolators 13 and 14.
O Synchronize the two sections and close circuit breaker B7.
 Open circuit breaker B6.
Open isoiator 12.
This sequence of operations ensures that the supply to Line 3 and Line 4 is not interrupted
when Source 2 is k i n g taken out of service.

2.3.3. Double busbar arrangement

Major substations are usually equipped with double busbars to increase flexibility of
operation and ease of maintenance. Normally, one set of busbars is in use while the other
remains available for use in the event of a bus fault in the substation. The two busbars can
be connected by a circuit that consists of a bus-coupler circuit breaker and two isolators.
The bus-coupler circuit breaker is used to synchronize the systems connected to the two
busbars. Each incoming and outgoing feeder can be connected to either busbar. A typical
double busbar arrangement is shown in Figure 2.6.

Bus 1

3/ 12/

b
Source 1 Line 1 Source 2 Line 2

BB = Bus-coupler circuit breaker

Figure 2.6. A typicai double busbar arrangement.

This configuration makes it convenient to perform maintenance on busbars, test and

commission new feeders, and operate a circuit at a different voltage. The disadvantage of
this arrangement is that al1 the circuits connected to a bus are interrupted in the event of a
bus fault.

An appropriate sequence of operations must be used to transfer circuits from one busbar
to the other. If a source, Source 2 shown in Figure 2.6, is to be brought into service while
Bus 1 is energized by Source 1, the following operations must be performed.
a Close isolators 8 and 9.
O Close circuit breaker B3, energizing Bus 2.
O Close isolators 13 and 14.
O Synchronize Bus 1 and Bus 2, and close circuit breaker B5.
O Close isolator 7, and then open isolator 8.
a Open circuit breaker B5.
O Open isolators 13 and 14.

2.3.4 Double busbar with by-pass isolator arrangement

The double busbar arrangement becomes extremely flexi5le when an additional isolator
bypassing the circuit breaker is included. This arrangement is shown in Figure 2.7. The
addition of a by-pass isolator improves the utilization of the circuit breakers. When acircuit
breaker is to be taken out of service, the supply to the circuit can be maintained via the bus-
coupler circuit breaker and the by-pass isolator.

If Line 1 is connected to Bus 1 via circuit breaker B 1 and the circuit breaker is to be taken
out of service, the following switching operations must be performed.
O Close isolators 17 and 18.
O Close circuit breaker B5 connecting Bus 2 with Bus 1.
O Close by-pass isolator 3.
a Open circuit breaker B 1.
O Open isolators, 1 and 4.
 Source 1 Source 2

Figure 2.7.A typical double busbar with by-pass isolator

arrangement.

2.3.5. Two circuit breaker arrangement

in major substations, a scheme which has two circuit breakers in each circuit is sometimes
used; this arrangement, called a double-bus-double-breaker scheme (or duplicate-busbar
scheme), is shown in Figure 2.8. Because each circuit has two dedicated circuit breakers.
a circuit can be connected to either busbar. Each circuit may be connected to both busbars.

This arrangement can provide un-intempted power supply even if a fault is experienced
on one of the busbars. It does not require a bus-coupler circuit breaker. Any busbar and any
circuit breaker c m be taken out of service for maintenance without internipting power to
the circuit. It is considered to be one of the best configurations for high voltage substations
because of its flexibility, but it is also one of the most expensive alternatives.
if a fault is experienced on Bus 1. circuit breakers B 1. B3, 85, B7, and B9 are opened to
clear the fault.

Source 1 Source 2

Figure 2.8. A typicd two-breaker system.

2.3.6. Sectionalized two circuit breaker arrangement

This arrangement has two circuit breakers in each circuit as in the double-bus-double-
breaker arrangement. The difference is that the busbars of the sectionalized duplicate
busbar arrangement are sectionalized by using circuit breakers as shown in Figure 2.9.

This arrangement considerably enhances the flexibility of a duplicate busbar arrangement.

Anp section of the busbars can be isolated for maintenance. Sectionalizing of the reserve
busbars is possible but is not always done. The cost increases due to the need for two
sectionalizing circuit breakers. This makes the arrangement less attractive for most of the
substations.
 Figure 2.9. A sectionalized two-breaker system.

If Section 1 of the main busbars experiences a fault, circuit breakers B 1, B3 and B9 are
opened. If the busbar has to be taken out of service to repair the damage. isolators 1.5 and
17 are opened.

2.3.7. Main-and-transfer bus arrangement

A main-and-transfer bus arrangement incorporates by-pass isolators. as shown in Figure
2.10. When a circuit breaker between a line and the main busbar is out of service, the
circuit controlled by it can be energized via the bus-coupler and the by-pass isolators.
Protection for the circuit must be provided by the bus-coupler. This arrangement c m afford
to lose one circuit breaker at any one time without intempting permanently the supply of
power.

It is possible to take a circuit breaker out of service but not intempt the supply of power
on the circuit. For example, if circuit breaker B 1 shown in Figure 2.10. is to be taken out
of service, the following operations must be performed.
w Close isolators 7 and 8.
u Close busbar coupler B4 connecting the transfer busbar to the main busbar.
Close by-pass isolator 9.
h Open circuit breaker B 1.
 w Open isolators 1 and 2.

Main Busbar

23.8-Ring busbar arrangement

Some major substations use the ring (mesh) arrangement. called ring bus, shown in Figure
2.1 1. In this arrangement only one circuit breaker is required per circuit but a circuit breaker
can be taken out of service without intempting the supply of power to any line. Two circuit
breakers must be opened to take a circuit out of service. This is a very widely used
arrangement because of its flexibility and low cost.

This arrangement has a low initial and ultimate cost and provides flexibility in operation
for maintenance of breakers. The arrangement. however, makes protective relaying and
automatic reclosing somewhat complex.

When a fault is experienced in Line 1, shown in Figure 2.1 1, circuit breakers B 1 and B2 are
opened to clear the fault.
 Line 8
Line 1 Line 2
t

/17

p>-m~~~-m
A l6
B6
13
L
11

B5 10 /
12

B4
4 T 4
Line 6 Line 5 Line 4 Line 3

Figure 2.1 1. A ring busbar arrangement.

2.3.9. Breaker-and-a-half arrangement

A breaker-and-a-half arrangement is a hybrid of a ring busbar arrangement and a double-

bus double-breaker arrangement. The switching arrangement is shown in Figure 2.12. As
the narne implies, it requires one and a half circuit breakers per circuit because each pair
of circuits is controlled by three circuit breakers. This arrangement h a k e n one of the most
popular arrangements in recent years.

This looks partly like a ring busbar arrangement, and it is in essence a combination of
several ring like arrangements rather than a single ring. This arrangement makes it easier
to use switches with lower continuous current ratings than that in a ring busbar
arrangement. Two lines sharing the circuit breakers are usually amnged such that one is
connected to a source and the other to a load. This source-load combination minirnizes the
flow of current on the busbars and the switches.

This arrangement is less expensive than a two circuit breaker arrangement but provides
comparable overail performance. The flexibility and reliability are high. but relaying and
reclosing are not easy to implement.

Source 1 Line 2 Line 3

Figure 2.12. A breaker-and-a-half system.

2.3.10. Multiple bus arrangement

This arrangement, shown in Figure 2.13, consists of more than two sets of busbars. Any bus
can be isolated for maintenance. A circuit can be readily transferred from one busbar to
another using the busbar-tie breaker and bus selecting switches. However, it is not a
popular arrangement because it is not cost effective and its performance does not surpass
the two-circuit-breaker, breaker-and-a-half and ring arrangements. In this arrangement, a
circuit breaker cannot be serviced without interrupting power supply to a line.

Figure 2.13. A multiple busbar system.

2.4. Summary
Power systems are monitored and contrclled from substations using switching and control
equipment. The switches and other equipment used in substations have been introduced in
this chapter and their typical roles have k e n described. The commonly used busbar
configurations have k e n descrîbed and their advantages and disadvantages have k e n
outlined.

Some of the other arrangements, which are not discussed in this chapter, include the three
circuit breaker arrangement, the breaker-and-a-third arrangement, and the single and double
or multiple busbars with by-pass bus arrangement [3-61.
 3. SUBSTATION SWITCHING

Switching operations are perforrned to rearrange the topology of a power system so that
various operating requirements of the system are met. The usual switching operations are
outlined in this chapter. The roles of the operations and the importance of computer based
interlocks are discussed. important publications conceming the topics are also reviewed.

3.1. Types of Switching Operations

Switching operations are performed in response to randomly occumng and scheduled

events. Sorne examples of the events that require switching operations to be performed are
as follows.
1. Faults: Isolate the faulted equipment and restore the power supply to healthy
circuits.
..
il. Overloading : Redistnbute loads so that they are fairly distributed arnong the
circuits.
iii. Overvoltage or undervoltage: Reactors are switched on or off. or
transformer taps are changed to bring the bus voltage within limits.
iv. Maintenance: Equipment is isolated and then grounded before maintenance
i s perforrned .
v. Restoration: When part of a circuit goes out of service, the network is
reconfigured such that the cusiomers are not deprived of pcwer supply.

Some of these events. such as faults. can cause serious damage and must. therefore, be
cleared without undue delay. In addition to equipment darnage, system instability can occur
if faults. or disturbances. are not cleared prompily. Dedicated relaying systems are.
therefore. used to open appropriate circuit breakers to disconnect the faulted section from
the system. In some cases, relaying systems are designed to re-close the circuit breakers to
restore power supply in case the faults were of a temporary nature. If a fault is of a
permanent nature, the flow of power is rerouted around the faulted equipment.

Some events, such as minor overload, and over voltage / undervoltage conditions, occur
gradually and short delays in decision making can be permitted. A detailed analysis of the
state of the system and the consequences of subsequent switching operations cm, therefore.
be conducted before implementing these switching decisions.

The ability of a power system to withstand the outage of an equipment can be determined
by performing security analysis. if the analysis shows that the outage is likely to result in
overloading of some components. the system can be reconfigured to prevent overloads.

When it cornes to scheduled maintenance, a system can be analysed before any switching
operation is performed. The equipment is isolated before maintenance work is performed.

Considering the foregoing discussion, switching operations in a substation c m be divided

into the following four categories:

1. Fault switching,
..
11. Restoration switching,
iii. System re-configuration switching, and
iv. Maintenance switching.

Among these four categories, the fault switching is the most time critical and the
maintenance switching is the least time critical. This thesis concentrates mostly on the
system re-configuration and maintenance switching.

The discussion of Section 2.2 shows that al1 equipment and switches are not robust devices
like circuit breakers. Therefore, the operation of circuit breakers and other switches must
tK coordinated. Utilities employ special safety features to prevent undesired switching
operations from being performed inadvertently.

Restrictions are placed on the sequence in which switches can be operated in a substation
to ensure secunty of the system and safety of personnel. These restrictions are usually
referred to as interlocks.

Interlocking operations can be classified into two groups, operational interlocking and
maintenance interlocking. Operational interlocking prevents switching operations that c m
cause damage to equipment or can cause inadvertent loss of power to the customers.
Maintenance interlocking protects personnel working on the equipment. These interlocks
are more restrictive and include the use of padlocks in addition to usuai interlocks.

It used to be a utility practice to mechanically interlock the operation of isolators, earth

switches and enclosures of equipment. For exarnple, a circuit breaker and its adjoining
isolators were mechanically interlocked so that the isolator could not be operated unless the
circuit breaker was opened. The mechanical arrangements included camshafts, bolts and
padlocks. These schemes took substantial time to lock and unlock the switches.

Mechanical interlocks are still in use. They are now used mainly to allow safe access for
personnel to carry out maintenance, or to prevent access to the enclosures containing live
equipment.

Newer substations use electrical schemes, where the present status of the switches and the
desired switching actions are supervised by logic controllers. The safety of the switching
operations is ensured by the preprogrammed logic.

Electrical interlocks are superior to mechanical interlocks because:

The components do not have to be physically adjacent in order to apply
electrical interlocks.
They permit an interlock of any given switch to the state of any number of
components of the substation.
They can supervise the state of the system in addition to checking the state of
the switches.
They make it possible to perform sequence switching irrespective of the
complexity of a substation.
These superior features, however, increase the complexities of the design of the switching
logic.
A combination of electrical and mechanical interlocks can provide a comprehensive
interlocking system.

3.3. Developrnents in Interlocking Techniques

In the early days o f power systems, only simple deterrents, such as padlocks, were provided
to prevent unauthorized operations that rnight be incorrect. The utilities relied on the
vigilance of operators in performing switching sequences correctly. Interlocks were
introduced to reduce the chances of inadvertent switching errors. Later, some industries
implemented overly restrictive interlocking arrangements to cover al1 possible
contingencies. More comprornising solutions were then sought to provide comprehensive
interlocks without making them overly restrictive.

Two notable publications in this area are those of Hutchinson [7] and Cory [8]. Hutchinson
suggested the use o f two analog circuits, which represent the interlock logic for the isolators
of a substation. One circuit blocks the operation of an isolator if it makes or breaks load
currents and the second circuit allows the operation of an isolator if a low impedance shunt
path exists across it. The first circuit represents the Thevenin's equivalent of the system in
which ail impedances are neglected. The second circuit represents the Norton's equivaient
of the system in which al1 admittances are neglected.

The first circuit is made by connecting the type 'a' auxiliary switches of the circuit breakers
and isolators in the configuration of the substation. For the substation of Figure 3.1 (a). the
circuit is shown in Figure 3.l(b). If appropriateness of operating an isolator is to be
checked, the impedance across its auxiliary contact is measured. The operation is allowed
if the measured impedance is infinity. In case the impedance is zero, the second circuit is
used to make the final decision.

The second circuit is made by connecting the type 'b' auxiliary switches of the circuit
breakers and isolators in the Norton's equivalent configuration of the substation. For the
substation of Figure 3.l(a), the circuit is shown in Figure 3.l(c). If appropriateness of
operating an isolator is to be checked, the impedance across its auxiliary contact is
measured. The operation is allowed if the measured impedance is infinity.
 Examination-

A) Actuai circuit B) Thevenin' s equivalent circuit

Legend:
11 = Type 'a' contact
1
*= Type 'b' contact

C) Norton's equivalent circuit

Figure 3.1. A single busbar substation and its equivalent circuits.

Cory [8] represented switching constraints by using Boolean algebra and implemented the
logic in a hardware circuit. This work shows that complex logic can be implemented with
electronic controllers.

A logic circuit prepared by Cory for a double-busbar substation is shown in Figure 3.2. The
inputs to the control circuit are the status of the switches and the commands to operate
them. The ciosing o r opening of a switch is permitted only when the output from the
controller is logical TRUE.

Row and Cory [IO] extended the work reported in Reference 7. More
Hope and Cory [9],
 notable of these works is Reference 9. Hope and Coty simplified the interlock lopic off-line
and generated appropriate Boolean logic by using digital computer programs.

'a Researve Legend for Logic Circuit:

- r Main Bus = "AND" Gate

a= "OR" Gate

B19
3 /
= "NOT"Gate
B 1 = Status of breaker B 1
I
O B 1 = Logic circuit output for opening B 1

Line 1 C B = Logic circuit output for closing B 1

a) Feeder circuit MOB = Logic circuit output for opening B 1

MC = Logic circuit output for closing B 1

F m -
-- =P+
MO,
I

B) Control-logic circuit

Figure 3.2. A feeder circuit and an interlock logic circuit for the feeder circuit.
Couch and Momson [ 1 11 proposed adifferent approach in designing interlocking schemes.
Rather than finding al1 switching combinations off-line and storing them, they proposed the
use of a digital computer program to determine on-line the effect of a switching operation
on the safety of the system. They analyze the substation topology, status of the switches and
liveldead status of the lines to determine the impact of a switching operation on the security
of the substation. Figure 3.3 shows a flowchart, taken from Reference 1 1, that is used to
check the impact of operating a switch.

Lidgate et al. [ 123 used a network-tracing (graphical) technique to design the generalized
interlocks. The logic was described using logic diagrams and was translated into two tables,
a "decision table" and an "anti-table." The decision table contained a list of al1 the
combination of switches that prevent the operation of a switch. The anti-table listed every
combination of switches that allow the operation of a switch.

Brand, Kopainsky and Wimrner [13] proposed a topology-based interlocking technique

which decouples interlocking niles and substation configurations. This technique provides
interlocking schemes that can implement the rules irrespective of the configuration of a
substation.

3.4. Sequence Switching

Sequence switching consists of selecting the most appropriate intermediate steps when the
network configuration is to be changed. Almost al1 switching operations described in
Section 3.1 require that the switches be operated in a proper sequence.

A properly planned switching sequence must change the network configuration with a
minimum number of switching operations. The sequence must not violate the switching
constraints, cause loss of power supply or endanger the safety of personnel and the
equipment. A switching sequence may consist of a combination of opening and closing of
switches. Determining a switching sequence can be a complex process because several
constraints may have to be satisfied.

37
Messages:
Display 1 = "Attempt to earth a Iive bus."
Display 2 = "The switch is not a circuit bre
Display 3 = "Threat to substation security."

7 Display 1

n
Display 2
L
Y 4
-
Display 3
*

Figure 3.3. A flowchart for checking the security of a substation.

38
Except for the protection and restoration switching done by dedicated relays. switching
plans are prepared by the substation personnel. It, however, takes time to rnanually generate
appropriate switching sequences. A cornputer based system with appropriate features
would allow engineers to program the interlock requirements of a substation. and generate
and evaluate the switching sequences. Such a system would Save time and help reduce
human errors in decision making. If the technique and its applications are reasonably
inexpensive and user fnendly, they would be useful to substation engineers, and would be
readily accepted and applied.

3.5. Developrnents in Sequence Switching

Hope and Cory 181 used a technique in which they stored al1 permissibie switching
combinations in a "primitive flow table" in an ordered fonn. The ordering in the table is
such that the adjoining rows differ by the state of one switch that can be operated safely.
To change the configuration of a substation. switches are opened and closed as dictated by
the transition of States between adjoining rows. The procedure starts from the row that
matches with the initiai state and stops at the row that matches with the final state. Other
tables are also created to make it easier to analyse the information in the primitive flow
table.

Couch and Momson [ 1 1. 141 proposed a method of selecting optimal switching sequence
based on dynamic programrning. This method minirnizes an objective function which
consists of the cost of switching operations. The technique was used for off-line selection
of switching sequences. The main difficulty with this approach is that it uses a penalty cost
associated with each switching operation which is dificuit to determine.

Udo [15] also proposed an optimization technique for selecting switching sequences. He
showed that most criteria result in selecting a sequence that consists of the least number of
switching operations. He used this approach instead of the penalty functions and cost
minirnization.

Traca-deAlmeida [ 16,171 proposed a method different from the dynamic programrning

based techniques, which scan a large number of network configurations where the
combinations to be considered grow exponentially with the size of the system. In the
proposed method, the initial and final configurations of the substation were used for
determining the switching sequence. The procedure consisted of the following steps:
- Close isolators that must remain closed in the final configuration.
- Close circuit breakers that must remain closed in the final configuration.
- Open isolators that must remain open in the final configuration.
- Open circuit breakers that must remain open in the final configuration.
For example, in a substation whose initial configuration is as shown in Figure 3.4(a) and
the final configuration is as shown in Figure 3.4 (b), application of the suggested procedure
provides the following switching sequence.
- Close isolator 4.
- Close isolator 8
- Close isolator 1 1.
- Close isolator 9.
- Make synchro-check and close circuit breaker B 12.
- Close circuit breaker B 1O.
- Make synchro-check and close circuit breaker B4.
- Make synchro-check and close circuit breaker Ba.
- Open circuit breaker B3.
- Open isolator 3.

Weatherall and Senior [18] designed a microprocessor control system for post fault
sequence switching. in their scheme, status of relays and switches are entered in the fonn
of a bit pattern which is compared with the patterns stored as tables in the computer
memory. The sequence of operations associated with the matched pattern is implemented.
If no matching bit pattem is found, an darm is generated and automatic switching is
blocked. Other notable works done in post-fault sequence switching are those of Marlow
and Dauncey ( 191, and DiaIynzs and Machias [20].

The expert system based techniques provide some scalability in the development of
switching schemes. They normally start with a simple and workable solution and provide
gradual refinement to the system as more experience is gained and the knowledge about the
system expands. The next section describes some expert system based developments that
influenced the work reported in this thesis.

3.5.1. Use of expert systerns

Some [21-23] proposed the use of an expert system for sequence switching. In the work of
Zhang, Hope and Malik 1221, they broke the cornplex tasks into simple sub-tasks. They
used the criterion of minirnizing the number of switching operations when selecting optimal
switching sequences. They also included a provision to incorporate the cost rninimization
criteria if the user c m provide information on the cost of switching operations.

In this work, the elements of network graphs are grouped into three categories: components,
nodes and branches. The switching operations are grouped into five categories. Altemate
sequences of switching operations are determined by searching the network graph for
alternate paths. "Best-first-search" technique is used to expedite the search.

Schulz and Wollenberg [23] also developed an expert system to generate and evaluate
switching sequences for equiprnent maintenance. They included power flow calculations
in selecting optimal switching sequences. They divided the expert system into two sub-
systems, "switching sequence creation expert system" and "switching sequence evaluation
expert system." The first system determined
8 the switches that form isolation boundary for the equipment to be taken out
of service,
8 switching steps for isolation, and
8 switching steps for restoration.

The second system reads a switching sequence and evaluates its correctness and optirnality.

Other publications [24-271 that deal with the use of expert system in substation switching
have not been discussed in this chapter because they do not seem to make significant
contributions to the work reponed in this thesis.
 Line 1 Line 2
t 9

Line 84-m/

~ine7.-~'=
B7
B8
8
,/

OB12

-
9

12
I
B9

BI 1
I
:T /
B3
--~ine)

/B4a-Line
@4
6 1 15
L "L
*.B $35

Line 6 Line 5
a) Initial configuration.
Line 1

T T
B8
1 t 2 1

--
B3
~ine8*--=-
8 B9

7 B4
Line 7 @
--- Line 4

"L A"
= Closed circuit breaker
B+ +B5
= Open circuit breaker
Line 6 Line 5
b) Final configuration.
- = Closed isolator
/ = Open isolator

Figure 3.4. Initial and final configurations of a r.ubstation.

42
3.6. Summary

Switching actions in a substation are carried out to protect the equipment from system
events such as faults and disturbances. Operations are also carried out to prepare the system
for repair and maintenance work.

Switches are interlocked so that they can operate only when they do not pose any threat to
the secunty of the system or to the safety of personnel. Switches are, therefore, operated
sequentially so that the interlocking rules are obeyed.

The configuration of a substation can be changed by implementing alternative switching

sequences. The sequence that consists of minimum switching operations is generally
pre ferred.
 SWITCHING DATA AND PROCEDURES

The cornponents used in a substation have many comrnon characteristics. The

characteristics cari be analysed and then used to develop operating constraints taking the
design and placement of the components in the substation into consideration. The steps
involved in detennining switching sequences, and the factors to be considered in that
process are discussed in this chapter. The operating constraints of the equipment used in
substations are described. An approach, which groups interlocks in four categories, to
simplify and expedite the implementation of interlocks is presented.

4.1. Basic Switching Procedures

A basic switching procedure may consist of an operation of a switch, or a series of closing

and opening operations. This section describes basic switching procedures. Some complex
switching procedures, composed of a number of basic operations, are described later in
Section 4.2.

4.1.1. Opening and closing of a switch

Some switching procedures consist of opening and closing of a switch. Typical exarnples
include grounding of an isolated component or opening a circuit. Opening (or closing) a
switch also forms the fundamental component of switching procedures such as connecting
a line to a busbar. A ciosing or opening operation of a switch is carried out only after
ascertaining that the component level, substation level and system level security interlocks
are not violated.
4.1.2. Bypassing a component

Certain situations require that a component be bypassed. For exarnple, a circuit breaker may
have to be bypassed for performing maintenance on it. To maintain the continuity of power
supply, a path around the circuit breaker may have to be established. The component,
substation and system level interlocks must be satisfied when these operations are to be
performed.

4.1.3. Operating switches in a branch

Branches c m contain multiple switches such as a circuit breaker and isolators. When a
branch contains an isolator and a circuit breaker, they must be operated in a definite
sequence. When opening a branch, the circuit breaker must be opened before the isolator
is opened. When closing a branch. the isolator must be closed before the circuit breaker is
closed. The operation of a branch that contains only isolators must be coordinated with the
operation of its adjoining branches that contain circuit breakers. The component, substation
and system level interlocks must be satisfied when a branch is opened o r closed.

4.1.4. Connecting a line to a busbar

Often, more than one branch is involved in connecting a line to a busbar. It is desirable that
the closing of switches progress from the source side to the load side when a line is to be
connected to a busbar. Anyhow, isolators must be closed before the circuit breakers are
closed. Al1 levels of interlocks must be checked before any operations are performed. When
two live circuits are to be connected, they must be synchronized.

4.1.5. Disconnecting a line from a busbar

Disconnecting a line from a busbar often involves the opening of a circuit breaker between
the line and the busbar. In some circumstances, it may require the opening of al1 switches
in the power-flow path(s) between the line and the busbar. The circuit breakers must be
opened before the isolators are opened. It is desirable that the opening of switches progress
from the load side to the source side when a line is to be disconnected from a bus. Al1 levels
of interlocks must be checked before disconnecting a line.
4.1.6. Connecting busbars

Normally, the sections of a busbar are connected together via bus sectionalizing switches.
Occasionally, however, the sections are operated in stand-done modes. When two
disconnected but live busbars are to be re-connected, the busbars must be synchronized
before closing the sectionalizing switches. Ifsynchronizing facilities are not available, one
of the buses must be de-energized before they are connected.

In the case of a double bus scheme, the lines are not connected to the main and auxiliary
buses through separate circuit breakers, but rather they have one circuit breaker per line.
When transfemng circuits from the main bus to the auxiliary bus in a double busbar
scheme, the buses must be connected via a bus-coupler circuit breaker.

4.2. Advance Switching Procedures

Bus transfer, partitioning of a substation, isolation of a circuit, load shedding and

restoration, and maintenance of a busbar are exarnples of complex switching procedures.
These procedures consist of several basic operations that can be divided into sub-tasks.

4.2.1. Identifying equipment to be taken out of service

To identify the equipment that needs maintenance, maintenance schedules should be

c hecked. To identiQ the equipment for repair, monitoring system and visual-inspection
reports should be checked.

4.2.2. Deterrnining isolation boundary

A component must be properly isolated and discharged before maintenance work is starteci.
Every equipment adjacent to the component to be repaired must be taken out of service.
Once a component is isolated, al1 adjacent components must be disabled so that they are
not operated inadvenently until the repair is done and the personnel have released the
equipment.
4.2.3. Identifying affected circuits
Some loads served by a substation may be curtailed if a component is isolated without
providing altemate route to deliver power. Moreover, this may overload an equipment tfiat
is connected in parallel with the component k i n g taken out of service.

4.2.4. Rerouting flow of power

Lfoverloading of an equipment or a curtailment of load is imminent, alternate routes to feed
the loads should be determined. If such an alternative does not exist, the emphasis should
be on providing power supply to as many loads as possible.

The following steps should be performed while determining the switching sequence for
restoring power supply.

1. Exclude the switches and equipment that are blocked.

2. if necessary, connect circuits through alternate routes.

4.2.5. Isolating an equipment

The switching sequence for isolating an equipment is prepared from the topology of the
substation. The following operations should be performed for this purpose.

1. Check if al1 the circuit breakers in the sequence c m be opened without

violating the security of the system.

2. Check if al1 the isolating switches in the sequence can be opened without
violating the security of the system.

3. Open ail the circuit breakers in the list.

4. Open al1 the isolators in the list.

While performing these steps, process should abort if the test produces unfavourable results
or if a switch fails t o operate.

4.2.6. Grounding an equipment

An equipment is grounded after it is confinned that it has k e n isolated. If a grounding
switch exists within the isolated section of the circuit, the equipment shouid be discharged
by closing the grounding switch. The unavailability of a grounding switch within the
isolated part of the circuit would require that the component must be grounded by using a
mobile grounding unit.

4.2.7. Restoring circuits

The operations that were performed to isolate the circuit are known. Therefore, it is
relatively straight-fonvard to restore the circuit to its original configuration. The following
steps should be performed for restoring a circuit.

Open the ground connections.

Check if al1 the isolating switches, which must be closed in the final
configuration, c m be closed safely.
Check if al1 the circuit breakers, which must be closed in the final
configuration, c m be closed safely.
Close the isolators identified in Step 2.
Close the circuit breakers identified in Step 3.
Check if al1 the circuit breakers, which must be opened in the final
configuration, c m be opened safeiy.
Check if al1 the isolators, which must be opened in the final configuration,
c m be opened safely.
Open the circuit breakers identified in Step 6.
Open the isolators identified in Step 7.

4.3. Formulation of Constraints

The operating state of the system and characteristics of the switches must be analysed to
detemine the validity of an intended switching operation. The design of the equipment,
operating parameters, and constraints necessary to operate the system safely must be
considered 128, 291. The constraints can be expressed in a general form and applied
effectively to substations of al1 practical configurations.
An anaiysis of operating practices of substations dictates that the following requirements
must be met by a switching operation.
8 Protection systems must be allowed to open circuit breakers to clear faults.
8 The most recent status of the network must be available.
8 The current and voltage ratings of the linrs, transfomers and other equipment
must not be exceeded.

A practicai switching device is different from an ideal on-off device in two ways. Firstly,
its closing and opening times are not negligible. Secondly, its status may not be known. A
switch rnust go through the following interlock constraints:
O Only one switching operation should be permitted at a time.
8 Sorne switches must not be operated before the operation of another switch is
completed.
O A switch must not be operated if its status in unknown.

4.3.2. Circuit breakers

Given the voltage, power factor and impedance of different parts of the system and the
system topology, the maximum possible fault current that a circuit breaker must intempt
c m be calculated. The breaking capacity of a circuit breaker should always be greater than
or equal to the maximum possible fault current. A circuit breaker must satisfy several
constraints for it to be safely opened or closed.

4.3.2.1 Opening Operation

A circuit breaker must not be opened if it inadvertently interrupts power to

loads or causes overloading of parallei circuits.

The possibility of loss of power to customers due to the opening of a line breaker can be
checked by analysing the topology of the network. The possibility of overloading of lines
following the opening of a circuit breaker c m be determined from a power flow analysis
of the system.
4.3.2.2 Closing Operation

A circuit breaker must not be closed if its adjoining isolator is in motion.

a Two live lines must not be connected without synchronizing them.
a A live line must not be grounded.

The closing of a circuit breaker while its adjoining isolator is in motion would set u p an arc
across the isolator contacts and damage them severely. This requirement determines the
minimum time required for completing a switching sequence.

if two live lines are connected while the difference between the magnitudes and phase
angles of their voltage waveforms are beyond specified limit, large amount of power flows
from one line to another, which could cause the system to loose stability. It is, therefore,
necessary to synchronize the lines before connecting them.

Grounding of a live circuit initiates a ground fault resulting in the flow of excessive
currents. This could darnage the equiprnent and jeopardize the safety of personnel involved
in grounding. A circuit breaker must not be closed if one of its terminais is connected to a
source and the other is connected to ground.

4.3.3. Load-breakswitches

The constraints applicable to circuit breakers are also applicable to load-break switches.
The load-break switches have one extra constra.int as follows:
a A load-break switch must not break fault cument.

This constraint is due to the design limitations of a load-break switch discussed in Section
2.2.2.

4.3.4. Isolators

a An isolator must not make or break load or fault current.

On-load operation of an isolator must be permitted if there is a low impedance

shunt path across it.

The constraints are due to the design limitations of an isolator that are discussed in Section
2.2.3. if isolator 5 of Figure 4.1 were to be closed, an arc would be struck across the
contacts of the isolator because of the difference between the potentials of two buses. This
would severely darnage the isolator. To avoid the darnage. a shunt path across isolator 5 can
be established by closing 9, 10 and B5.

4.3.5. Grounding switches

a A live line must not be grounded.

An equipment must be properly isolated before grounding it. Once an equipment is

grounded, the grounding circuit must be opened before energizing the equipment.

(Source 1) (Source 2)

(Load 1) (Load 2)

: Closed : Closed

: Open / : Open

Figure 4.1. A substation with bus coupling circuit.

4.3.6. Transformers
a Two transfomers operating in parallel must be at identical tap settings.

Operating two transfomers in parailel while their tap settings are different would cause
circulating currents to flow between the transformers. These currents could damage the
transformers seriously.

4.3.7. Sequence switching

Switches are operated sequentiaily in substations. Only one switch is operated at a time to
ensure that the general constraints are not violated. When this procedure is followed, it
becomes easy to identify the location of a fault. Other constraints that must be met while
implementing a switching sequence are as follows.
a Power supply must not be unnecessarily intermpted during and after the
switching operations.
a Busbars or lines must not be de-energized and then re-energized during a
switching sequence.
a Closing of a circuit breaker should not create a configuration in which the
fault levels exceed the ratings of the circuit breakers.
a Redundant switching operations should be avoided.
a Among al1 the alternative switching sequences, the most economical one
should be selected. It tends to be the shonest sequence and therefore may
also assure restoration of supply in the shortest time.
a While restoring power to a line, the switches nearest to the source should
be closed first and the switches farthest from the source closed last.

a The switching sequence should not violate the interlocking scheme.

4.3.8. Substation specific constraints

Despite having many comrnon characteristics, every substation has a unique switching
arrangement, importance and placement in the system. Some additional switching
constraints might be necessary t o meet the specific requirements of asystem. The following
are some examples of special constraints.
a An auxiliary bus must not be operated in parallel with the main bus except
when circuits are k i n g transferred between the main bus and the auxiliary
bus.
a No more than two transfomers should be connected in parallel in a
sequence of operation [ 181.
4.4. Data Requirements and Data Structures

System components must be represented by numeric data for use in a software application
for substation control. The data should be kept in a database organized in a predefined
structure. This would ensure efficient sharing and manipulating of data by different
programs.

Many forms of databases are used by electric power utilities and manufacturers for keeping
information on the equipment used in power systems. The data applicable to the
development of substation switching schemes identïfied and adopted in this project are
summarized in this section.

4.4.1. Switches

The structure shown in Table 4.1 was prepared and used for storing data of the switches for
this project. Al1 the information in this data structure. except the 'Branch'. is provided by
the user. The 'Branch' is assigned by the software application. and is made available t o the
user upon request. Al1 data in this structure are invariant except for the 'Status' of the
switch, which is updated continuaily during on-line operation.

The status field can contain slightly different information for different types of switches.
For example, a circuit-breaker rnay need status fields to indicate if its two ends are live and
synchronized. The 'Relations' field lists the names of equipment with which the operation
of the device is directly linked. For example,
O an isolator may be associateci with a circuit breaker.
a circuit breaker may be associated with a feeder. transformer or a husbar.
a grounding switch may be associated with an isolator.
 Table 4.1. Switching device data
Description
Identification number
--

Narne (any length)

Type of switch: Circuit breaker, load-break switch, isolator,
grounding switch, fuse switch
Current rating, ICA
Voltage rating, kV
ID number of the link on one side of the switch
ID number of the link on the other side of the switch
Status of the equipment; open, closed, stuck, free, undefined,
known, healthy, unhealthy, remote-controllable, manuai
Pointer to the branch in which it belongs

Opening- time
- - -- --

List of names of associated device separated by commas

A complex structure, which defines when it is free to operate
Legend:

1= Integer

P = Lnteger pointer
F = Floating-point,
S = Text string (Alphanumenc narne)

SL = List of text strings,

CD = Complex data structure having many fields within

Data of the nodes have to be kept in structures that are significantly different for different
types of nodes. The structure shown in Table 4.2 was developed and used for storing data
of a general node. Al1 the information in this data structure. except the 'AdjBranch',
'AdjNode'. 'NewTopo'. and 'Topo', is provided by the user. The values of 'AdjBranch*,
'AdjNode', 'NewTopo', and 'Topo', are assigned by the software application, and are
made available to the user upon request. Al1 data in this structure are invariant except for
the 'Status' of the node and 'Voltage*of the node. which is updated continually during on-
Iine operation. The structures of data for busbar and input-output nodes are presented later.

Table 4.2. Node data

Data Type Description
ID 1 Identification number
Narne S Name (any length)
I Type 1 1 1 Type of node: common, input, input-output, output
IILinkl 1 1 1 ID number of the link associated with this node
-- -

Voltage F Current voltage level, kV

Status CD Status of the node: de-energized, energized, grounded,
healthy, unhealthy
NewTopo 1 Integer representing the topology to be achieved
Topo 1 Integer representing the prevailing topology
AdjBranch PL List of adjoining branches
I AdjNode 1 PL 1 List of adjoining nodes
1 1 Legend: PL = List of integer pointers

4.4.3. Busbars

Busbars are essentially nodes except for the fact that lines corne to converge at the busbars.
The system voltages are measured at buses, and these voltages rnust be within specified
limits. The structure shown in Table 4.3 was developed and used for stonng data of a
busbar. Al1 the information in this data structure, except the 'AdjBranch', 'AdjNode',
'NewTopo' and 'Topo' is provided by the user. The values of 'AdjBranch*. 'AdjNode'.
'NewTopo', and 'Topo' are assigned by the software application, and are made available
to the user upon request. The voltage of a general node is derived by using the voltage
measured at the busbars a n d o r input-output lines. Al1 data in this structure are invariant
except for the 'Status' and 'Voltage' of the bus, which are updated continually during on-
line operation.

Table 4.3. Busbar data

Type Description
1 Identification number
S 1 Name (any length)
F
I
Link l
Voltage F
1
1
Type of node: common, input, input-output, output
ID number of the link on one side of the switch
Current voltage level, kV
F Minimum permissible voltage, kV
F Maximum pennissible voltage. KV
I Status CD Status of the node: de-energized, energized, grounded,
healthy, unhealthy, being-repitired, priority
1 Integer representing the topology to be achieved
1 Integer representing the prevailing topology
I AdjBranch PL List of adjoining branches
PL List of adjoining nodes
PL Transfer nodes, listed according to their prioonty
CD 1 Complex structure defining when it is free to be used

4.4.4. Input-output nodes

Input-output nodes are different from the general nodes and busbars that they can handle
a specified amount of power. The structure shown in Table 4.4 was developed and used for
storing data of an input-output node.

Al1 the information in this data structure, except the 'AdjBranch', 'AdjNode', 'NewTopo',
and 'Topo', is provided by the user. The values of 'AdjBranch', 'AdjNode'. 'NewTopo',
and 'Topo'. are assigned by the software application, and are made available to the user
upon request. Al1 data in this structure are invariant except for the 'Status', 'Voltage',
'Current' and 'Pf of the node, which are updated continually during on-line operation.

4.4.5. Transformers
Transformers can have tap changing features, and rated voltages for the prirnary, secondary
and tertiary windings. They have system buses associated with each side. Keeping these
features in mind, the structure shown in Table 4.5 was developed and used for storing data
of transformers. Al1 the information in this data structure, except the 'Branch', is provided
by the user. The 'Branch' is assigned by the software application, and is made available to
the user upon request. Al1 data in this structure are invariant except for the 'Status' and
'TapPos', which are updated continually dunng on-line operation.

4.4.6. Reactors and capacitors

Reactors and capacitors are used to keep the voltage of a bus within specified lirnits. The
structure shown in Table 4.6 was developed and used for stonng data of reactors and
capacitors. Al1 the information in this data structure, except the 'Branch' is provided by the
user. The 'Branch*, is assigned by the software application. and is made available to the
user upon request. Al1 data in this structure are invariant except for the 'Status' and
'Setting' of the reactor. which are updated continually during on-line operation.

4.4.7. Measuring instruments

The location of measuring instruments. the measured values of the parameters and the
status of the instruments are needed for substation control. Considenng these factors, the
structure shown in Table 4.7 was developed and used for storing data of a measuring
instrument. Al1 the information in this data structure, except the 'Branch', is provided by
the user. The 'Branch* is assigned by the software application, and is made available to the
user upon request. Ali data in this structure are invariant except for the 'Status' and
'Value', which are updated continually during on-line operation.

II Table 4.4. Input-output node data

Data Type Description
ID 1 Identification number

Type 1 Type of node: cornmon, input, input-output, output

Link 1 1 ID number of the link on one side of the switch
I SysBus 1 1 1 System bus connected to the remote end of the line
I Current F
F
Actual current, kA
Maximum permissible current, kA
IIVoltage 1 1 Current voltage level, kV
IrMax1

F
I MinV 1 F 1 Minimum allowed voltage at the remote end, kV
I Ma.xv 1 F 1 Maximum allowed voltage at the remote end, kV
MVARating F MVA rating
Status CD Status of the node: de-energized, energized, grounded,
II 1 1 healthy, unhealthy. under-repair, priority
I NewTopo 1 1 1 Integer representing the topology to be achieved
1,
II
TOPO
AdjBranch 1
1
PL
Integer representing the prevailing topoiogy
1 List of adjoining branches
IIAdjNode 1 PL 1 List of adjoining nodes
I Buses 1 PL 1 Associated buses listed according to their priority
I SrcPref 1 PL 1 Source list, listed according to preferencelpriority
Lock Complex structure defining any special constraints
 Table 4.5. Transformer data

'&
Data
Identification number
Name (any length)
Type 1 Type of transformer, two-winding, three-winding, auto etc.
MVA F MVA rating
TapSideV F Tap side or primary voltage rating, kV
ZSideV F Z side or secondary voltage rating, kV
TerV F Tertiary side voltage rating, kV (if present)
Link 1 1 Link on the tap side (or primary side) of the transformer
--- - -

Link on the impedance (or secondary) side of the transformer

Tertiary side link (nonnally not present)
System bus on the tap (or pnmary) side
- .- .- - . .- -- ---
. -- -

System bus on the impedance (or secondary) side

Maximum tap setting expressed in p-u., with nominal tap as 1
Minimum tap setting expressed in p.u., with nominal tap as 1
Cumnt tap position expressed in p.u., with nominal tap as 1
Tap step size in p.u. with ïlominal voltage k i n g as 1
Status CD Status of the transformer; healthy, unhealthy, under-
maintenance, with-tap, without-tap, controllable, manual,
pnmary-Y, phrnary- A , secondary-Y, secondary-A
Branch PL Pointer to the branch(es) in which it belongs
Relations SL List of names of associated device separated by commas
Lock CD Complex structure defining any special constraints
 Table 4.6. Reactor data
Data Type
ID 1 Identification number
Narne (any length)
Type 1 Type of switch: capacitive, reactive, shunt, series
Mva F MVA rating
Voltage Voltage rating, kV
Link 1 Link on one side of the reactor
IILinM Link on the other side of the reactor (can be ground node)
Status CD Status of the equipment; energized, de-energized, healthy,
unhealthy, under-repair, remote-controllable, rnanual
I Branch Pointer to the branch in which it belongs
Maximum setting
-- - -

Minimum setting
Steps by which setting changes
Setting Current setting
Relations List of lines associated with the reactor, separated by commas
A complex structure, which defines when it is free to operate

4.4.8. Substation

A substation contins components, branches and nodes. Important elements of substation

data are:

the system bus number represented by the substation,

the nominal bus voltage,
file names and directories of relevant data files.

Considering these factors, structure shown in Table 4.8 was developed and used for storing
data of a substation. Al1 the information in this data structure are provided by the user.
11 Table 4.7. Measuring instrument data
Data Type Description
ID 1 Identification number

1hhle 1 S 1 Name (any length)

l Type 1 Type of transducer: CT,VT, CVT

1 1 F Maximum value of measurand that c m be measured without

saturating the instrument

I Link 1 1 1 Link number of the node where the transducer is located

Status CD Status of instrumentation; connected, disconnected, healthy,
unhealthy, under-repair
Branc h P Pointer to the branch in which it belongs
Relations List of associated devices that use this instrument

4.4.9. Power system

A simple and effective way t o check the impact of a switching operation is to conduct a
power flow study. The line data and the bus data of the power system must be provided to
facilitate these studies. The data can be kept in a data file using specified format. The name
of the data file and the directory where the file is kept should be provided to the switching
scheme. Once the location of the data is supplied, the switching scheme should perform
load-flow calculations to determine if the voltage Limits of the buses and the current limits
of the lines are violated.

Considering these factors, the structure shown in Table 4.9 was developed and used for
storing load flow data of a power system. Al1 the information in this data structure are to
be provided by the user except for the status. The status is changed during the on-line
operation of the substation.
 -- -

Table 4.8. Substation data

1 1
Data Type Description
Narne S Substation name

Type I Type of substation

SysBus F System bus number of the substation
NomV F Nominal bus voltage
MinV 1 F 1 Minimum pennissible bus voltage
MaxV 1 F 1 Maximum permissible bus voltage
Status 1 CD 1 Statur: connected, disconnected. healthy. unhealthy. under-
repair
Components CD Container to store al1 the components of the substation
Branches
- -
1 CD 1 Container to store al1 the branches
Nodes ~ C 1DContainer to store the nodes
LFDir 1 S 1 Load-flow data directory
LFIn 1 S 1 Load-flow input data file narne
LFBusOut S Load-flow bus-data output file name
' LFLineOut 1 S 1 Load-flow line-data output file name
LFProgress 1 S 1 Load-flow progress durnp file name
SubstData 1 S 1 Local substation data input file narne
j LockExp 1 S 1 User defined interlock expression file name
4-4.10- Bus data of the system

The bus data of the power system must be provided to facilitate load-flow calculations. The
data should be kept in a file using specified format. Considering this factor, the structure
shown in Table 4.10 was developed and used for storing bus data of a power system. For
a load bus, al1 the data are provided by the user except 'V' and 'VAng*.For a generator
bus, al1 the data are provided by the user except 'QLoad' and 'VAng'. For a generator bus,
al1 the data are provided by the user except 'Pload', QLoad' and 'Pgenr'.
II Table 4.9. Power system data
Data Type Description
MVABase F Base MVA
1 NoofBuses 1 1 1 Nurnber of buses
1~ u s ~ a t a F % 1 Header to declare the format of bus data
-- --

BusData CDL Data of al1 major buses in the system, where each bus has a
complex data structure
IINoofBranch 1 I 1 Nurnber of branches
I BrnDataFmt 1 S 1 Header to declare the format of branch data
BranchData CDL Data of al1 major branches in the system, where each branch
has a complex data structure

4.4.1 1. Line Data

The line dataof the power system must be provided to facilitate load-flow calculations. The
data should be kept in a file using specified format. The structure shown in Table 4.1 1 was
developed and used for storing line data of a power system. Al1 the information is provided
by the user.

4.5. Levels of Interlocks

The interlocks applied to a switch can be processed efficiently if the interlock information
is kept in an appropriate format. in this work, al1 interlock constraints are grouped in four
categories to simplify and expedite the processing. These groups are introduced in this
section.

4.5.1. Component level interlock

A switch c m be interlocked with several components of the substation. The operation of

a switch is prohibited if the components with which it is interlocked are not in specified
States.
 Table 4.10. System bus data
Description
Bus n u m k r
Bus type: O = Unregulated (load, PQ), 1 = Hold MVAR
generation within voltage limits (PQ), 2 = Hold voltage
within VAR limits (gen, PV), 3 - Hold voltage and angle
(swing, V-Theta)
Load MW in per unit
Load MVAR in per unit
Generation MW in per unit
Actual voltage in per unit
Actual voltage angle in radians
Minimum voltage limit in per unit
Maximum voltage limit in per unit
Minimum MW generation limit in per unit
Maximum MW eeneration limit in Der unit

4.5.2. Substation level interlock

A substation level interlock prohibits a switching operation from k i n g implemented if the

operation leads to pre-specified States. For example, grounding of an energized component
is not allowed. Other operations that are monitored by the substation level interlock include
the following items:
a removal or addition of a source
a existence of a short circuit path across a switch
a curtailment of a ioad

Monitoring of these conditions involves the analysis of the topology of the substation and
the status of input-output nodes.
 Table 4.1 1:System line data

Line number
Tap bus number (Bus at the side of the model of a
transformer or phase shifter that has the non-unity tap.)
Z bus number (Bus a t the side of the model of a transformer
or phase shifter that has the device impedance. )
- -- - - ---- ---

Type0 = Transmission line, 1 = Fixed tap, 2 = Variable tap

for voltage control (TCUL, LTC),3 = Variable tap (turns
ratio) for M V A R control, 4 = Variable phase angle for MW
control (phase shifter)
- - -- - -- -

Branch resistance R, per unit

Branch reactance X, per unit
Line charging B/2, per unit
Transformer final turns ratio
Line MVA rating in per unit

4.5.3. System level interlocks

A system level interlock prohibits a switching operation from k i n g implemented if it is

likely to cause overloading of lines, or undedover voltage of busbars. A switching
operation at a substation can redistribute the current and voltage profiles in the entire
system and can result in undesirable operating conditions. The load flow studies are carried
out to find the likelihood of overloads and out-of-lirnit voltages.

4.5.4. Manual interlocks

In addition to interlocks described in Section 4.5.1-4.5.3, provisions should be made to

manually block and release switches. A switch must be blocked when it is known that it
is not likely to operate propedy. The blocking does not dlow the switch to be opened or
closed until it is released. The manual blocking of a switch is also necessary when
personnel are to do repair work or maintenance of the switch.

4.6. Summary

The constraints for operating switches and other equipment in a substation have been
outlined in this chapter. The constraints. which m u t be examined when a sequence of
operations is to be performed, are identified. The data of various cornponents used in
prepxing switching sequences and interlocking have been identified. Some examples of
switching procedures have been described.
 5. SWITCHING TECHNIQUE MAJOR -
COMPONENTS

The operating constraints, data requirements and types of switching procedures involved
in a switching scheme are reviewed in Chapter 4. A technique for developing switching
schemes that incorporate those features is presented in this chapter. The technique is
capable of addressing specific requirements of substations. The technique is geared for
providing a tool that would allow substation engineers to develop switching schemes for
substations of different configurations.

Many software components play key roles in the development of a switching scheme. The
major components are

a protocol for handling the status of the circuit components,

a technique to process the topology of a substation,

a technique to carry power flow studies and estimate the system States,

a technique to determine altemate paths of power flow,

a protocol for handling the interlocks, and

a switching sequence generating technique.

5.1. Status Handling

Parameters of the components of a substation change during its operation. These parameters
should be continuously monitored. if integer variables were assigned to represent each
status parameter of a cornponent, substantial disk and memory storage would be required.
in addition, processors will take more time if the parameters were CO be compared
individually with set values. It would be advantageous if several parameters were
simultaneously compared with their set values.

The management of status information would be convenient if the status of a component

were stored in a specially packaged variable such that it would be possible to compare these
status variables with the set values in one pass. A protocol was, therefore, developed for
this purpose. A syntax was forrnulated for a construction and comparison of status variables
based on this protocol, and exchange of status information with other components.

5.1.1. Uniform status storage and processing protocol

The protocol, wti/ornz stattis storage and processing ( U S S P )protucol. was developed and
used to store the status information of al1 the components in a substation, update them on-
line, and compare them with set values. This protocol has seven major components.

1. A status management prograrn, status management unit ( S M U ) , compu tes,

compares and stores the status of a component. The status of each
component is handled by its SMU.

-.
7 Software interface functions facilitate the communication of status
information between the SMUs and other modules.

3. Integers that are multiples of 32 bits provide space for allocating bits to
represent the status parameters of a component in a SMU. The meanings of
bits, however, can be different in the status variables used for different
components.

4. The floating point parameters, such as line currents, bus voltages and power
factors, are stored in separate variables. These parameters are then
compared with their set limits and the results of the comparisons are
included in the SMU. A provision was made to handle multi-vaiued States
 such as unhealthy, marginal and healthy.

5. Some key information, such as grounded, live and dead status of an

equipment, is acquired from the topology analysis and stored as boolean
status fields in the SMU. The network topology continually changes as the
switches open and close. The topology is not represented by status
variables. It is stored separately and is dealt by a separate program module.

6. A set of standard keywords were used to refer to the state of a component.

The keywords and their meanings are listed in Table 5.1. Al1 the status
pararneters listed in the table are not relevant for al1 components. Only those
status pararneters that are relevant to a component are tracked by its SMU.

7. The values of al1 status parameters were made available to other

components upon request.

Table 5.1. The status keywords and their meanings

Keyword Applicable To Meaning of the keyword

MAKEI Switch Makes current if closed.
1 NOMAKEI 1 Switch Does not make current if closed.
Switch Breaks current if opened.
Switch Does not break current if opened.
Switch Free meaning that it is not stuck, but it is not
a green signal to operate.
Switch The switch is stuck, cannot be operated.
Switch Manual lock means that the operator has
specifically instmcted the switch to not
operate until the operator takes this
instruction back, even if al1 other conditions
are conducive for operation.
 Switch The manual lock is released. Please note
that this is different from the interlocks
placed through the interlock expressions
to be discussed later in this chapter.
Switch, The switch or a branch is in a closed state.
branch, node The node is energized.
Switch, Switch, branch: The component is in open
branch. node state.
Others: The component is de-energized.
Switch, Interlock d e s Say it should not operate (or
Branch, node energizedlde-energized).
Switch, Its operation is not blocked by the interlock
Branch, node
Switch, include the component in the power flow
Branch, node paths.
Switch, Exclude the component from power flow

k
Branch, node paths.
RIDDEFAULT Switch, Ovemde the default interlocks
branch. node
- - - -

Switch, Do not override the default interlock

branch, node expression
1 BYPASS
-

Switch,
-

branch, node
-

Bypass the component from the power flow

pat hs
Switch, Do not bypass the component from the
branch, node power flow paths
Normal current, which means the line is
norrnally loaded.
Over current, which means the iine is over-
loaded.
External circuit that is connected to this node
is live.
EXTDEAD External circuit that is connected to the node
is not live.
REMOTEISOL The input-output line is isolated from the
remote end.
NOREMOTEISOL The input-output line is not isolated from the
remote end.
Load is connected to this output node.
OFFLOADED Load is not connected to this output node.
TRANSIT Changes from energized to de-energised
state or vice versa.
NOTRANSIT Does not change from energized to de-
energised state or vice versa.
NORMV The voltage is within the specified limits.
OFFLIMITV The voltage is outside the specified limits.
- - -

ENABLED It is free, functional, unlocked, healthy, not-

disabled and can be operated or used if the
substation and the system have no
objections.
DISABLED It c m not be operated or used due to one of
many possible reasons.
HEALTHY The component is problem free.
A problem has k e n encountered on the
component and further attempts must not be
made to operateluse it before the problem is
resolved.
The component is under repair. A crew is
working or preparing to work on it.
- -

NNCTIONAL The component is not under repair.

ISOLATED AI1 the isolators surrounding this component
have k e n opened and locked.
 AnY The component is connected or can
potentially be connected to the system.
1 GROUNDED &Y The component is connected to the ground
node.
1 NOTGROUNDED AnY The component is not connected to the
ground node.

AnY A short circuit path exists across the

component.

A ~ Y No short circuit path exists across the

component.
1 NORMGENRN System Level of generation is adequate.
1 LOWGENRN System Level of generation is inadequate.

5.1.2. Syntax for specifying status

A human interface for specifying and testing the status parameters of components was
prepared. This interface converts the text-based instructions to the binary form for use by
SMUs.

The SMU of a component stores and maintains the required number of status parameters.
A status is defined by the name of the object followed by its status parameters placed
between parentheses. The status parameters are separated by blank spaces. The syntax of
a status definition is:
NarneOfObject(param1 pararn2 param3 ....paramn)
Three examples of the syntax are as follows.

Breakerl(0N ENABLED UNLOCKED)

Breaker2(0FF)

Busbarl(IS0LATED GROUNDED)
In these examples Breakerl, Breaker2 and Busbarl are the names of the objects whose

72
status are stated. ON, ENABLED, LNLOCKED, Off, ISOLATED and GROUNDED are
the status parameters. Breaker l must be ON, ENABLED and UNLOCKED for TRUE
outcome of the first statement.

5.1.3. Handling of on-line status

Global handling of status makes a scheme vulnerable to data errors. It becomes difficult to
determine the culprit code or device that corrupts the data if many devices and program
units are responsible for maintaining the same data. It was, therefore, decided that the
storage and maintenance of status be handled locally by the software mode1 of the device.
This was done to make the information management more robust and to reduce the impacts
of malfunctions of status units.

Every time a switch operates, its SMU refreshes its status variables to reflect the new state.
The SMUs of other components dso refresh their status variables. Every time the topology
of the substation is processed, some States, such as live, dead, and grounded, are passed on
by the topology processor to the SMUs of affected components. Each SMU updates the
status variables. Every time current and voltage values are updated, the comparisons are
made with set limits and the results of the comparisons are sent to SMUs of affected
components. The SMUs update the status variables.

Interface functions were defined for reading and comparing status parameters of a
component. The following interfaces must be supported by dl SMUs of cornponents:

creturn-valuel> GeîStatus( )
creturn-value2> GetStatusString( )
<return_value2> GetKeyString(<keys> )
<return_value3> CheckAll(<test-s tatus> )
creturn-value3> CheckSelective(<test-stahis>, <key>)
where,
<return-valuel> is the copy of the entire packed structureof the status parameters,
which is referred to as Status.
 aetum-value2> is a string. that explains the status of acomponent in well formed
test strings.
~return-value3> is an integer. which is 1 if the test result is TRUE and O if
FALSE.
<test-status> is a Status of some other component to be compared with the Status
of present component to find equdity of d l parameters.
<key> is a Status that tells which bits of the component are to be compared with the
<test-statw>. The bits to be compared are set t o 1 and those not to be compared
are set to O.
GetStatus returns the Status of the component
CetStatusString returns a text string explaining the Status of the component
GetStatusString retums a text string describing the key
CheckAl1 compares al1 the parameters of the Status of the component with the
input Status. Returns 1 if both Status are equal.
CheckSelective compares selected parameters. Only those parameters for whom
the corresponding bits in <key> are set to 1 are compared. Returns 1 if selected
fields in both Status are equal.

The SMUs should also support the al1 those applicable to the component watched by the
SMU among the following interface functions, which will retum 1 if the result was TRUE
and O if FALSE. The meaning of these interface fùnctions are the sarne a s their
corresponding labels as defined in Table 5.1.

5.1.4. Handling of power flow mults

The currents that would flow in the lines and the voltages that would be experienced at the
system buses after a switching operation are calculated to check that the operating limits
of the components are not violated. These checks are performed by first calculating the
power flows and then comparing the current in each line with its continuous current ratine
and comparing the bus voltage magnitude of each bus with the maximum and minimum
permissible voltage specified for the bus. The technique that was selected for power flow
is the decoupled power flow technique [37]. This technique is described in appendix A.

5.2. Substation Topology

topo log^ determination is a process of scanning the network to find which circuit elements
are electrically connected. in this application, the components of interest are transmission
lines. busbars, generators, transformers. and loads. The determination of network topology
is important not only for interlocking and sequence switching, but also for state estimation,
security andysis, power system protection and other applications.

The irnpedance elements within the substation, such as transformers, are ignored while
detennining the topology of the network. Starting from a particular node, the network can
be searched to determine if it is connected to other nodes. Most of the topology anaiysis
algonthrns are modifications of well known network search techniques, such as the breadth-
first-search and depth-first-search techniques. The works of Dy Liacco and Kraynak [ 301,
Dy Liacco, Rarnaro and Weiner [3 11, Sason et al. [32], Couch and Morrison [33], Sullivan,
Reichen and Saiy [34], Bertran and Corbella 1351, Prais and Bose [36] describe topology
determination techniques for power system networks. These papers deal with the topology
determination of a power network limited to the interconnection of lines and transformers.

A technique, which was developed by the author and used in this research, for determining
the topology of a substation is presented in this section.

5.2.1. Topology representation

The following procedure was developed for representing the topology of a substation and
for exchanging the topology information between modules, such as SMUs.
 A substation is considered to be made up of nodes and branches. A branch is made
up of series connected elements. A node is a terminal point of a branch.

The topology information of the substaticn is stored in terms of the connectivity of

nodes.

Al1 the nodes of the substation are mapped with two sets of integers. The first set
of integers, current-topolûgy-set, represents the actual topology of the substation.
The second set. next-topology-set. represents the topology of the substation, after
the required switching operations are completed. The values in these sets are called
topology-indicators of the corresponding nodes.

In the current-topology-set, topology-indicators of two nodes are equal if the nodes

are electncally connected. They are different if the nodes are electrically
disconnected. Similarly, in the nexr-topology-set, topoiogy-indicarors
corresponding to two nodes are equal if the nodes are going to be electrically
connected after the implementation of a switching sequence. They are different if
the nodes are not going to be electrically connected.

Two integer fields, "Topo" and "NewTopo" were allocated in the data fields of
nodes (Table 4.2-4.4) to store the topology-indicators belonging to the current-
topology-set and the next-topology-set.

5.2.2. Topology Determination

A technique for determining the topology of a substation is explained in this section by
using the substation shown in Figure 5.1 as an example. in this substation, the six isolators
are 1,2,3,4,5, and 6 and the three circuit breakers B 1, B2 and B3. The links that form the
terrninals of switches are identified as 1,2,3,4,S, 6,7, and 8. It is essential that each link
be uniquely identified. More than one switch c m be connected to a cornrnon link and,
therefore, share a link number. For example, switches 2.4 and 6 share a common link 4.

Switches 5, B3 and 6 of Figure 5.1 form one branch. The links 1 , 4 5,6,7,8 also identiQ
the nodes of this substation. The identification number of a node is shared with one or more
links. In this thesis, the topology is expressed in terms of the connectivity of nodes.

When al1 switches of a substation are open, al1 nodes are isolated from one another and the
topology-indicator for each node is equal to its identification number. The topology of the
substation of Figure 5.1 can be represented by the following current-topology-set.

11, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8901
Note that links 2 and 3 are not considered as they are not nodes. The node O represents the
ground node.

Figure 5.1. A segment of a substation circuit

If the line identified as node 8 were to be connected to the bus identified as node 1 by
closing switches 1 and B 1, the topology-sets would be as follows.

cwrenr-topology-set: [1,4, 5, 6, 7, 8,O)

next-topology-set: [l, 4, 1, 6, 7, 1,O]

The closing of switches 1 and B 1 would connect node 8 to node 5, and node 5 t o node 1.
Nodes 8 and 5 would now be electrically identical to node 1. The ncxt-topology-set is
obtained by replacing 5 and 8 with 1.

The topology processor stores these topology sets in the data structures of the nodes. The
topology indicators of the nodes 1,s and 8 are shown in Table 5.2. Two data fields store
the topology-indicators, the first (Topo) stores the actual topology and the second
(NextTopo) stores the topology to be attained.

The topology processor also sends the required status information to the SMUs of affected
nodes and switches. Node 8 was originally in the ON state. If nodes 1and 5 were connected
to node 8, they would be energized. These changes are reflected by the entries in ON and
TRANSiT status variables. This switching operation does not make any currents to flow
through the nodes, which is reflected by the entries in MAKEI.

I Table 5.2. Data before energizing Bus 1

Node 1 Node 5 Node 8 Switch 1 Switch B t
This Next This Next This Next This Next This Next

Top0 1 1 5 1 8 1 NIA N/A NIA N/A

ON F T F T T T F T F T
MAKEI NIA N/A NIA NIA NIA NIA F F F F
BREAKI NIA N/A NIA NIA NIA NIA F F F F
TRANSIT F T F T F F NIA NIA N/A N/A
GND F F F F F F
T = TRUE,F = FALSE, NIA = not applicable, GND = GROUNDED, This =
prevailinp; state, Next = state-to-be, BLANK = Not processed by topology processor

Now. if switches 1 and B 1 are closed, the current-topology-set would change to the
following form:

current-topology-set:[l, 4, 1, 6, 7, 1, O]
These changes are reflected in the topology-indicators and status variables as shown in
Table 5.3. The table shows that nodes 1,5 and 8 are all ON. Variable TRANSIT indicates
that the ON state of 1 and 5 was changed due to the switching operation.

At this stage, if the line represented by link 7 were to be connected to the bus identified as
node 1by closing switches 3 and B2, the topology-sets would be as follows.

current-topology-set: [I, 4, 1, 6, 7, 1,0]

next-topology-set: 11, 4, 1, 1, 1, l,O]

1 Table 5.3. Data after energizing Bus 1

Node 1 Node 5 Node 8 Switch 1 Switch B 1
This Next This Next This Next This Next This Next
Top0 1 1 1 1 1 1 NIA N/A NIA NIA
ON T T T T T .

MAKE1 A NIA NIA NIA N/A NIA F F F F

BREAKI N/A NIA N/A N/A N/A N/A F F F F
l"F2ANSlT T T F N/A NIA NIA NIA
L

GND F F F
The status variables and topology indicators of nodes 1,6 and 7, and the status variables
of switches 3 and B2 assume the values shown in Table 5.4.

Note that MAKEI variable indicates that current will be made due to the operation of these
switches. The making of current is apparent as previously de-energized line connected to
node 7 is now energized. After the switches 3 and B2 are closed, the current-topology-set
would change to the following form:

current-topology-set: [I, 4,1,1,1,1,0]

I Table 5.4. Data before energizing node 7
Switch 3 Switch B2

I
l This Next
7 1 1 NIA 1 NIA 1 NIA 1 NIA

+
1

1 N/A NIA 1 N/A

N/A
NIA
NIA
F 1 T 1 NIA 1 NIA 1 NIA 1 NIA
The status variables and topology-indicators assume the data as indicated in Table 5.5.

I
b

'
Table 5.5. Data after energizing node 7
1 1 1
II
11

77'
I MAKEI 1
This

NIA
Next

NIA
Node 6 Node 7 Switch 3 Switch 8 2

IIBREAKI 1 NIA NIA

If the two busbars (nodes 1 and 4) were to be connected by closing switches 5. B3 and 6,
ail the nodes in the circuit becorne electrically connected and the topology sets would be
as follows.
current-ropology-set: [l, 4,1,1,1,1, O]

nexr-topology-set: (1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, O]
The status variables and topology indicators of nodes 1,s and 4, and the status variables
of switches 2 and 4 assume the values shown in Table 5.6. The ON and TRANSIT
variables indicate that node 4 will be energized due to the closing of switches 5 , 8 3 and 6.
The SCPATH variable indicates that there will be a short-circuit path across switches 2 and
4. The existence of a short-circuit path across switch 2 is apparent from the fact that the
nodes 5 and 4 are electrically connected while switch 2 is still open. Also. node 6 is
connected to node 1 that is connected to node 4. The bus coupler circuit, in this manner, has
provided a short circuit path across isolator 4.
-

I Table 5.6. Data before energizing node 4

Na Switch 2 1 Switch 4
This Next 1 This 1 Next This1 Next 1 This 1 Next
NIA 1 N/A 1 NIA 1 N/A

MAKEI 1 NIA 1 NIA N/A 1 NIA 1 N/A

BREAICI / NIA 1 N/A NIA
SCPATH 1 NIA 1 NIA NIA N/A 1 NIA 1 N/A
NIA 1 N/A 1 NIA 1 NIA
GND 1 F 1 F

After the switches 5, B3 and 6 are closed, as shown in Figure 5.2, the current-topology-set
would change to the following forrn.

current-topology-set: [1,1, 1, 1, 1, 1, O]

Other conditions, such as grounding of a node and breaking of current by a switch, are also
determined by reading the status variables o f the components in a similar fashion.

The procedure of updating the topology of a substation can be summarized in the following
two steps.
1. The next-topology-set is prepared when a switch is to be opened or closed.

2. The crcrrent-topology-set is updated as soon as the switching operation is

completed.

The exarnples presented in this section have demonstrated the procedure of processing
topology and keeping the topology information in the data structures of nodes. The
examples have d s o demonstrated the role that a topology processor plays in deterrnining
and updating the values of various status variables.

Figure 5.2. Illustration of a shunt path.

5.3. Searching Power Flow Paths

Alternative power flow paths between two nodes of a substation are determined by tracing
the network of the substation. While searching for the paths, a number of limiting factors
are considered. An approach developed and used in this thesis for the search of power flow
paths is explained in this section by using the substation shown in Figure 5.1 as an example.

A list of adjoining nodes is prepared for each node. For exarnple, the adjoining node of
node 8 is node 5 and the adjoining nodes of node 5 are nodes 1,4 and 8. The adjoining
nodes of the nodes in the substation detennined in this manner are listed in Table 5.7.

I Table 5.7. List of adjoining nodes

Node Adjoining nodes

1 4959 4

If alternate paths between node 8 and node 1were to be determined, node 8 is declared as
the start-node and node 1 is declared as the destination-node. Adjoining nodes of node 8
are found. In this case, the adjoining node is node 5. Now, the adjoining nodes of node 5
except node 8 are identified. These nodes are 1and 4. Since node 1 is a destination-node,
one possible path has been found to be from nodes 8 to node 5, and from node 5 to node
1.

The search of other paths continues from node 4, whose adjoining nodes are 1,s and 6.
Node 1is destination-node, and therefore a new path has been found to be from node 8 to
node 5, node 5 to node 4, and node 4 to node 1. Another traced path would be 8-54-5. This
path is rejected because a path should not traverse a node more than once.

The search now reverts to node 6. The adjoining nodes of node 6 are nodes 1,4, and 7. The
path from node 6 to node 1cannot be used because the path from node 4 to node 6 has been
used. This restriction is based on the interlockhg requirements between switches 3 and 4.
Node 7 is rejected as an end of the substation is reached.

The paths that cm be established between nodes 8 and 1are. therefore,

8,s 1
and 8,S, 4 , l .
The list of adjoining nodes are updated continuously by removing the nodes that can not
be used in the power flow path and adding them to the list as soon as they c m be used. For
example if the status variable LOCKED, STUCK, UNHEALTHY, REPAIR, or
MANLOCK of switch 2 of Figure 5.1 were TRUE, the list of adjoining nodes of nodes 5
and 4 would be modified to be as shown in Table 5.8. The lists of adjoining nodes of nodes
4 and 5 would be reverted back to those shown in Table 5.7 when switch 2 becomes
useabie.

1 Table 5.8. Moàified list of adjoining nodes II

Node Adjoining nodes
4 196

These exarnples have demonstrated the procedure of searçhing power flow paths.

5.4. Determining Switching Sequences

A switching sequence is composed of basic operations such as

connecting a node to another node and
disconnecting a node from another node.

The following algorithm was developed and used for determining the switching sequences.

5.4.1 Connecting two nodes

The following procedure was developed for determining the switching sequences for
connecting two nodes.

1. Determine ail altemate paths between the two nodes.

&.
7 Select the shonest path.

3. in the selected path, identify al1 branches that contain isolators only. Consider that
al1 the isolators have been closed. Now check the following.

(i) Does the closing of the isolators cause the currents to flow?

(ii) Does the closing of the isolators ground a live node?

(iii) If the result of the test 3(i) and 3(ii) is FALSE, proceed to Step 4.
(a) Reject the path that was being tested.

(b) Select the next shortest path for test. Revert to Step 3 and continue
testing the newly selected path.

4. Consider that ail the isolators identified in Step 3 remain closed. In the selected
path, identify al1 branches that contain circuit breakers. Consider that dl the circuit
breakers and isolators adjoining them are closed. Now check the following.

Does the closing of the switches ground a live node?

If the result of test 4(i) is FALSE, proceed to Step 4(iii).

(a) Reject the path that was k i n g tested.

(b) Select the next shortest path for test. Revert to Step 3 and continue
testing the newly selected path.

Does the closing of the switches cause the currents to flow?

If the result of test 4(iii) is FALSE, proceed to Step 4(v).

a) Check from the load-flow solution if any operating limit is violated.

b) If no limit is violated, proceed to Step 4(v).

Reject the path that was k i n g tested.
O Select the next shortest path for test. Revert to Step 3 and

85
 continue testing the newly selected path.

(v) Check if two circuits with unsynchronized voltages are k i n g connected.

(vi) i f the result of Step 4(v) is FALSE, proceed to Step 5.

P i n t the instruction to synchronize the voltage.

5. Make a list of d l branches in the selected path using the following steps.

(i) Include in the list the branches identified in Step 3. Arrange them
sequentially from source to load.

(ii) include in the list the branches identified in Step 4. Arrange them
sequentially from source to load.

The Iist of branches prepared in Step 5 represents the sequence in which the operations
must be performed. The list is in such a form that the two nodes can be connected by
following the instructions in the list sequentially from the top.

5.4.2 Disconnecting two nodes

The following procedure was developed for detennining the switching sequences for
disconnecting two nodes.

Determine al1 dtemate paths between the two nodes. Sort the paths by their lengths
so that the shonest path appears at the top of the list.

Elirninate the paths that are already open.

Prepare an empty list of branches named solution-list.

Select the path that is at the top of the list.

Find if the path contains a branch that is already included in the solution-list. If yes.
eliminate the path from the list and revert to Step 4.

ldentify al1 branches that contain circuit breakers. Consider that al1 the circuit
breakers and isolators adjoining them have been opened. Now, check the following.

(i) Does the opening of the switches break the flow of currents?
 (ii) If the result of test 6(i) is FALSE,proceed to Step 6.(iii).

(a) Test from the load-flow solution if the operating limit of any
equipment is violated.

(b) If an operating limit is not violated, proceed to Step 7.

Reject the path that was k i n g tested. Print a message
indicating that the operating Iimits will be violated.
Terminate the process.

7. Consider that the switches identified in Step 6 remain open. Identify al1 branches
that contain isolators only. Consider that al1 the isolators have k e n opened. Now,
check the following.

(i) Does the opening of the isolators intempt the flow of current?

(ii) If the flow of currents is not intempted, proceed to Step 8.

(a) Reject the path that was k i n g tested.

(b) Lf the path was rejected for the first time, remove the path from the
top of the list and insert it at the bottom. Revert to Step 4.
Otherwise, print a message and terminate the process of finding the
switching sequence.
8. Make a list of al1 branches in the path. Prepare the list by using the following steps.

(i) Include in a list the branches identified in Step 6. Arrange them

sequentially from load to source.

(ii) Include in a list the branches identified in Step 7. Arrange them

sequentially from load to source.

(iii) Add the lists into the solution-list.

9. Remove the tested path from the top of the list.

10. If the list of paths is not empty, proceed to Step 4. Otherwise, the solution-list
represents the desired sequence for disconnecting the nodes.
Follow instructions contained in the list sequentiaily from the top when implementing the
solution.

5.5. Generalized Sequence Switching Technique

Switching procedures were classified into two groups. simple and complex. Simple
operations. such as connecting nodes and disconnecring nodes. have been described in
Section 5.6. Complex switching operations are discussed in this section.

Complex switching tasks were systematically divided into smaller and generalized tasks.
An example of a complex task is to transfer lines from Bus1 to Bus2 in the substation
shown in Figure 5.3. This task was performed by sequentially performing the following
tasks.
a Detennine the lines that are connected to Bus 1 (Source 1. Source2. Load 1,
Load2).
a Connect Bus2 with Bus 1 (close 1 , 2 and B5).

Connect the identified lines that were previously connected to Bus1 to Bus
3 (close 4,6,8 and 10).
a Disconnect the lines from Bus 1 (open 3,5,7and 9).
a Disconnect Bus 1 from Bus 2 (open B5, 1, and 2).

The following guidelines were formulated to facilitate the handling of complex tasks.
1. A dedicated cornmand haridler unit (CHU) was provided for each component. The
CHU accepts user cornrnands, processes them, makes decisions and takes actions.
2. The CHU of a component communicates with the CHU of other components.

3. A set of keywords were assigneci as command names. The names of some important
cornmands and their meanings are listed in Table 5.9. A CHU can accept the
comrnands and convert them to appropriate machine code.

4. Text-strings containing the name of the component followed by a period and then
 the name of a cornrnand were used to form Command-Strings as foIlows.

ComponentName.CommandName
For example, the Comrnand-String for opening CB 1 is as follows.

CBl.Open
5. CHU issues only one command at a time. If several comrnands are required to be
issued, they are issued in a sequence.

edd Pb9 & g i i Test H* I

Figure 5.3. A bus-transfer process under progress.

6. A complex cornmand is formed by preparing a list of already defined cornrnands.

7. A complex command contains the name of the component and a Comrnand-String-

List, separated by a colon as is shown in the following statement.

ComponentName :Cornmand-String-List
8. The Cornrnand-String-List contains Command-Strings separated by blank spaces
 as is shown in the following statement.

Ownerl.Command1 Owner2.Command2 ........ 0wnerN.CommanàN

An example of a complex switching command formed to isolate circuit breaker B 1
shown in Figure 5.4 is as follows.

B1 : Sourcel.DisconnectFcomB~~
1l.Open 3.0pen 4.0pen

II Table 5.9. Comrnand names

Name Description
Inoperable Declare the component as inoperable.
Operable Declare the component as operable. An interlock constraint
could forbid the operation.
I haock 1 Manually lock the component ovemding other constraints.
I MUnlock 1 Remove the manual lock. The component could be locked
by other interlock constraints.
Topology Determine the topology of the network.
EnergizedNodes Determine the nodes that are energized.
IOTransition Determine if a new line has been connected or if a
previously connected line has been disconnected.
FindPaths 1 Find paths between a node and a number of other nodes.
LoadFlow 1 Perform load-flow analysis.
1 Close 1 Close a switch or branch.
1 Open a switch or a branch
I OpenAll 1 Open al1switches in the branch, or disconnect al1 lines frorn
I 1 the busbars in the substation.
Close al1 switches in the branch, or connect al1 lines to the
busbar if feasible.
- -

Isolate the component. There must be an open isolator dong

1 1 each path radiating out from the component.

 Table 5.9. Command names
Narne
Energize Connect the node to an active source.
Connect to an available bus.
Connect to the designated (main) bus.
Connect to the node whose narne is given as an argument.
I Disconnect 1 Disconnect the node from the rest of the substation.
-

Disconnect the node from the buses.

Disconnect from the node whose narne is given as an
argument.
TransferToAn y Transfer the line connections from this bus to an altemate
bus.
Transfer the line connections from this bus t o the bus whose
narne is supplied as the argument.

Figure 5.4. A section of a double-bus substation.

Each class of components accepts a different set of comrnands. The following examples
indicate the difference in commands developed for Switch, Node, Branch and Substation.
 1. Switch: Close, Open, Isolate, Repair
7
-. Node: ConnectToBus, ConectToSource, DisconnectFrornNode,
Isolate, Energize, Deenergize, ConnectToGround, Repair

3. Branch: Close, Open, OpenAll, Isolate

4. Substation: CloseAll, OpenAll, Restore

The guidelines and examples presented in this section have demonstrated the method of
developing cornplex switching sequences by arranging already defined commands.

5.6. Generalized Interlocking Technique

Al1 the components whose operations are interloçked with other components were
modelled. The modelling followed a procedure in storing, managing and cornmunicating
the information. The protocol was developed and used to facilitate the design and
enhancement of interlocking schemes. The developed procedure can include new classes
of components with minimal effort. The procedure involves the following steps.

1. An interlock management program, interlock management unit (MU), stores the

interlock constraints, interprets them, and continuously updates the LOCKED/
UNLOCKED status variable residing in the SMU of the component.

2. The IMUs accept the interlock constraints in the form of logical expressions of
modules called lock unirs (LU). These modules store the names of the components,
the status-variables to be compareci, and the desired values of those variables.

3. For use by the user-interface, a lock unit (LU) is defined by the narne of an object
followed by its desired status parameters placed between parentheses. The status
parameters are separated by blank spaces. Only the keywords specified in Section
5.1 and applicable to the component are acceptable. The result of the evaluation of
a LU is always TRUE or FALSE, and the syntax of a LU definition is as follows.
 NameOfObject(param1 param2 param3 ....paramn)
The status fields in a LU must not conflict with each other. For example, O N OFF
are two conflicting status vaiues and cmnot both be included in the same LU.

An M U stores interlock logic in the forrn of a L o d Stririg (LS). A LS is an

expression made up of LUS concatenated by AND (&) and OR (1) operators,
negated by NOT (!) operator and the order of evaluation dtered by parentheses. An
evaluation of a LS returns TRUE or FALSE, where the return of TRUE mems that
the component should be locked.

A LS is defined by the name of the object followed by a colon, which is followed

by an expression composed of LUS separated by logical operators.

An interpreter is needed by the IMUs to translate the text-based LSs into binary
code and vice versa.

Besides a Lock String(LS), an IMU c m optionally store a Default Lock String

( D U ) and Override Lock String (OLS).The formats of the DLS and OLS are the
same as that used to define a LS.The outcome of an interlock is evaiuated as TRUE
only when the DLS or the LS returns TRUE and the OLS returns FALSE. A LS,
DLS or OLS is not evaiuated if it is ernpty.

A few examples of interlock expressions for switching operations in the substation shown
in Figure 5.4 are now presented.

Example 1:

The following is an exarnple of a valid Lock Unit.

Bl(0N ENABLED UNLOCKED)

In this LU, B 1 is the name of the object, and ON, ENABLED and UNLOCKED are the
status flags whose values must be logical TRUE for the LU to be evaluated as TRUE.

B l ( 0 N OFF ENABLED) is an invalid lock unit as it has two conflicting status values.
A component cannot be O N and OFF at the same cime. Lock unit, B l ( 0 N ENABLED).
on the other hand, is valid because it does not have conflicting status requirements.

Suppose the isolator 1 was to be prevented from operating when isolator 3 is closed or
when circuit breaker B 1 is closed. This condition is expressed as follows.
4: 3(ON) I B l ( 0 N )

Example 3:
Suppose that isolator 4 was to be prohibited from operating when isolator 3 o r circuit
breaker B 1 was closed but not when 1 , 2 and B5 were closed. This condition is expressed
as follows.
4: (3(ON) I B l ( 0 N ) ) & (! (1(ON) & 2(ON) & BS(0N)))

Suppose that the circuit breaker B I was to be prohibited from closing if Source 1 was either
Down. or Up and ünhealthy. This condition is expressed as follows.
BI: Bl(0FF) & ( Sourcel(0FF) I Sourcel(0N UNHEALTHY))

5.7. Summary
The major components of a technique for developing switching schernes have k e n
presented in this chapter. An approach to store and access the status of equipment has k e n
outlined. A method for storing the topology information of the network and utilizing the
information to update the status of components has also k e n described. A load-flow
calculation technique, a method for determining alternate power flow paths, and the rules
for determining switching sequences have k e n described. Finally, generalized techniques
for interiocking and sequence switching have k e n presented.
 6. IMPLEMENTATION

The concepts presented in Chapters 4 and 5 were implemented in an application

development tool called Substation Switching Scheme Development Package (SSP). The
tool demonstrates the feasibility of the concepts described in the previous chapters for their
practical implementation.

The programrning technique and the programming language chosen for the development
directly affect the irnplementation of the technique described in previous chapters. The
approach used in the development of SSP is presented in this chapter. An object-oriented
approach was used to mode1 the components of substations and switching schemes, and to
develop the user-interface for the SSP. C+t language was used for wnting the code.

6.1. Tools and Techniques

Traditionally, algorithmic approaches are used to develop software applications. In an
algorithmic approach, many software modules assist a main program that has a top-down
flow. The development starts by representing the process in flow charts. These techniques
are suitable for solving problems whose flow can be easily envisioned. The SSP was
developed using object-oriented development technique 138-411, which facilitates the
development of the software applications that are easier to maintain compared to
algorithmic applications.

Any object oriented programming language, such as C++, SmallTalk, Object Pascal, or
CLOS, could have k e n used to wnte the software application. The Microsoft Visual C++
was used for reasons presented in Appendix B.

6.2. Substation Modelïing

A substation switching system was decomposed into subsystems that in tum have their
own subsystems. The decomposition was continued until some lowest component-levels
were reached. For exarnple, Status Management Units. Interlock Management Units,
Comrnand Handler Units, switches and nodes were treated as elementary objects. In this
section. a convention for represenring objects and classes of objects. decomposition of the
system and the relationships between classes of components are discussed.

6.2.1. Convention

Software templates. which are generaliy called classes, were prepared to facilitate the
modelling of components of substations. A software mode1 of a component based on its
template is referred to as an object. Each object was considered to be composed of two
parts, data and functions as is shown in Table 6.1. The data represent the parameters of the
object and the functions represent the behaviour of the object. The functions interpret and
manipulate the data, accept commands from other objects, provide appropnate response and
send commands to other objects.

II Table 6.1. Structure of a class 11

Class Name : CIassName
Member Variables 1 Member Functions
Var 1,Va.2, ...., VarN 1 Function 1. FunctionZ, ...., FunctionN 1
Using the same word to denote an object and a class-of-objects can sometimes be
confusing. For example, it may be confusing to use "switch to refer to a specific switch
and to a switch-class. To discriminate a class from an object, the class name is started with
an upper-case character. The names of objects of that class are started with lower-case "o."
For example, if Sw denotes a switch class, oSw denotes a switch.
The names oStn and oSys are reserved for a substation and a power system respectively.

A variable or a function of a particular object is expressed by the name of the object

followed by a period and the name of the variable or function. For example, the
closingTirne variable and open function of a switch object oSw are expressed as follows.

6.2.2. Composition of a switching system

A switching system was considered to be composed of a User-interface, a Substation-object

and a Power-System-object [42-441. The User-Interface contains al1 the objects required
to draw and display the information in a graphical environment. The Substation-object
contains ail the objects such as switches, transformers, and busbars that usually reside in
a substation. The Power-System-object contains power systern data, system topology and
load-flow modules. The User-Interface, Substacion-object and Power-System-object
interact with each other t o simulate a switching scheme. A Substation-object interacts with
the Power-System-object by sending its status parameters and receiving the result of the
ioad flow analysis.

A substation was treated as a collection of component and non-component type objects.

The components, such a s switches, transformers, busbars and generators, participate in
switching and control activity. The non-components, such as selected text displays,
password-protection units. data-files and data access units, play supporting roles. Each
component-object aiso has a Status Management Unit (SMU), an Interlock Management
Unit ( M U ) , a Command Handler Unit (CHU) and a Windows Interface Unit (WIU). This
relationship is shown in Figure 6.1.

The components can be o f Node or Series type. A Node class includes components like
loads, generators, input-output lines, busbars. A series class includes components like
switches and transformers. This sub-classification of component class is shown in Figure
6.2. The list of important classes in the SSP is provided in Appendix C.
IUser Intedace Substation Power System

Window Non- Liae data

Mouse Components
Key boad Bus Data
Menu
Toolbar Data Topology
Toolbox wu
Diagram Load-flow
EditTool ----

Data, SMU, IMU, CHU, WIU, -

Figure 6.1. Composition of a switching system.

- Load
Busbar

I I
Grounding
- 1 9 Load Break Switch ]
4Adjohhg Substation
I
Grounding Switch 1

Figure 6.2. Decomposition of components into speciaiized classes.

6-2.3.Component relationships

Objects exchange messages for reasons such as determining the effects of a opening or
closing of a switch. exchanging status information, and permitting or refusing to execute
a command. Figure 6.3 shows the flow of messages between various elementary modules
and a Component-object. The Component-objects pass messages with substation and with
their SMU, IMU, CHU and WIü directly. The communication is indirect with the other
module. A component can acquire the power system information through the substation
object.

A SMU looks after the status of the component and communicates with the sensors,
actuators and measurement units. An M U evaluates the interlocks of the component. A
CHU interprets and forwards the cornmands to the Component-objects. A WIU
communicates with the user and the Windows Main Interface Unit (WMiU) that contains
drawing and editing modules including toolbox, toolbar and menu.

i
Power System Object i
I

l
I

Substation Object ?
!

1 Component Object

' SMU - IMU

,
CHU
I I 1

I
1
I
Sensors/Actuators
I

i
m i i

:
1
Operator ;

Figure 6.3. Relationship of a component with various modules.

99
6.3. Data Compilation

Two types of data are handled by the SSP. The first type is the data that does not change
until a physical change occurs in the substation. T h e second type of data changes during
the normal operation o f the substation.

The static-data are supplied to a switching scheme during its development. They are
acquired from sources such as off-line measurements, manufacturer's data sheets, and
spatial relationships of the component with other components. The dynamic-data include
status parameters of components, bus-voltages, line currents, and topology information.
The data are updated at regular intervals and after perforrning a switching operation.

A data compiler is included in the SSP for compiling the static-data and initiaiizing the
dynamic data. It also establishes communication links arnong objects so that they do not
have to rely on the data compiler after the data is initialized.

The functions performed by a data compiler are as follows.

1. Check if al1 the components have the minimum required data.

2. Find the number of links, nlink, in the substation network.

3. Create an integer array, called countLookup, of length nlink and initialize

each item to zero.

4. Count the number of items connected to each link and place the counts in
the countLookup array .

5. If a link represents a terminal node such as a generator or a load, consider

the link as a node.

6. If the count in a countLookup element is more than 2, consider the link

associated with that element as a node.

7. Delete the counthokup array.

8. Create a node type object (oNd) corresponding to each node and add to the
object list in oStn.
 Assign a switch-number to each switch and a node-number to each node.

Sort the object list by type of objects.

Marlc the object address of the first entry of each type of object. This would
make it possible to jump from one type of object to another without
traversing the list sequentially.

Identie the branches in the network.

Determine and assign the type of each branch and add the branches in the
object list of oStn.

Establish interlock relationships arnong the cornponents in each branc h.

For each node except for the grounding node, identify adjoining branches
and store in its list of adjoining branches called adjBr.

For each node except for the grounding node, identifi adjoining nodes and
store in its list of adjoining nodes called adjNd,

Find the adjoining nodes of transformers and store in the data of

transforrners.

Using the nominal kV of a specified node. traverse d o n g the nodes of the

substation and assign the nominal kV to al1 nodes.

19. Update topology.

20. Find and fil1 the adjoining input-output nodes of each busbar.
2 1. Find alternate busbars of each busbar.
33
L I . Identie the substation configuration type and store in oStn.

23. If the priority of a busbar is not specified by the user. set it to 1 provided at
least one circuit breaker exists in each path radiating from the busbar to the
input-output nodes. Othenuise. set the priority to 2.

Interpret text based interlock expressions entered by the user, convert them
to binary code and store them in the interlock management unit of the
components.
 25. Find default interlocks, which can be ovemdden by the user if necessary.
The default interlocks are normally practiced rules in a typical
configuration.

26. Create a link between the Load Flow Module, o t f , and the substation
module, OStn.

This is a list of major functions performed by the datacornpiler. Many minor functions that
are performed by the data-compiler are not included in the list.

6.4. Graphical User Interface

A graphicai user interface (GUI) for the SSP was developed independently, before
developing other modules. The approach used in the development was to identify and
define a set of interfaces through which other modules of SSP c m interact with the
components of GUI. T h e rest of the application prograrn need not change when the intemal
implementation of the GUI changes as long as the established public interfaces d o not
change. This decoupling permits the visual appearance of the Windows interface to be
enhanced in the future without interfenng with the integrity of the SSP.

The GUI interface is prepared around WMIU, which includes a menu, a toolbar and a
toolbox, as shown in Figure 6.4. The menu provides necessary cornmand-interfaces to use
al1 available features of SSP. A toolbox includes symbols of various substation
components, which can be selected, dragged and dropped to draw single line diagrarns of
substations. The toolbar provides shortcut to some frequently used commands.

Al1 the commands issuable to the SSP are organized in the following ten categories:

File, Edit, Operate, Control, Draw, Build, Plot, Window, and Help

Explanation of these menu categones are given in the SSP User's Manual [45]. The tool
bar provides the shortcut to the following commands that are issuable from the menu:
 File-New, File-Open, File-Save, Edit-Cut, Mit-Copy, Edit-Paste, Edit-Delete,
Edit-Undo, Draw-Mit Substation Diagram, Plot-Voltagesand currents, Build-
Compile Component, Compile, Build-Compile Substation, File-Print, and
Help-Index

The toolbox presents a set of symbol-buttons, which can be pressed to activate a WIU of
a new instance of the selected component class. The W U allows the user to draw the
component on the screen, and provide the input data of the component. When a component
symbol is added (or removed) on the cornputer screen, an object is created for (or deleted
from) the switching scheme.

A component is selected by clicking the left mouse button over it. Dialog boxes to edit
data, to view data or to issue commands are activated by selecting the component and
selecting appropriate menu items. More discussion on WIUs is provided in Appendix D.

6.4.1. Role of W U

A WIU handles five types of windows based activities. They are as follows:

1. Symbolic Display: Each physical component of a substation is depicted on

the screen as a part of the substation diagrarn.

2. Data Display: The component data are displayed on the screen by using the
data display windows. These windows are diaiog boxes specifically
designed for each class of object that display the data in the appropriate
format.

3. Data Edit: Each WILJ has its associated data-dialog box which displays the
component data and allows the user to edit the data. The dialog boxes are
used mainly for editing the properties of the components.

4. Error Report: When an error is encountered while processing the component

data, a message is displayed in an error-dialog box.
 5. C o r n a n d Interface: Each WlU has its associated command-dialog box that
displays the list of al1 relevant operating commands. The command selected
by the user is identified and sent to the Cornmand Handler Unit.

6. Status Update: Each WTU has an associated status-dialog box that allows
the user to change selected status parameters.

Al1 component objects have these features. However, only a subset of these features are
available for a non-cornponent object.

6.4.2. Tool box and substation diagrams

A toolbox. as shown in Figure 6.4. is activated by selecting Edit, and then Launch Editor.
from the menu of the WMW. The set of symbols shown in the toolbox are used to draw
substation diagrams. The Cancel and Ok buttons shown in the toolbox are used to exit from
the tool box and, consequently, from the editing mode of the software.

When a symbol is selected from the toolbox and the mouse is moved t o the drawing area.
the symbol is drawn at the location where the mouse is clicked. The WTU allows the objects
drawn on the screen to be moved, rotated, shifted in selectcd step-sizes, copied, pasted and
de1eted. The font, size and colour of the text can be changed. The procedures that a user
must follow to draw a substation diagram are given in the SSP User's Manual [45].

Public interfaces. such as the following. are provided in W N ' s of substation components
through which rest of the SSP modules interact with the graphical elements:
Operate(), ChangePmpertiesO, Compile(), Draw(), SelwtO, Rotate(),
Shift(int dx, int dy), Copy(), Paste()
The switching components also include the following two important public interfaces:
Open0
Cl-O
 -
- Circuit breaker, isolator, Io ad-breakswitch
Grounding mitch, adjoining substation, transformer
!
- Dot (fiüed circie), generator, bushar 1
- Straight line, load, selecting rectangle 1I
- Text,motorized isolator, motorized punding switch !!
- Capacitor, senes reactor, tap-changing transformer
- Ok,Cancel ' 1
/I
1!
1
-- - - - -m j- s
- - A1 -
Figure 6.4: The toolbox.

6.5. Editing Interlocks

This section explains the impiementation of the facility for editing interlock-expressions
for component-objects. The message-flow that happens dunng the process of editing the
interlock expressions is shown in Figure 6.5.

A WIU asks for the interlock expression of the component from the CHU, which in turn
acquires the interlock expression from the IMU and provides it to the WRI. The W N
displays the interlock expression and allows the user to make modifications. However, a
WIU cannot determine whether the user enuy is valid or not. The WIU sends the modified
expression to the CHU that passes it on to the M U . The IMU stores the expression if it is
valid, but sends a warning message to the U?U, via the CHU, if it is invaiid.
 -
GetExpx ait~ock

-Expr Display

-
Expr Expr

-
Store

Message

Figure 6.5: Sequence of events in interlock modification.

6.6. Implementation of Status Management Units

The uniform starus storage and processing prorocol, defined in Chapter 5. required that
each component-object must have a status management unit. The status variable contained
in the SMU is an integer. which provides bit fields for stonng the status parameters.
Bitwise operations of integer variables is performed to check the parameters. The bitwise
approach was used to expedite the cornparison of status parameters.

Some functions that were defined for checking al1 or some parameters stored by SMU using
a single comrnand are as follows:

Status GetStatusO
String GetStatusStringO
 String GetKeyString()
int CheckAli( Status teststs ) (retum sts = = teststs;)
int CheckSelective(Statustests&, Status key) {retum (sts & key) A teststs;)

In these functions, sts represents the status variable stored in SMU, teststs is the status to
be compared with sts, and key is an input parameter that indicates the bit-fields to be tested.

The CheckAl1 function compares the status parameters with the input parameters provided
by the user. The result is 1 if al1 the parameters in sts and the input (teststs) are identical.

The CheckSelective function checks selected fields only. It takes two parameters, called
teststs and key, as inputs. The value of the function is retumed. If this value is zero, it is
interpreted as TRUE, otherwise FALSE.

Consider an example in which sts, teststs and key are as follows.

sts = 1011100000001111 1011100000001111,
teststs = OOOOOOOOOOfOl110-101 110, and
key = -101 I l 1 0000000000101 1 1 1.
The key tells that only the first four bits and the sixth bit should be compared. However,
bit 1 and bit 6 of the sts and teststs are not identical. Therefore the CheckSelective function
returns a non-zero value. The procedure for executing this function is as follows.

0000000000101110 0000000000101110 (teststs)

Bitwise-XOR
0000000000100001 0000000000100001 ( > O)

Conclusion: FALSE

A number of other functions for checking status one parameter at a tirne are as follows:
This set of functions returns the concemed bit directly. For exarnple, On() would return 1
if the device were "on", otherwise it would retum 0.

The on-line update of the status is done in conjunction with sensors/actuators and user
interface modules. These peripheral units send the changes encountered in physical devices
or user options. by using dedicated interface functions. The SMU analyses the input
messages and sets the status fields accordingl y.

6.7. Implementation of Interlock Management Units

The main components of an Interlock Management Unit are the interlock expressions
(LockStrings). an expression-interpreter, an interlock-check module and the srequired
number of Lock Units. The implementation of these modules are presented in this section.

6.7.1. Implementation of Lock Units

Lock Units, described in Section 5.8. form the building blocks for writing interlock
expressions. A Lock Unit consists of three variables named componentRef, teststs, and
key .

Consider the following text-based expression translated into a lock unit.

Breakerl(0N ENABLED UNLOCKED)
The address of Breakerl, given in the list of objects contained in oStn. is stored in
componentRet. The key is set to indicate that ON, ENABLED and LOCKED parameters
are to be tested. The variable teststs is set to indicate that ON, ENABLED and LOCKED
parameters must be 1, 1 and O respectively.
6.7.2. Compilation of text based expressions

The text based expressions, which are in infix notation, are translated into postfix notation.
Two examples of such expressions are as follows.

alb (intïx notation)

abI (postfix notation).

In these examples, a and b are operands. which would be LUSin this appiication, and the
symbol is the OR operator.

A fully parenthesized infix expression c m be translated by starting from the innermost

parenthesized sub-expression and proceeding outwards. For exarnple, to convert the
expression
(A 1 ( (BIG) & D)

to the postfix notation, the innermost sub-expression (BIC) is first converted to BCI. The
sub-expression ((BIC)&D)is then converted to BCID&. Finally, the expression (A I BCID&)
is converted to ABCID&I. It is interesting to note that the conversion does not change the
sequence of the variable names. The algorithm developed for this conversion is given in
Appendix E.

A postfix expression is evaluated by scanning it from left to right. The operators observed
in this scan are implemented as encountered. For exarnple, to evaluate ABCID&I, the
expression is scanned as shown in Table 6.2.

I Table 6.2. Evaluation of a posfm expression II

Expression Obsefved Opuator 1 Operands Result
ABCîD&l I B, C Tl
AT,D&l & T,,D T2
AT2I I A ?2 TÎ
To detect syntax errors, postfix expressions are viewed to be composed of a set of LUS and
a set of operators. A concept of rank,with the following definition, is used to detect errors.

1. The rank, r, of a LU is 1.
.3 The rank of a binary operator is - 1 and that of an unary operator is O.

3. The rank of a sequence of LUS and operators is the arithrnetic sum of the
ranks of LUS and operators;

For example r(abkd&l!) = r(a) + r(b) + r(l) + r(c) + r(d) + r(&) + r(!) + r(!)

= 1+1-1+1+1-1-1-0 = 1.

This postfix expression is valid because its rank is 1.

4. A postfix expression is valid only if its rank is equal to 1.

6.7-3-Evaluation of interlocks

The interlock expressions (LS,DLS or OLS) stored in an IMU of a component are based
on postfix notation as described in Section 6.7.2. The method of evaiuating an interlock
expression is as follows.

1. Find the leftmost operator in the expression.

-7 Obtain the two LUS which immediately precede the operator just found if
it is a binary operator. Obtain one operand which immediately precedes the
operator just found if it is a unary operator.

3. Take the first LU, and evaluate. The evaluation produces a non-zero value
to represent TRUE and O to represent FALSE. Keep the result in a
temporary variable, templ. If applicable, evaluate the second LU and keep
the result in another variable, temp2.

4. Perform the indicated operation on the temporarily stored values, temp 1(and
temp2 if applicable) and obtain the result.

5. Replace the operator and the LUS with the resuit.

 6. Go to Step 1 if there is an outstanding operator in the expression.

This procedure is used to evduate al1 the expressions that might exist in an IMU.

6.7.4. Determination of locked state

The following algorithm was developed and used for evaluating the
LOCKED/UNLOCKED status of a component.

1. Check if MANLOCK is TRUE. If it is T'RUE, ignore the rest of the steps

and set LOCKED parameter of SMU to TRUE.

2. Assign FALSE to rnissing LS and DLS expressions in the M U . Assign

TRUE to a missing O U .
3. Set LOCKED parameter of the SMU to TRUE if (OLS & (DLS I LS)) is
TRUE. Otherwise, set LOCKED pararneter of the SMU to FALSE. This
relationship is shown in Figure 6.6.

A component that is not locked may still be inoperable for several reasons, such-ask i n g
in an unhealthy state.

6.8. Implernentation of Command Handler Unit

The Comrnand Handler Unit (CHU) of a component-object handles five types of

cornmands.
1. Symbol Manipulation Commands, for example Move, Rotate, Delete,
Create.
..
11. Data View Commands, for exarnple Display-data.
iii. Data Edit Comrnands, for exarnple Edit-data.
iv. Status Update Commands, for exarnple Enable, Disable, Manlock.
v. Operate Commands, for exarnple Open, Close, Isolate.
The CHU of a component receives these comrnands either from another component or from
the user through the GUI. The implementation of these cornmands requires several other
supporting modules such as topology processor, load-flow analyser, IMU and SMU.
 Legend:
OLS - OLS is TRUE
LS -
LS is TRUE
-
DLS DLS is TRUE
T - LOCKED is TRUE
F -
LOCKED is FALSE

Figure 6.6. Logical relationship of DLS, LS and OLS with LOCKED status.

6.8.1. Switching operations

The handling of important switching comrnands is descrikd in this section.

6.8.1.1. Close or open a switch

The following procedure was developed for operating a switch, oSw, that belongs to a
branch, oBr.
1. if oSw.Disabled or oBr.Disabled is TRUE, print a message and retum.
2. If oSw.Locked or oBr-Locked is TRUE, print a message and retum.

3. If oBr.NoOnOff is TRUE, close/open oSw, update data and retum.

4. implement the function oStn.TempTopology.

5. Impiement the function oStn.TempMarkChargedI0Nodes.

6. If oBr.SCPath is TRUE, close/open oSw, update data and return.

7. If the command is for closing perform the following operations.
t. If oStn-GroundsLive is TRUE, print a message and retum.
..
il. If oSw.lsIsolator and oStn.MakesCurrent are TRUE.pnnt a message
 and return.

If the command is for opening perform the following operations.

1. If oSw.IsIsolator and oStn.BreaksCurrent are TRUE, print a

message and retum.
8. Implement the function oSys.LoadFlow.

9. If oSys.OffLimitV1 is TRUE, print a message and return.

10. Close (or Open) oSw, update data, print a message and retum.

6.8.1.2. Connecta node to another node

This command is issued to a node, which is identified as the start-node (oNdl). The start-
node is to be connected to a destination-node (oNd2). The following procedure was
devetoped for t his purpose.
1. If start and destination nodes are the same, print a message and return.

2. If oNd2.Disabled or oNd2.Locked is TRUE,print a message and return.

3. If oNd 1 and oNd2 are aiready connected, print a message and retum.
4. hplement the fùnction oNd 1.SearchPaths.
5. Implement the function oStn.CloseBestPath.

6.8.1.3. Disconnect a node fiom another node

This comrnand is issued to a start node, oNdl, for disconnecting it from the destination
node oNd2. The following procedure was developed fordisconnecting a node from another
node.

1. if the start and destination nodes are the same, print a message and retum.
2. if oNd2.Disabled or oNd2.Locked is TRUE,print a message and retum.

3. If oNd1 and oNd2 are already disconnected, print a message and retum.
4. hnplement the function oNd 1.SearchPaths.

5. Implement the fùnction oStn.OpenAi1Paths.

When disconnecting two nodes, al1 the paths leading to the destination node are opened-

The following algorithm was developed for isolating a node, oNdl, from the system.
1. Make a nodeList contaïning input-output nodes and busbars connected to
oNd 1.
3
-. Find paths radiating out from oNd 1 until each path encounters an isolator.

3. Connect nodes in the nodeList to one another without using o N d l and

isolators identified in Step 2.
4. If al1 nodes of nodeList are connected to one another, open al1 circuit
breakers and then isolators that are in the paths found in step 2.

6.8.1.5. Isolate a series component

The following algorithm was developed for isolating a series component o s e contained in
a branch oBr.

If there is no isolator between the component and one end, End 1, of oBr.
implement the following function.
End 1.Isolate
If there is no isolator between the component and the other end, End2, of
oBr, implement the following function.

EndS.kolate

If End 1.Isolated o r End2.Isolated is True, open the circuit breaker and then
isolators contained in oBr and retum.

If oBr.SCPath is TRUE, open the circuit breaker and then isolators

contained in oBr and retum.

Make a nodeList of input-output nodes and buses connected to End 1.

Connect nodes contained in the nodeList t o one another without using oBr.

If al1 nodes contained in the nodeList are connected to one another, open the
 circuit breaker and then isolators contained in oBr and retum. Otherwise,
print a message and return.

6.û.1.6. Bus transfer

The following algorithm was developed for transfemng circuits from one busbar, OBUS
1,
to another busbar, oBus2.

1. Make a busList containing busbars connected to OBUS

1.

2. Make a nodeList containing input-output nodes that are connected to OBUS1.

3. Connect busbars contained in busList to oBusZ without using OBUS1.
4. Connect nodes contained in nodeList to oBus2 without using OBUS
1.
5. If al1 nodes of nodeList are connected to oBus2, open al1 branches that are
connected to OBUS
1.

6.8.2. Supporting modules

Supponing modules provide vital information to CHUS. The most frequently used
supponing modules include a topology determination module, a module to predict the
status of the input-output nodes, and a module to trace paths from one node to another
node.

6.8.2.1. Topology tracer

The algorithm descnbed in this section was developed to trace the topology of a substation.
Before the topology is traced, the circuit must have k e n successfully compiled. The
software would have identified the branches and would have prepared the lists of adjoining
nodes and adjoining branches. The developed topology tracer algorithm consists of the
following steps.

1. Set a busbar as the start node, starthde.

2. Declare two pointers called current and neighbour to identify nodes.
3. For every node, ON&, of the substation, initialize the following variables.
 - oNdx.reached = FALSE (indicating oNdr is not visited)
- oNdx.oldTopo = oNdx.newTopo

- oNdx.newTopo = oNdx.nodeNurnber.

4. Prepare an empty queue of nodes.

5. Add the startiVode to the queue and set startNode.reached as TRUE.

6. Remove the first element from the queue and assign it to current node.
7. For each adjoining node of current node perform the following operations.

a. Assign the selected adjoining node to neighbor node.

b. If the branch connecting the current node and the neighbor node is ON and
the neighbor was not previously visited, do the following.

i) If current-newTopo > neighbor. newTopo, do the following .

current-reached = FALSE

Otherwise, set neighbor.newTopo = current.newTopo.

ii) Add neighbour to the end of the queue and set neighbor.reached to
TRUE.

Otherwise, if the branch connecting the current node and the neighbour
node is ON, the newTopo of current node and neighbour node are not equd,
and the neighbour node was previously visited, perform the following
operations.

i) Set the newTopo of the nodes as follows.

ii) Add neighbour to the end of the queue.

8. If the queue is not empty, proceed to Step 6.

6.8.2.2. Energîzed node detector

The following algorithm was developed to detect whether a node is energized or not.
Before the detection process is started, the input-output nodes connected to live sources
must be known.

1. Declare an empty queue of nodes.

7
m. For each input-output node, ON&, perform the following initialization.

If the node is, or is connected to, a live source, do the following.

- Set oNdx.On to TRUE and add the node to the queue.
Otherwise, set oNclx.On to FALSE.

3. For each node that is not an input-output node, oNdy, set oNdy.On to FALSE.
4. Identify ail groups of nodes that are connected to each other and are in the queue.
Retain one node from each group and remove other nodes from the queue.

5. From the queue, remove the node at the top, startNode.

6. Make a queue2 and add the starthrode to the queue2.

7. From queue2, remove the node at the top, currentNode.

8. For the currentNode, take the first adjoining node, neighborNode, that was noi
previously visited.

9. If the current node and the neighbour are connected, do the following.

i) Set neighborl\rode.On to TRUE.

ii) Add treighborNode to the bottom of the queue2.

1O. if currentNode has an adjoining node that was not previously visited, proceed to
Step 8.

Il. If the queue2 is not empty proceed to Step 7.

12. If the queue is not empty proceed to Step 5.

6.8.2.3. Detector of the making or breaking of cuwents

The following procedure was developed to detect whether a switching operation makes or
breaks currents.

1. Implement the function oStn.TempTopology.

2. If the ground node is ON, implement the function OStn.GroundsLive(True).

3. Make a nodeLisr containing input-output nodes.

4. Take the topmost unvisited node oNode 1 from nodelist.

5. From oNode 1 to the end of nodelist, sequentially tdce one node at a time and cal1
it oNode2 and do the following.

if oNode 1 or oNode2 is energized then d o the following.

Zf (node 1.newTopo = node2.newTopo) and

(node 1.oldTopo O node2.oldTopo), implement the following function.

OStn.MakesCurrent(TRUE)

Otherwise, if (node 1.newTopo O node2.newTopo) and

(node l .oldTopo = node2.oldTopo), implement the following function.

oStn.BreaksCurrent(TRUE)

6. Set oNode 1.visited to TRUE.

7. If oNode 1 is the second last element of nodelist, stop the prwess. Otherwise,
proceed to Step 4.
6.8.2.4. Path tracer

The following aigorithm was developed for tracing paths from a node, starthcode, to
destination nodes, desrNode.

Declare two node type object pointers called neighbourNode and currentNode.

Declare an empty queue of nodes.

Empty the result, which is contained in oStn. .

Mark al1 nodes in the network as not visited.

Set the starti\lode.visited to TRUE and place it in the queue.

Rernove a node from the top of the queue and assign it to currentNode.

If the currentNude is a destination node, destNode, append it to result and proceed

to Step 10.

Get the first adjoining node that was not previously visited, neighbourhrode. and do
the following operations.

i) Set neighbourNode.visited to TRUE.

ii) Set the currentNode.parent to neighbourNode.

iii) Add the neighbourNode to the end of the queue.

If the currentNode has an adjoining node that was not previously visited, proceed
to Step 8.

If the queue is not empty, proceed to Step 6.

6.9. Integrating with System Data

Switching actions taken in one substation change the voltages and current flows in the
entire power system. An improper operation in one substation can have adverse effects on
a large part of the network [46,47]. The prediction of the effects of a switching operation
is possible only if the switching scheme evaluates the system performance. The ability to
analyse system data was, therefore, included in the SSP. This facility checks that the
security of the system is not violated while switching operations are performed.

A switching plan is first evaluated at the substation level. If the plan is feasible, a load flow
is conducted to confirm that voltage and current flow lirnits are not violated..

6.9.1. Load flow data formats

SSP recognizes two formats for receiving load-flow data. Both formats are based on ASCII
text. One of the formats is the "IEEE Common Data Format for the Exchange of Solved
Load Flow Data," which is also called CDF format [48]. This format provides detûiled
information of the system but requires large data files. Many items included in this format
are beyond the scope of the SSP. The advantage, however, is that this format is known to,
or used by, many utilities for exchanging load-flow data. The second format was developed
for use by the SSP; this format is narned "Reduced Data Format," or RDF. It contains a
subset of the data in the CDF format. The specifications of these formats are given in
Appendix F. Sample data and diagram of a 9 bus test power systern expressed in RDF are
shown in Appendix G.

6.9.2. Linking the substation data with the load-flow data

The load flow data and the substation data are of different nature. A transmission line
connecting one substation to another is treated as an input-output node by the substation-
objects, whereas the line is treated as a branch by a load flow object. The network that is
beyond the boundary of the substation is not retained by a substation-object. The effect of
the extemal network is considered by connecting equivalent load or generation at the input-
output node of the substation. The details of the connections of the circuit components in
the substation are retained. The load flow data, on the other hand, lumps al1 the components
in a substation and treats the substation as a node. The load-flow data treats the substation
as a busbar connected to other busbars of the system via transmission lines, which are
considered as branches of the power system network.
The SSP links the substation objects and the system objects and facilitates the exchange of
information between them. Some of the information exchange takes place through files and
some through public functions of the software objects.

The following information is sent to the load-flow analyser object by the substation object
direct1y through the interface functions.

1. The list of lines that are disconnected from the substation.

3
-. The list of lines that are connected to the busbars of the substation.

3. The name of the files where the substation-object wants the Load-flow
analyser to store the load flow results.

4. The bus number by which the substation is identified in the load flow data.

5. Total active power and reactive power drawn from, or injected into, the
substation.

The load flow analyser updates its data to reflect the connection of the lines and busbars.
It then performs the load flow analysis and returns the results in the specified files. The SSP
reads the data and uses it t o check the violations of voltage and current levels.

6.9.3. The role of the user in the integration

The integration of the substation switching scheme with the load flow analyser is largely
automated. However, the user must provide some information for proper integration. The
user plays the following roles.

1. Provide the load flow data of the system in either CDF or RDF format.

2. Examine the load flow data, determine the bus identification numbers of the
adjoining substations and identiQ the branches that connect the substation
to the adjoining substations.

3. For each adjoining substation object, perforrn the following operations:

a. Provide the identification number used by the load flow data for the
 line to the selected adjoining substation.
b. Provide the bus identification number used by the load flow data for
the adjoining substation.
4. Open appropriate interface for entering system properties.

5. Provide the assigned system bus number.

6. Specify the files where the input data for power flow caiculations are stored.

7. Specify the files where the power flow output data are to be stored.
8. Recompile the switching scheme. Choose to integrate the load flow with the
switching scheme.

Once the switching scheme is compiled, the SSP automatically handles the data.

6.10. Graph Plotting

The process of analysing data in a substation environment is tedious. time consuming and
error prone. particularly when the data is not presented in an appropriate graphical format.
The complexity of anaiysis grows with the size of the data. It is, therefore, valuable to
provide an interactive tool that analyses and presents data in a user-friendly graphical
environment. Alternative switching plans can be quickly analysed and their effectiveness
can be promptly evaluated with the help of such a tod.

The graph plotting module is one of the user-productivity enhancement feature provided
in the SSP. The module can plot graphs of many types of substations and power system
variables so that they can be visually inspected and compared. This section describes the
procedure of plotting the graphs.

6.10.1 Prerequisites for mnning the graph plotting program

The data must be made available in files of predefined formats before launching the graph
plotting program. The cument version of the graph plotting program requires that the data
must meet the following requirernents.
1. File names The following file names must be used to supply data to the graph
plotting prograrn:
OLocPlotdat: File containing the local data of the
substation
OLFBusD-dat: File containing the magnitudes and
phase angles of the voltages
OLFLineD-dat: File containing the line data.
2. Plot module The name of the plotting program is plotdata.exe. It c m be installed
in any directory, as long as it is specified to the SSP through system-
data properties dialog box before or during the compilation process.
3. Data Directory The data files OLocPlot-dat,OLFBusD-dat,and OLFLineD-dat must
exist in the sarne directory as the graph plotting program.
The graph plotting window will display a blank box and a random graph if the graph
plotting command is issued from the SSP before the necessary data are available. The
commands issued from the graph-plotting window will produce error messages on the
screen.

The graph plotting prograrn has a Text-edit box, which displays the content of the file
whose data is plotted.

The graph-plotting prograrn can be launched from the SSP's working environment. It can
also be launched from outside the SSP environment by using the following procedure.
1. Identify the directory where the main graph-plotting prograrn is located.
2. Make sure that the preconditions mentioned earlier in this section are met.
3. Launch the Plotdata.exe file.
More details on using the graph-plotting prograrn are given in the SSP User's Manual.
Object oriented techniques =d languages are more appropnate for developing systems. like
the SSP. compared to the algorithmic approaches. The object-oriented technique can be
used to decompose the problem and manage its complexity.

The switching system is a coliection of circuit elements that are considered as objects. The
characteristics of the cornponents are represented by these objects. Each object consists of
modules rhat include the Status Management Unit, the Interlock Management Unit, the
Cornrnand Handler Unit and the Windows Interface Unit. The objects interact with each
other and with the graphical user interface.

This implementation of the objects of the switching system and their relationship have k e n
described in this chapter. The focus has k e n on the implementations of the status
management unit, the interlock management unit, the user interface unit and the cornrnand
handler units. The outcome of the impiementation of the concepts is a software package
called the Substation Switching Scheme Development Package (SSP).Its performance will
be studied in the next chapter.
 RESULTS
Several tests were conducted to validate the techniques that have been discussed in the
previous chapters of this thesis and have been implemented in the SSP application package.
The validity of individual modules of the SSP was also tested at various stages of their
development. The SSP package was used to develop switching schemes for eight
configurations of substations. The suitability of the switching schemes generated by the
SSP was then exarnined. The substations and the tests are presented in this chapter. These
tests show that it is possible to implement the technique and develop switching schemes
for practical configurations of substations.

7.1. Test Substations

Eight substations used to test the SSP are shown in Figure 7.1 through Figure 7.8. B i e f
introductions of these substations are presented in this section.

7.1.1. Test Substation 1

Test substation 1, which is a double busbar substation, is shown in Figure 7.1. Main
features of this substation configuration are given in Section 2.3.3. Bus 1, which is the main
busbar, is used dunng the normal operation of the substation. Bus2, which is an auxiliary
busbar, is used when Bus 1 has to be taken out of service. The bus coupler circuit, which
consists of switches 1, 2 and circuit breaker BS,is for temporarily connecting the busbars
during the switching operations.
7.1.2. Test Substation 2
Test Substation 2, which is a main-and-transfer busbar arrangement, is shown in Figure 7.2.
Main features of this configuration are descnbed in Section 2.3.7. Isolators 4,6. 8 and 10
are by-pass isolators. Isolators 1 and 2. and circuit breaker B5 form the bus-coupler circuit.
As described in Section 2.3.7, it is possible to take a circuit breaker out of service without
intempting the energy flow on the circuit.

7.1.3. Test Substation 3

Test Substation 3. shown in Figure 7.3, consists of two sections; each section has a different
configurations. One section has a double busbar configuration that is described in Section
2.3.3. The second section has a two circuit breaker configuration that is descnbed in
Section 2.3.6. Isolators 15 and 16 are provided to connect together the two sections of the
substation.

7.1.4. Test Substation 4

Test Substation 4. shown in Figure 7.4, is composed of two sections of double busbar
configuration. The configuration is described in Section 2.3.3. The two sections are
connected by bus sectionalizing isolators 17 and 18. This simple and small substation was
used to obtain rnany test scenarios during the initial phase of the development of the SSP.

7.1.5. Test Substation 5

Test Substation 5,shown in Figure 7.5, consists of two sections of different configurations.
One section has a double busbar configuration that is described in Section 2.3.3 while the
other section has a main and a transfer busbar configuration that is described in Section
2.3.7. Isolators 15 and 16 connect the two sections of the substation.

7.1.6. Test Substation 6

The single line diagram of Test Substation 6 is shown in Figure 7.6. This is a 765 kV
substation that is connected to a 400 kV substation via 765/400/33 kV transformers. The
configuration of the substation is a modification of a double busbar arrangement with a by-
pass isolator. Additional features are included in this arrangement for increasing the
flexibility during the operation of the substation.

7.1.7. Test Subsbtion 7

The single line diagram of Test Substation 7 is shown in Figure 7.7. This is a 400 kV
substation that is connected t o the 765 kV substation shown in Figure 7.6. This substation
has a double busbar with by-pass isolator arrangement that is described in Section 2.3.5.

7.1.8. Test Substation 8

The single line diagram of Test Substation 8 is shown in Figure 7.8.This substation
consists of three distinct configurations. The first configuration is a double-busbar
arrangement; the second configuration is a main-and-transfer bus arrangement and the third
section is a two-circuit breaker arrangement. Bus sectiondizing isolators 15, 16,48 and
47 are provided to connect the sections together.

7.2. Preparation of Switching Schemes

The switching schemes for the selected substations were prepared in four phases. The first
phase consisted of preparing single-line diagrarns that provided the user interface to the
SSP. The second phase consisted of entering the data of the components of the substations.
The SSP prepared the interlock constraints of the switching schemes in the third phase.
Finally, the SSP analyzed the data and deterrnined the switching sequences. These phases
are briefly discussed in this section.

7.2.1. Preparing user interface

The details of the procedures for drawing substation diagrams that provide user interface
for the substations are given in the SSP User's Manual. An overview of the procedure is
given in Section 6.4. The substation diagrarns are drawn in the GUI environment by using
the drag-drop-and-arrange technique. The single line diagrams of the substations shown in
Figures 7.1 through Figure 7.8 were prepared in this manner. These diagrams provided the
user interfaces for the substations.
7.2.2. Entering and initializing component data
The data of the components were entered. The edit mode of the substation diagram was first
selected. The cursor was placed on an item of the diagram and right rnouse button was
clicked twice. This displayed a dialog box for enterinp the propenies of the selected
component. For exarnple, the Switch Properties dialog box, which is shown in Figure 7.9,
has fields that allow the user to modiQ the properties of Circuit Breaker C4.

7.2.3. Developing interlock logic

The SSP automatically specifies interlocks for components based upon p n e r a l constraints.
The interlock logic for a substation. which is determined automatically by SSP' is often
adequate for simple configurations, such as the configurations of Substation 1 through 5.
When the configurations are complex, the people responsible for developing the interlock
scheme should evaluate the interlock expressions for each component and modify them to
meet the specific requirements of the substation. The constraints that are not covered by the
default logic should be included. Interlock expressions for Substations 6 and 7 were
checked and modified to suit the needs of the substations. The next section describes how
such substation specific constraints were developed. Test Substation 6 i s taken as an
exarnple to demonstrate the procedure.

7.3. Complex Interlocking Schemes

The interlocks for the substation of Figure 7.6 are recorded in this section to demonstrate
the procedure for developing a comprehensive interlocking scheme without using the
default interlocks provided by the SSP.

The Test Substation 6 is composed of typical multi-branch segments shown in Figure 7.10.
The interlock requirements of these segments are discussed in this section. The intedock
requirements of circuit segments that are not of typical configuration can be determined by
extrapolating the logic presented in this section.
Circuit segment of Figure 7.10(A): The switches of this segment are operated when the
line has to be taken out of service for repair or maintenance. This necessitates that the
circuit segment be discharged before the work can be started. The grounding switches are
used for this purpose. It is necessary to make sure that the circuit segment is isolated from
both ends before the grounding switches are closed. The interlocks defined by the following
logic would ensure that the segment is isolated before the grounding switches are closed:

The expression implies that the grounding switch must not be closed if:
it is not for the maintenance or repair of either the bushing or the line
the isolator 144 is closed
the circuit is not isolated from the remote end.

The isolator 144 must not be closed before the grounding switches are opened. This
interlock can be defined by the following expression:

In addition to these constraints, al1 other constraints, which are normally applied to
isolators, are also applied.
Circuit segment of Figure 7.10(B): This circuit segment is the circuit that is used to
connect the two busbars. The busbars must be synchronized before connecting them. This
circuit is aiso used to provide aiternate route to connect a line to the busbar when the line-
circuit breaker is out of service. The following interlock defines the operating constraints
of this circuit.

These expressions ensure thai the isolators are not operated if:
CO is closed.

In the event that the circuit breaker is stuck, the isolators would be allowed to operate as
long as they satisfy either of these following conditions:
Do not make or break currents.
Have a short circuit path across the switch.
Note that SSP has an automatically embedded logic tu check these constraints. It is,
therefore, no need to write interlock constraints to include these statements.

Circuit segment of Figure 7.10(C): The purpose of the circuit breaker in this segment is
to make or break the load currents and to intempt the fault currents flowing from the
busbars to the line Io. The purpose of the isolators is to select the bus to which the line is
to be connected. The isolators are also used to disconnect the circuit breaker C from the rest
of the network. An andysis of this circuit shows that the following interlock must be
applied on this segment:

I 4 1: (I4î(ON)&I4 1 (NOSCPATH)) I G4 1 (ON) IG42(ON)

l (C4(ON)& C4(FREE)
Equation 6 ensures that 141 must not operate when:
a 142 is already in its closed state but no short circuit path across 141 is established
a One of the two grounding switches is still closed
The circuit breaker is closed but not stuck
It makes or breaks currents (by default)
Equation 7 is similar to Equation 6 but is for switch 142.
Equation 8 tells that 143 must not operate when:
Grounding switch G41 and circuit breaker C4 are closed
Grounding switch G42 is closed
The circuit breaker C4 is closed but not stuck
It makes or breaks currents (by default).
As indicated by Equations 9 and 10, the grounding switches must not operate if
Any of the isolators is closed, and
C4 is not under repair.

Circuit segment of Figure P.lO(D): This is the circuit that plays two roles, one in
transfemng a line from one busbar to another and the other in bypassing a faulty circuit
breaker. The circuit arrangement requires complex interlock constraints.
131
Normally, line Io is connected to the main busbar, Bus 1, via I l 4, I l 3, C 1 and I l 1. Al1 other
switches are normally open. An altemate arrangement is used when this state is not viable.
This circuit arrangement can provide the connection between Io and the busbars via the
following paths:

Path 1: Io, 114,113, C l , I l 1. Bus1

Path 2: Io, 114,113, C l , 112, Bus2
Path 3: Io, 114,115, Bus2,102, CO, 101, Bus1
Path 4: Io, I25, Nd. another-line's circuit breaker, Bus 1.

These paths are listed in the order of preference. Path 1 must be used in normal operating
conditions. Path 2 must be used as the altemate route if Bus 1 has to be taken out o f service.
For Path 1, Il 1 is closed and I l 2 is open. whereas for Path 2.1 12 is closed and I l 1 is open.
The bus-coupler circuit is used during the transition from Path 1 to Path 2. and vice versa,
without interrupting flow of power on the line. The following expressions provide the
required interlocks.
Ill: (

( (Il 2(ON) I I15(ON) I 135(ON) ) & I l l(N0SCPATH) )

l G 1 l ( 0 N ) I G 12(ON)
l C 1(ON FREE)

Path 3 is used when the circuit-breaker C l is out of service. This path uses the circuit
breaker CO to protect the line. The following interlock expression can be defined for the
isolator Il 5.
If10 is out of service, C 1 can be used to protect another circuit via Il5 or I25. The following
expression provides the required interlock for I25:
I25: (

Il 5(ON)I(C1(FUNCTIONAL)&Io(FUNCTIONAL)II25(NOSCPATH))

The following interlock constraints remain sirnilar to the way they were in the case of the
circuit of Figure 7.10(C).
113: (

G 1 1(0N)IG12(0N) IC 1(ON HEALTHY)

This approach was used for entering special interlock constraints of complex substations.
There is no limit on the complexity or length of the interlock expressions that c m be in the
SSP. The constraints for Test Substations 6 and 7 were entered in this manner.

7.4. Testing Interlocking Schemes

Several tests were performed on the selected substations to determine the validity and
suitability of the interlocking schemes created by the SSP. Conditions were created in
which closing or opening of a switch would overload a line, violate the voltage limits on a
bus, cause generation level to be insufficient to supply the load, or ground a live node. A
scheme was considered to be correct if it did not allow switching operations that would
violate the operating constraints. Sirnilarly, switches were selectively locked, o r set as
inoperable to verify if SSP would detect them and block the operation of those switches.

This section demonstrates how constraints are automatically applied in the operation of
switches. The test results presented in this section concem Substations 1 and 6. The number
of tests is limited to keep the size of this chapter manageable. These results include one or
two categories selected from several scenarios. More results are provided in Appendix H
in whch a larger set of test cases on these and other substations are presented.

The first three tests were camed out in a double busbar substation identified earlier as Test
Substation 1. It is assumed that the substation is working normally and al1 lines are
connected to Bus i . The bus coupler circuit breaker and the adjoining isolators are open as
shown in Figure 7.1.

Operating Open isolator 11. Part of the Substation and the dialog box are
Command 1 shown in Figure 7.1 1.
Operating state Nonnal operating state of the substation.
Result The SSP refused to open isolator 11 and displayed the message
shown in Figure 7.12. T h e reasons for not opening isolator 1 1 are as
follows:
The interlocking constra.int includes the requirement that
isolator 1 1 should be allowed to open only if the adjacent
circuit breaker ( B l ) is closed.. This condition was not
satisfied in this case.
The isolator could have been closed if a short-circuit path
existed across it; n o such path existed in this case.
Operating Open circuit breaker B3. Part of the Substation and the dialog
Comrnand 2 box are shown in Figure 7.13.
Operating state Normal operating state of the substation.
Result The SSP did not close the circuit breaker. It showed the warning
message that is shown in Figure 7.14. The reasons for the message
being displayed are as follows.
The circuit breaker intemipts currents flowing to Load 1.
The SSP needs confirmation from the operator that the
interruption is deliberate. The operator must select "Yes" in
the message box for completing the switching operation.

Operating Select "Yes" in the message box displayed in Figure 7.14 to

Command 3 confirm that the interruption of load was intended.
Operating state The operating state was the one generated by Test 2.
Result The SSP closed circuit breaker B3 as shown in Figure 7.15. The
reasons f w opening the circuit breaker are as follows:
0 It does not cause overloading of the remaining lines.
It does not cause over voltage or undervoltage at any bus.

These tests and a number of other tests presented in Appendix H demonstrate that SSP
correctly identifies safe switching operations and unsafe switching operations in
configurationsof substations where the interlocks were automaticallygenerated by the SSP.
The switching scheme permits only those switching operations that are safe.

The founh test result presents a case that is similar to cases 1 to 3 except that the
configuration of the selected substation is more complex. Substation 6 was selected for
these tests. Extra interlocking constraints were defined for this substation in addition to
those automatically generated by the SSP
For this test, the normal operating state is when al1 circuits are connected to Busl, as is
135
shown in Figure 7.6. Interlock constraints that are specific to this substation were kept in
a text file. These constraints are loaded by selecting, "Edit" and "ReadLock" from the menu
before issuing the command to compile the substation data.

Operating Close grounding switch G4 1 in the substation shown in Figure

Command 4 7.16.

Operating state Normal operating state of the substation.

Result The SSP refused to close G4 1 and displayed the message shown in
Figure 7.17. The reasons for not permitting this operation are as
follows:
Circuit breaker C4 is not in repair mode
Isolators 14 1,142 and 143 are closed; these isolators must be
open before the grounding switch is allowed to be closed as
defined in the interlock expression entered for G4 1.
Unlike in previous test cases. the SSP checked the user-defined
operating constraints instead of the violation of the default operating
constraints. The SSP would have checked the default interlock
constraints if the user-defined interlock expression had not blocked
the switching operation. The operation could proceed only if both
the used-defined and default logic determined that the operation is
pennissible.

These examples, and examples presented in Appendix H, demonstrate that the technique
for developing interlocking schemes described in this thesis works well. They also
demonstrate that the interlockmg schemes can be developed for any substation using the
approach presented in this thesis. Desired degree of flexibility and restraints can be provided
while ensuring safety of the substation equipment and personnel working in those
substations.
7.5. Switching Sequence Test
Tests were performed on the SSP by issuing commands that require it to operate multiple
switches in an appropriate order. When such cornmands are entered, the CHU of the SSP
interpreted the cornmands and determined the appropriate sequence. Random events, also
referred to as triggering events, were introduced while substations were mnning under
normal operating conditions. The SSP initiated a series of switching operations that took
the circuit to an operating state appropriate to the command issued to it or the event
encountered by it. Samples of test results are presented in this section to demonstrate the
important sequence-switching features of the SSP.

When presenting the results of earlier tests, the events recorded by the SSP in its "event log"
were not introduced. When commands were issued to operate only one switch, the need to
observe the order of operation was not great. In the following tests, the order of operation
is important and, therefore. the events recorded by the "event log" of SSP are shown with
the test results.

7.5.1. Connecting and disconnecting lines

Connecting a line to a busbar or disconnecting a line from a busbar is relatively
straightforward. The SSP allows to connect a circuit to a busbar provided a valid power
flow path exists between the circuit and the busbar. The SSP also allows a circuit to be
disconnected from the busbars.

Operating Connect 7L4 to busbar in the substation shown in Figure 7.18.

Command 5
Operating state The line 7L4 is disconnected from the busbars, as shown in Figure
7.18.
Result The SSP connected line 7L4 to Bus1 by closing the following
switches:
 Isolator 144
Isolator 143
Isolator 141
Circuit breaker C4
The final state of the switches are shown in Figure 7.19. which d s o
shows the event log that records the order of operations.

The circuit breaker has k e n closed after the isolator to make sure
that no current flows through the isolators while they are closing.

The following points are to be noted in this operation:

The SSP connected the line t o B u s l , which was already
energized, through the most pre ferable path.
The SSP closed the isolators involved in the path before
closing the circuit breaker.
The SSP closed the switches starting from source end and
progressing systematically towards the bus.
The SSP continuousIy logs the switching activities in a memory
buffer but does not wnte the information in a file. The SSP c m ,
however, be forced to write the information in the log file by
selecting "File" and "Save Event Log" from the menu. In these
cases, the SSP was instructed to write the event log shown in Figure
7.19.

7.5.2. Transferring busbars

When a busbar has to be taken out of service, al1 the lines connected to that bus have to be
connected via an altemate bus. The SSP evaluates the possibility of establishing dternate
connections and establishes the connections through altemate routes before disconnecting
a busbar from the rest of the system.
Operating Transfer lines from busbar Bus1 to Bus 2 in the substation
Command 6 shown in Figure 7.20.
Operating state Normal. Al1 lines are connected to Bus 1.
Result The SSP transferred lines from Bus1 to Bus2 resulting in the final
configuration shown in Figure 7.2 1. The SSP closed the following
switches:
Bus coupler isolator IO 1 and 102
Bus coupler circuit breaker CO
Bus selector switches 142,152,112, I22 and 132
The SSP then opened the following switches:
Bus selector switches Il 1, I2 1.13 1. 14 1 and 151
Bus coupler circuit breaker CO
Bus coupler isolators IO 1 and 102.
The switching operations carried for transfemng the lines from Bus I
to Bus2 and the find operating state of the substation are shown in
Figure 7.2 1. Dunng this bus transfer process the SSP performed the
following operations:
Energized Bus2 through bus coupler circuit and brought
Bus 1 and Bus2 to the sarne voltage level.
Created a short circuit path across the bus selector switched.
O Connected al1 the lines to Bus2 via the bus selector switches
connected to Bus2.
Disconnected lines from Bus1 by opening bus selector
switches adjacent to Bus 1.
O Disconnected Bus 1 from Bus2 by opening the bus coupler
circuit.

7.5.3. lsolating switches

in order to isolate a component, al1 paths radiating from that component must be opened and
at least one isolator must be opened dong each radiating path. The following tests were
139
conducted to show that the SSP ensures that such conditions are achieved and power flow
through the component is maintained through an altemate route.

Operating Isolate the circuit breaker C4 in the substation shown in Figure

Command 7 7.22.

Operating state Normal except that circuit breaker C4 needed for maintenance or
repair.
Result The SSP isolated the circuit breaker C4. The resulting state of the
substation and the switches operated dunng this process are listed in
Figure 7.23. The SSP dosed the following switches:
Bus coupler isolators IO 1 and 102
Bus coupler circuit breaker CO
Circuit by-pass isolator 146
The SSP opened the following switches:
Circuit breaker C4
Isolators 141 and 143
During this process an altemate power fiow path has been
established before opening the branch containing the circuit breaker
B4.

7.5.4. Isolating busbars

The process of isolating a busbar is sirnilar to isolating a switch except that a busbar serves
several lines while a switch controls one circuit only. As was done in other cases, an attempt
is made to maintain the power flow through altemate routes if at al1 possible.

Operating Isolate Bus1 in the substation shown in Figure 7.24.

Command 8
Operating state Normal.
Result The SSP isolated Busl. The lines connected to Bus 1 were first
connected to Bus2 by closing the following switches:
 Bus coupler switches 1,2 and B5
Bus selector isolators 4,6. 10, 8
Bus 1 was then isolated by opening the following switches:
Bus selectors 3, 5 , 7 , 9
Bus coupler switches B5,2.and 1
The switching operations performed and the final state of the
substation are shown in Figure 7-25.

7.5.5. Bypassing faulty equipment

Sometimes a component may not be isolated irnrnediately but rather be bypassed from the
power flow paths. Such bypassing rnay not isolate the component. Even after bypassing a
component from the power flow path, a component must be isolated before the personnel
perforxn any work on the component.

Operating A. Instmct SSP to bypass circuit breaker C4 in the substation

Command 9 shown in Figure 7.26.
B. Connect line 7J.A to busbar in the substation shown in Figure
7.27.
Operating state Line 7L4 is disconnected from busbars. Al1 other lines are connected
to Bus 1. Circuit breaker C4 is not healthy.
Result A. The SSP placed circuit breaker C4 in "bypass" mode to exclude
it from new power flow paths. This state change was captured by the
event log shown in Figure 7.26.
B. The SSP connected line 7L4 to Bus1 while bypassing circuit
breaker C4 by closing the following switches:
Isolators 144,146
Bus coupler switches 102,101 and CO
The final state of the substation and the switches operated during the
transition are shown in Figure 7.28.
The effect of operating a switch on bus voltages and line currents of the system are
evaiuated by performing load flow calculations. Section H.3 describes how the SSP
facilitates the incorporation of the load flow in the validation of switching operations. It also
describes the graph plotting module of SSP that plots line currents and bus voltages for
graphical cornparison of their values.

7.6. Summary
The concepts formulated for the computer-aided design of substation switching schemes
were successfully implemented in a software application package called SSP. The
developed concepts were validated by designing switching schemes for eight substations.
The results show that the techniques presented in this thesis are viable and c m be
implemented in an appropriate softwxe package.
-Figure 7.2. A section of a main-ünd-transfer busbür subsiation.
Figure 7.6. A 765kV double busbar substation with bypass isolators.
Figure 7.8. A three section substation.
 - - -

Figure 7.9. Data k i n g entered for a switch in the GUI environment of the SSP.
 Bus 1

Figure 7.10. Circuit segment patterns that build Test Substation 6.

Figure 7.16. Comrnand k i n g issued to close grounding switch G4l.
158
Figure 7.17. The SSP refuses to close G4 1 and displays the interlock constraint that
blocked the operation.
 C C C
C W Q I Q ,
QI 0 e L -
a0 O O
i

Figure 7.20. Command king issued to trünsfer lines from Bus l to Bus2.
 :onnand : Transf er
lus1 to Bus2

i02: Close
i81: Close
:Q: Close
142: Close
152: Close
112: Close
i22: Close
132: Close

[il: Open
121: Open
131: Open
141: Open
151: Open
:a: Open
I Q2: Open
Ml: Open

lu6 L
igure 7.21. The substation after the SSP trünsfers the lines from Bus1 to Bus2.
Figure 7.22. Command is bcing issued to isolate circuit breaker C4.
 i 1: Close
1 2:
' Close
85; Close

4: Close
I 6: Close
10: Close
'
8: Close
1

; 3: Open
, 5: Open
l 7: Open
1 9: Open
65: Open
2: Open
: 1: Open

An
Figure 7.25. The stüte of the substation üfter isolating Bus 1.
 8. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE
WORK

The research and development of computer aided design of substation switching schemes
have been presented in Chapters 1 to 7. The surnrnary of the work presented in this thesis
is provided in this chapter. The conclusions drawn from the reported activity are also
given. The work that could be done in the future to enhance this development is also
identified.

8.1 Summary

A power system consists of a network of geographically distributed generating stations

and load centres that are connected by transmission lines. The power system network is
normally designed to permit the transmission of power on alternative routes if a line o r
a power equipment is out of service. The routing is done by using switches installed in
substations.

Several transmission and distribution lines corne together at a substation, where they meet
through strategically placed isolating switches, circuit breakers and grounding switches.
The cost of a substation and the flexibility in directing power through alternative
connections depend on the arrangements of switches and busbars. The study of the nature
of these switching arrangements and their operations, and the development of switching
schemes that help maintain the continuity of power supply has been the focus of the
research work reponed in this thesis. The objective of the research work has been defined
in Chapter 1. Also reported in this chapter are the past and present trends in the practices
in operating substations.

The composition of substations. their role and their typical placements in a power system
have been introduced in Chapter 2. Main switching components of a substation have k e n
introduced and cornponents of interest to this project have k e n described. Busbar
configurations used in substations have also k e n described in the chapter.

Switching operations in a substation are carried out for many reasons, which include
disconnecting faulty equipment from the rest of the system. preparing the substation for
repair or maintenance of equipment. and bringing the system back to its normal operating
state after an outage. Switches are interlocked so that they can operate only when their
operation would not adversely affect the security of the system and would not expose the
personnel working in that environment to any hazards. To achieve these objectives, the
switches are operated in sequences that follow the interlocking rules. These issues and
the surnmary of work in the area reported in the literature have been presented in Chapter
3.

Substations have many common characteristics that can be analysed to develop general
constraints for the operation of equipment installed in them. The operating constraints
of most switching components stem from their design and their placement in a substation.
Chapter 4 of this thesis has presented a concise analysis of a switching scheme. The
general operating constraints of the equipment have been described in the chapter. The
data of circuit components, substations and power systems required for interlocking and
switching purposes are described in the chapter. The steps involved in determining
switching sequences, and the factors that must be considered in determining the switching
sequences have also k e n reviewed in this chapter.

The design of a framework, which expedites the developrnent of a switching scheme and
uses the techniques described in Chapter 4, has been presented in Chapter 5. The
framework consists of interface, script, interpreter. compiler and algonthms integrated
such that it can automatically develop interlocking scheme and generate switching
sequences using the accepted operating practices while dlowing special requirements to
be included in the developed control system. A protocol for handling the status of the
circuit cornponents, substation and system properties, and a protocol for handling the
interlocks and the techniques for implementing them in the development of an overai1
switching scheme have k e n described in this chapter.

The concepts described in Chapters 4 and 5 were implemented in the form of a software
package called Substation Switching Scheme Development Package (SSP). Object
oriented approach and C++ prograrnming Ianguage were used in developing this package.
The techniques used to develop the SSP have k e n described in Chapter 6. The steps
involved in compiling the required data and generating switching scheme have k e n
described in the chapter. Algorithms used for implementing various modules of SSP have
k e n presented as well.

The cornputer-aided generation of substation switching schemes were successfully tested

with the SSP. Switching schemes for eight different substations were developed for these
tests. Several test results that demonstrate the techniques presented in this thesis have
been presented in Chapter 7. The results show that the SSP is a viable tool for
implementing interlocking schemes and generating switching sequences. The
implementation of SSP utilizes concepts from electrical engineering, mathematics. and
computer science. The theoretical foundation cornes from the well known branches of
these disciplines, narnely power system control and protection, Boolean logic, graph
theory, circuit andysis, numerical methods for solving algebraic equations and object
onented system analysis, design and implementation.

This project has shown that it is possible to develop an integrated environment for the
compter-aided design, development and testing of switching schemes for substations
using the concepts reponed in this thesis.
8.2. Conclusions
A survey of the published literature in the area of substation switching indicated that the
most of the work reponed in those publications address selected aspects of substation
switching. None of the publications report the development of a frarnework that provides
techniques for speci!jmg component data, power system data, interlocking constraints and
sequence switching constraints of a substation, and automatically generating a switching
scheme from that information.

The work reported in this thesis identified the requirements, protocols, interfaces, script,
and interpreter, and integrated them in a technique. The work studied and compiled the
generally accepted interlocking and sequence-switching practices and demonstrated a
technique for developing software algorithms to implement them. The work showed that
it is possible to automatically take care of the generally accepted practices so that the
users of the developed frarnework would focus mainly on the switching operations.

It is shown that a protocol for describing the status of components and algorithms for
processing the topology of a substation, predicting over-voltage, under-voltage and
overload conditions, determining optimal energy flow paths, and generating switching
sequences can be developed. It is further shown that switching schemes for substations
c m be developed using those protocols and algorithms. Extensive testing showed that the
protocols and algorithms work comectly.

The work reported in this thesis has demonstrated that the identified data adequately
describe components, substations and power systems for the purpose of developing
switching schemes. It has also k e n shown that the syntactic and semantic rules for
describing interlocks can handle substations of any degree of complexity. The work that
is reported in this thesis has shown that the procedures developed for implementing
switching cornmands work correctly. It has also been demonstrated that it is possible to
define a complex switching cornmand in the form of a series of simple cornmands.

The applications reported in this thesis have demonstrated that the developed software
package correctly identifies safe switching operations from unsafe switching operations.
They have also demonstrated that interlocking schemes can be developed for a substation
using the approach presented in this thesis. Desired degree of flexibility or restraint can
lx provided while ensuring safety of the substation equipment and personnel working in
those substations.

Tests showed that the SSP develops switching sequences that operate several switches in
an appropriate order. They also showed that the SSP interprets the cornmands and
determine an optimal switching sequence for implementing the command. It is also shown
that the SSP has the ability to collect a log of the switching operations that were
detennined and implemented. The results presented in this thesis have showed that the
developed technique is a viable approach that can be implemented in a software package.

8.3 Suggestions for Future Work

This research work has adequately demonstrated that it is feasible to develop a computer-
aided design tool for substation switching schemes. This work has developed a foundation
for the development of a tool of a larger proportion. The following work could be done
to enhance the work reponed in this thesis.

1. Integrate the data logging mechanism withcommercial databases to utilize

their power in reuieving and analysing the data efficiently.

2. Add graphical means of supplying and viewing power-system data.

Provide facility for visual presentation of the load-flow and system studies
results dong with the power systern diagrams.

3. Enhance the power-system simulation modules to perfonn iterative

sensitivity analysis until a desired alternative solution is found.

4. Develop hardware and software interface between the switching scheme

and the switchyard components.

5. Incorporate real-time dock of desired accuracy and precision to manage

real-time operations.
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 Appendix A
Decoupled Power Flow Calculations
A power system represents an electric network that is composed of branches and
nodes. Typically, transmission lines constitute the branches and buses constitute the
nodes. Power is injected into the network at some buses and is tapped out by system
Ioads at other buses. At any moment the generation is equal to the demand. if too
much or too little load is connected to the system, the system voltage levels cannot
remain at normal level. Aiso some transmission lines may c a r y more than rated
power under abnormal operating conditions. Power flow calculations [37, 491 are
performed to predict the line currents and bus voltages when performing switching
operations in a power system.
The active and reactive powers injected into bus i of a power system is equal to the
sum of the flows of power in the lines connected to that bus. This c m be written as
follows:

where,
N is the number of buses,
is the voltage at bus i,
is the current flowing from bus i to bus j,
is the active power flowing into bus i,
is the reactive power flowing into bus i,
is the active power flowing from bus i to bus j, and
is the reactive power flowing from bus i to bus j.
The active and reactive powers flowing into a bus i of an N bus system can be now
written by expanding Equation A. 1 as follows.
N
c 0 s 6 ~+ B~ sinJU) ,
4 = /vi/X/v,'jl(~~ i = 1,2, ....., N
j= 1

Qi= /vi1
N

j= 1
IV, I ( G ~ sin 6,j + Bu COS^^ ) , i = 1, 2, ....., N

where:

is the magnitude of the voltage at bus i,

is the magnitude of the voltage at bus j,

is the phase angle difference between the voltages at buses i and

J 9

is the element of the bus admittance matrix in row i and coiumn

One equation of the form of Equation A.2 is prepared for each bus. This provides one
set of N nonlinear algebraic equations. Similarly a set of (N-M+l) equation of the
form of Equation A.3 are prepared, where M is the number of generator-buses.

In these equations, the admittance of the line connecting two buses is constant. The
active and reactive power flowing from one bus to another are, therefore, functions of
the phase angles and magnitudes of the bus voltages.

The left hand side of Equations A.2 and A.3 are the scheduled power injections and
the right hand sides of these equations are the calculated power flows in the power-
flow solution. Before the solution is obtained, the scheduled power injections and the
sum of the calculated power flows out of a bus are not equal. The differences are the
mismarches that can be expressed as
 APi = P,(Scheduled) - Pi (Calculated) (A-4)

AQi = Q,(Scheduled) - Qi (Calculated) (A.3

The calculated power flows depend on the magnitudes and phase angles of the
voltages. The corrections that must be applied to the voltage magnitudes and phase
angles c m be detennined by solving the following equations.

After writing equations representing the mismatch of power between the scheduled
and calculated values, like Equations A.6 and A.7, are written for al1 nodes the entire
set of equations can be written in the following form:
These equations are often denoted in the following form:

[tu]=[: Y[A%l]

W here,
H,N,J and L are the submatrices of the Jacobian mauix.
AP is the vector of active power mismatches.
AQ is the vector of reactive power mismatches.
A6 is the vector of phase angle corrections.
hV is the vector of voltage magnitude corrections.

The elements of the H, J, N and L sub-matrices are caiculated as follows:

Off diagonal elements (i *j):
(A. 10)

m: - -IyiIV,I(G, cosq, + Bq sine,)

No=--
(A. f 1)

a,

(A. 12)

(A. 13)

The diagond elements evaiuate to as follows:

H,, av:
= -=Iv,I' Bli + & (A. 14)
as,
 (A. 15)

(A. 16)

(A. 17)

This is the basis of the Newton-Raphson Power-Flow Technique. The power flow
calculations start with some guess values of the voltage and phase angles. Correction
factors for the approximated values are then determined using equation (A.8). The
guessed values are updated with the correction factors and the power mismatch is
calculated again. The correction in the approximated values is done iteratively till the
power mismatch falls below a tolerable limit. Once the magnitude and phase angles of
the bus voltages are determined, the line currents and power flows are calculated as
the line admittances are known.

Decoupled Power Flow Method

In most practical situations, the changes in phase angles of the bus voltages
significantly affect the active power flowing in the lines. Similarly, the changes in bus
voltage magnitudes significantly affect the reactive power flow in the system.
However, the relationship between the voltage phase angle with the reactive power
flow and also between the voltage magnitude and active power flow are very week.
Based on these observations the Jacobian matrices N and J in equation A.9 can be
ignored while getting reasonably good approximations of the active and reactive
power mismatches.
The Decoupled Power-Flow Technique is obtained by modifying Equation A.9. The
modification consists of negiecting al1 the terms in 52 and J3 that are usually very
small.
Since 8, is usually a small angle (-20') the following can be assumed without
introducing large errors in calculations:
Cos 6, = 1
 G , sin 6,cc B,
Q «IVi12Bii
When these approximations are introduced in the cdculation of the elements of
Jacobians H and L, the following equations are obtained:

(A. 18)

(A. 19)

The H and L Jacobians can, therefore, be represented as follows:

............................. .(A.20)

Substituting H and L in Equation A.9, the following form can be achieved for the
mismatch of active and reactive power:
 i/l~lI

Multiplying both sides by

l/IbI

the following equations are obtained:

The last two equations are often represented in the following form for the
convenience:
[AP/IVIJ= [ B ' ] [ A ~ ] (A.25)

[AQIlVi] = [B"][&VI (A.26)

where [B') and [B"] are modified admittance matrices.

The following iterative process can be used to solve these equations.
1. Provide initial estimates of the variables 6 and IVI.
2. Using the values of 6 and IVI, calculate the active and reactive power
injections using Equations A.2 and A.3.

3. Calculate AP and AQ using Equations A.4 and AS. If these mismatches are
within a specified tolerance, the estimates of are accepted and, therefore, the
procedure is ended. Othenvise, the next step in perfomed.

4. Using AP and AQ from Step 3. calculate the corrections ~6 and AlVl using
Equations A23 and A.24.
5. Modify the estimated values of 6 and IV1 and revert to Step 2.
Once the vaiues of 6 and V are determined, the currents fiowing in the lines are
calculated. This procedure is also depicted in the flowchart shown in Figure A.1. In
the flowchart, i and k variables used for traversing through the matrices.
A number of approaches [50] c m be used to solve the matrix equations of A 2 3 and
A.24 to determine the estimates of 6 and IV1 as mentioned in Step 5 . A technique
called LU factorization was used in the SSP for solving those equations. The
algorithm for finding the LU factors of a matrix are is shown in Figure A.2. in the
figure, 1, J and K represent temporary variables used for indexing. N is the number of
rows in the Jacobian matrix (Jac) that is to be factored. Other variables have usual
meanings as discussed earlier in this section.
 / Read line Z and charging BI2 d a t d
Form node admittance matrix Y, Y = G + jB
I
/ ~ e a d Pi and Qi injected to each bus
Read initial guess of bus voltages Vi = Ei + jFi

e
check +.TRUE.

Calculate Pi and Qi
A Pi +Pieiven - Pi
A Qi +Qi-given - Qi
i = start-bus to NN

1 Calculate the coefficients of the 1

jacobian rnatrix and obtain
delta-E delta-F values

Calculate: Ei = Ei i4Ei
Fi = Fi +AFi
i = start-bus to NN

Calculate current, active power and reactive power

flowing in each line. Calculate power losses in lines.

c*=
Figure A.1: Procedure for load flow calculations.
 1
max +Uac(I,J)I
index- J
'
I

es (no solution)
B
(or infinite solutions)

1 -
Exchange row(1) with row (index)
Exchange pointer (Iwih-
J4- 1
.
) pointer (index)
1
1

J+J+I

Y=

temp +temp + Jac(I,K)*Jac(K,J)

Jac(I, J- Jac

Figure A.2: Procedure for LU factorization of Jacobian matrix (continued...).

190
 r

K- 1 Yes
K-K+1

1temp f temp + Jac(J,K)*Jac(K,I)

1
Jac(J, -1 -
Jac(J, 1) temp Jac(1,I)
I

Figure A.2: Procedure for LU factorization of Jacobian matrix.

 Appendix B
Selection of Prograrnming Language and Development
Environment

C u language was selected for the development of SSP for the following reasons:
1. C++ provides necessary language support to develop a purely object-
oriented software program.
2. It is widely accepted as one of best language for serious software
development.
3. It is a compiled programrning langage and C++ compilers are efficient and
can be installed on personal computers without difficulty, unlike some other
object-oriented languages, such as Smalltalk.
4. C++ compilers generate one of the most efficient executable code.
5. C++ programs can be linked easily to programs wntten in other languages.
6. It supports a large number of low-level functions that deal with the
operating system and the hardware. This is an extremely useful feature for
developing the interface between the software prograrn residing in a
computer and equipment and devices located in the switch-yard of a
substation.
The SSP was wntten in C u language by using Visual C++ compiler and Microsoft
Foundation Classes (MFC) Library on a hardware platform provided by IBM compatible
personal computers running Windows 95 operating system. The operating system and
hardware were chosen for they were inexpensive compared to other systems of similar
capacity. Visual C++ was chosen because of its MFC library that provides a foundation for
developing Windows interface and many other container classes. MFC classes provide
efficient and type-safe iterating routines. Classes from the MFC can be used to denve new
classes for graphical user interfaces components that have Windows interface. Only portion
of user interface of the SSP that was not developed in Visual C++ was the graph plotting
program, which was developed in Visual Basic.
 Appendix C
Major Classes in the SSP
The following classes of items are supponed by the SSP.
Number Item-Type Class-Name Object Notation
1. Substation Stn oStn
.
*
II. Component Cm oCm
...
111. Non-component Nc oNc
iv. PowerSystem Ps oPs
v. Node Nd oNd
vi. Series Se ose
vii. Switch Sw oSw
...
vm. Branch Br oBr
These series items were further divided into two classes, switch and non-switch. The
switches were divided into the following subclasses.
Number Item-Type Class-Name Object Notation
ix. Circuit breaker Cb oCb
X. Isolator 1s OIS
xi. Grounding Switch Gs oGs
The non-switch type ries items were divided into the following classes.
xii. Transformer Tr oTr
...
X111. Reactor Re oRe
xiv. Bushing Bh oBh
The node type items 'ere further specialized to fonn the following classes.
xv. Busbar Bb oBb
xvi. Generator Gn oGn
xvii. Load Ld oLd
xviii. Adjoining Substation As oAs
This classification breaks down the component class into a number of sub-classes as shown
in Figure 6.2. Each component has other units like status management unit, an interlock
unit and a comrnand handler unit as follows:
Number Item-Type Class-Name Object Notation
xix. Status management unit Smu oSmu
xx. Interlock Management Unit Imu oImu
xxi. Command Handler Unit Chu oChu
xxii. Windows Interface Unit Wiu oWiu
xxiii. Lock Unit Lu oLu
The classes identified in this section f o m the most important of al1 classes defined in the
application. The application uses more than a hundred classes of software elements.
 Appendix D
Graphical User Interface
The development of a graphical user interface (GUI) is mostly system dependent due to the
limitations in the available tools and techniques. The evolution of Java language has k e n
good news in the development of the operating-system independent software tools. The
Java based development tools are still maturing, and the development of SSP had no other
choice than depending on system dependent tools. Competing visual graphical tools were
available from vendors for different platforms that accelerate the development of GUIS.
Visual C++ and Microsoft Foundation Classes (MFC) library were chosen for the
development of GUI for SSP. The MFC library provided a wide variety of application
interface classes, which were used as the basis for the development of the GUI.

MFC provided a wide range of basic Windows interface development utilities. It gives raw
implementation of various components such as main frame window and its child windows,
control bars, dialog boxes, list views, tree views, scroll bars, button controls, edit controls,
hotkey controls, list controls, bitmap drawings, brushes, fonts, colour palettes, pens and
brushes from the library. They were modified and assembled and linked to the application
to develop highly interactive and attractive interface that confered with the Windows
operating system. This eliminated the need to go into the low level details of the operating
system.

The logical, mathematical or analytical part of the switching system development tool was
developed separately from its Windows interface. The visual appearance or aesthetics of
the Windows interface c m , therefore, be modified or enhanced as desired without
interfering with the intemal engine of the switching scheme development tool. In the
following discussion, the part of the software tool that manages the Windows interface for
the switching scheme will be referred to as Windows Main Interface Unit ( WMIU).

The WMIU works as the intermediary between the intemal switching system and the user.
It renders a graphical image of the substation on the screen, and interprets the user input of
a component of the switching system. A WMIU contains a drawing and editing module,
which allows the user to draw single-line diagrarns of substations and to enter the
component data. The drawing module contains a toolbox, which has symbols of various
substation components. These symbols can be selected, dragged and dropped in the
computer screen. A single line diagram of a substation diagrarn is drawn by assembling
these symbols. The main switching system and the WMIU interface in such a way that
when a component symbol is added or removed on the computer screen a corresponding
object becomes created or deleted from the switching system.
T o the eye of a user, it appears as if he/she is communicating directly with the components.
A component is selected by clicking the left mouse button over it. Appropriate dialog boxes
to edit data, view data or to issue commands are activated by selecting the component and
then using mouse-clicks or selecting menu items. Although a user interface is an important
aspect of an application like SSP, environment specific details of the GUI are avoided in
this thesis. The discussion, therefore, is lirnited only to what types of interfaces must be
provided between the interna1 application prograrn and the Windows.

D.1. Components of a GUI

The MFC provides a semi-automated environment to develop the WMIU and to link menu
items, tool bar items, keyboard entries and component symbols to the WIU of the
concerned component. The procedures to create menus, toolbars, buttons, graphical
symbols, and to link them to a particular ciass are described in the User's Manual of the
Visual CU and MFC. After preparing the appropriate Windows based graphical elements
and linking them to appropriate W U of the components, the user can directly interact with
any desired component.

Each WIU handles five types of windows based activities. They are as follows:
1. Symbolic Display: Each physical component of a substation is depicted on
the screen as a part of the substation diagram. The program module to draw
the visual symbol of the component on the screen resides in the WIU.
.7 Data Display: The component data are displayed on the screen by using the
data display windows. These windows are dialog boxes specifically
designed for each class of object, which allow the data to be displayed on
the appropriate format. The display of error messages also fa11 in this
category.
3. Data Edit: Each WIU has its associated dialog box which displays the
component data and lets the user edit those data. The dialog boxes are used
mainly for editing the properties of the components. Simple mouse click or
menu based commands are implemented if the desired change in data is
simply the location of the cornponent symbol on the screen or its
orientation. The graphical symbols of the components c m be dragged,
dropped, rotated, or flipped by using the mouse alone.
4. Command Interface: Each W U has its associated dialog box which
displays the list of al1 possible operating comrnands that can be issued to
that component. The user can then select the desired cornmand from the list.
The W1U then identifies the cornmand and sends it to the CHU to handle
the cornmand.
5. Status Update: Each WIU has an associated diaiog box that allows the user
to issue commands to update the status and to change selected status flags.
Al1 major power components such as substations, switches, nodes, busbars, generators,
Ioads, transfomers and reactors have support for al1 five types of activities. However, only
selected features are available for non-component objects such as a topology detector, text
elements, simple lines and circles.
 APPENDIX E
Converting Infix Expressions into Postfix Expressions

The conversion of an infix expression into postfix notation is implemented by using data
stacks, where a directly accessible element is at its top and the least accessible element is
at its bottonz. The elements are pushed (inserted) or popped (deleted) from the top of the
stack only.

The text based interlock expressions use LUS in them and not the normal mathematical
symbols. When the IMU scans the expressions, it treats a LU as a input symbol. For
example. the expression (Sw l ( 0 N ENABLED) & Sw2(0FF)) is treated as (A & B), where
A represents S w l ( 0 N ENABLED) and B represents Sw2(0FF). The postfix form of
(A&B) becomes AB&.

The following algorithm [51], was used to convert the infix expressions into postfix
notation.
1. Identify al1 operators and variable separators that would be used to write the
expressions.
&.
3 Determine the order of preference for processing them and then define
input-precedence and stack-precedence and rank of the symbols as shown
in Table E. 1.
3. Initialize the stack and place a left parenthesis on it.
4. Initialize the postfix expression and the rank-count.
5. Obtain the first entry of the expression, where an entry is one of the
operators. parenthesis or a LU.
6. Repeat thm Step 10 while there is still another entry.
7. Remove and output (add to postfix expression) al1 stack symbols whose
stack-precedence values are greater than the input-precedence of the current
 input symbol, obtained from Table F.1. If the rank is less than 1, then the
expression is invalid and. therefore, report the error and stop processing.
8. Lf the current symbol and top stack symbol are matching parentheses, then
pop the stack; otherwise put the current symbol on the stack.
9. Obtain the next input symbol.
IO. If the stack is not empty or the rank is not equal to 1 then write invalid,
otherwise write valid.

stack-precedence and rank values

--

Input-Precedtnce Stack-Precedence Rank

Value 1
Value
1
3
5
7
9
11
O
 Appendix F
Load Flow Data Formats
SSP recognizes two data-formats for supplying the load-flow data. Both are based on
ASCIi text and one of the two must be used to supply the load flow data. One of the
formats is the "IEEE Comrnon Data Format for the Exchange of Solved Load Fiow Data,"
which is also called CDF format. This format provides a very detailed information of the
system, but requires larger data files and contains many data items whose scope falls
beyond te scope of SSP. The advantage however, is that it has been known to. or used by,
the utilities to exchange the load-flow data. The second format is not based on any
previously established standard data format but a format developed for SSP. and it will be
referred to as "Reduced Data Format," or RDF, as it contains only a subset of data required
by CDF format. RDF provides just-enough information of the system required by the SSP.

This section describes these data formats. Because RDF asks only for those data that are
essential for SSP to perform its load flow, this format is explained first. The following
notations are used in parentheses to denote the type of data.
1. A - Alphanumeric (no special characters)
2. 1 - Integer
3. F - Floating point
4. * - Mandatory item
5. O - Optional
6. b477
- The text string inside the quotes be typed as they are

F.1. The Reduced Data Format

The load flow data is supplied in a data file. The filenarne extensions ".RDF7and ".DAT
are the only permissible filenarne extensions recognized by default by SSP for RDF data
files. Other file extension will be accepted only when the user asks it to accept through a
File Open dialog box. The data files must be saved as ASCII text. No other data formats
are recognized. The use of Tab key is not recornrnended.

The data are read line by line and each line must follow a definite format on how it contains
its data. The lines are grouped into sections with section headers. Data items must be
entered in specific columns. Blank items are pemissible and are interpreted as 0, but it is
advised that a O must be entered in the file for the sake of clarity. There c m be any number
of characters in a line. limited only by the editor on use. Therefore, write comments freely
as you please, to clarify the data, after the last required colurnn of the line.
Title Data*
7---
7---

First line in the file.

1. Columns 0- 10 MVA Base (F*)
2. Columns 1 1-end Information about the system for which the data is
prepared. It is recornmended that the following
information be entered:
Date in format DD/MM/YY, Onginator's name (A),
System name (A), Other comments (A).
Bus Data *
-
Section title *:
1. Columns 1-16 "BUS DATA FOLLOWS" (*)
2. Columns 17-end Comment (AO)

Data count and section information*

1. Columns 1- 1 0 Number of buses (1*)
-.
7 Colurnns 11- 15 "ITEMS" (O)
3. Columns 16-end "Data titles: Bus Number, Bus Type, Pload, Qload,
Pgenr, Voltage, Vmin, Vmax. Pgmin, Pgmax" ( O )
Bus data*
1. Columns 1- 4 Bus number (1*)
2. Columns 5-8 Bus type (I*, perrnissible values 0 to 3)
The bus must be of one of the following four types:
O - Unregulated (load, PQ bus)
1 - Hold MVAR within voltage lirnits, (PQ bus)
2 - Hold voltage within VAR limits (Generator, PV)
3 - Hold voltage and angle (Swinglslack bus bus,
V-Theta) (must always have one)
3. Coiumns 9- 14 Active power. P. of the load in per unit (F*)
4. Columns 17-23 Reactive power. Q, of the load in per unit (F*)
5. Columns 25-29 Active power, P, of the generator in per unit (F*)
6. Columns 33-37 Voltage in per unit (F*)
7. Columns 4 1-46 Minimum permissible voltage in per unit (F)
8. Columns 49-53 Maximum pennissible voltage in per unit (F*)
9. Columns 55-6 1 Minimum permissible active power generation in
per unit (F*, not applicable for PQ buses)
10. Colurnns 63-70 Maximum permissible active power generation in
per unit (F*, not applicable for PQ buses)
Base kV (FO), without this, values of other
quantities, such as power. will be known in per unit.
12. Columns 80-end Cornments (AO)
Section end marker*
1. Columns 1- 4
Branch Data *
----- -
---
Section title*:
1. Columns 1-16 "BRANCH DATA FOLLOWS" (*)
2. Columns 17=end Comrnents (AO)
Data count and section information*
1. Columns 1-10 Number of branches (I*)
2. Columns 1 1- 15 "ITEMS" (O)
3. Columns 16-end "Data titles: Line number, Tap Side Bus, Load Side
Bus, Type. R, X, B/S, Tap, Rating" (O)
Branc h data*
1. Columns 1- 4 Line nurnber (1*)
2. Column 5- 8 Tap side bus number (I*); the tap side of the mode1
for transformers or phase shifters at which the
non-unity tap is on.
3. Columns 9- 12 Z bus number (I*); The side of the mode1 for
transformers and phase shifters at which the the
device impedance is on.
Type O*)
O - Transmission line
1 - Fixed tap
2 - Variable tap for voltage control
3 - Variable tap (turns ratio) for MVAR control
4 - Variable phase angle for MW control (phase
shifter)
5. Columns 17-22 Resistance, R, of the line in per unit (F*)
6. C O ~ U25-30
~ ~ S Series reactance, X, of the line in per unit (F*)
7. Columns 33-38 Line charging susceptance B/2 (F*)
8. C O ~ U4 1-45
~ ~ S Tap setting (transformer tums ratio) (F*)
9. Columns 47-54 MVA rating expressed in per unit (F*)
Section end marker*
1 Columns 1- 4

F.2. The IEEE Common Data Format

Only a partial description of the IEEE Common Data Format for the exchange of solved
load flow data is provide in this manual. The complete description c m be found in the
reference [46]. The data file has lines of up to 128 characters. The lines are grouped into
sections with section headers. Data items are entered in specific columns. No blank items
are ailowed, enter zeros instead. Floating point items should have explicit decimal point.
Title Data
--- --
First line in file.
1. Columns 2- 9 Date, in format DD/MM/YY with leading zeros. If
no date provided, use Ob/Ob/Ob where b is blank.
2. C O ~ U1 1-30
~ ~ S Originator' s name (A)
3. Columns 32-37 MVA Base (F*)
4. C O ~ U39-42
~ ~ S Year (1)
5. Column 44 Season (S - S u m e r , W - Winter)
6- Column 46-73 Case identification (A)

Bus Data *
----
----
Section start line *:
1. Columns 1- 16 "BUS DATA FOLLOWS" *
2. Columns 36-50 Number of items (1")
3. Colurnns 5 1-55 ITEMS
Bus data lines *:
1. Columns 1- 4 Bus number (1) *
2. Columns 7- 17 Narne (A) (left justify) *
3. Columns 19-20 Load flow area number (1) Don't use zero! *
4. Columns 2 1-23 Loss zone number (1)
5. Columns 25-26 Type (1) *
O - Umeguiated (load, PQ)
1 - Hold MVAR generation within limits, (PQ)
2 - Hold voltage within V A R limits (gen, PV)
3 - Hold voltage and angle (swing, V-Theta) (must
always have one)
6. Columns 28-33 Final voltage, p.u. (F) *
7. Columns 34-40 Final angle, degrees (F) *
8. Columns 4 1-49 Load MW (F) *
9. Columns 50-59 Load MVAR (F) *
10. Columns 60-67 Generation MW (F) *
1 1. Columns 68-75 Generation MVAR (F) *
12. Columns 77-83 Base KV (F)
13. Colurnns 85-90 Desired volts (pu) (F) (This is desired remote
voltage if this bus is controlling another bus.)
14. Columns 9 1-98 Maximum MVAR or voltage limit (F)
15. Colurnns 99- 106 Minimum MVAR or voltage lirnit (F)
16. Columns 107-1 14 Shunt conductance G (per unit) (F) *
17. Columns 1 15- 122 Shunt susceptance B (per unit) (F) *
18. Columns 124-127 Remote controlled bus number
Section end line:
1. Columns 1- 4
Branch Data *
---- --
t *:
Section ~ t u tine
1. Columns 1-16 BRANCH DATA FOLLOWS*
2. Columns 36-50 Number of items (1)
3. Column 5 1-55 "ITEMS"
Branch data lines *:
Columns 1- 4 Tap bus number (1) * (the non-unity tap side of the
model for transforrners or phase shifters)
Colurnns 6- 9 Z bus number (1) * (the side of the model the device
irnpedance is on for transformers and phase shifters)
Columns 11- 12 b a d flow area (1)
Columns 13- 14 Loss zone (1)
Column 17 Circuit (1)* (Use 1 for single lines)
Column 19 Type (0 *
O - Transmission line
1 - Fixed tap
2 - Variable tap for voltage control
3 - Variable tap (tums ratio) for MVAR control
4 - Variable phase angle for MW control (phase
shifter)
Columns 20-29 Branch resistance R, per unit (F) *
Columns 30-40 Branch reactance X, per unit (F) * No zero
impedance lines
Columns 4 1-50 Line charging B, per unit (F) * (total line charging,
+BI
Columns 5 1-55 Line MVA rating No 1 (0
Columns 57-6 1 Line MVA rating No 2 (1)
Columns 63-67 Line MVA rating No 3 (0
Columns 69-72 Control bus number
Column 74 Side (0
O - Controlled bus 1s one of the terminais
i - Controlled bus is near the tap side
2 - Controlled bus is near the impedance side (2bus)
Columns 77-82 Transformer final tums ratio (F)
Columns 84-90 Transformer (phase shifter) final angle (F)
Columns 9 1-97 Minimum tap or phase shift (F)
Columns 98- 104 Maximum tap or phase shift (F)
Columns 106- 1 1 1 Step size (F)
Columns 113-1 19 Minimum voltage, MVAR or MW Iirnit (F)
Columns 120-126 Maximum voltage, M V A R or MW limit (F)
Section end line:
1. Columns 1- 4
 Appendix G
Load Flow Input Data for a 9 Bus Test System
Figure G.2. Single line dirgram of ;inine bus power system.
 Appendix H
Test Results

A small sarnple of test results were provided in Chapter 7. More test results are provided
in this appendix.

H.1. Interlock Tests

2. Close isolator 4, as shown in Figure H.1.
Operating state: Normal operating state of the substation.
Result: The SSP refuses to close isolator 4, and displays the message shown
in Figure H.2. The reason for not closing isolator 4 are as follows:
8 Isolator 3, which is parallel to isolator 4 is already closed.
8 Circuit breaker B 1 is in closed state.
rn There is no short circuit path, which could have k e n created
via switches 1, B5 and 2, across isolator 4.

3. Close isolator 4, as shown in Figure H.3.

Operating state: Normal operating state of the substation, but now Bus1 and Bus2
are connected to each other through a bus-coupler circuit, which
comprises of switches 1, BS and 2.
Result: The SSP closes isolator 4 as shown in Figure H.4. The reason for
closing isolator 4 is as follows:
There is now a short circuit path across isolator 4, which is
created via switches 1, BS and 2, across isolator 4.

4. Open isolator 2, as shown in Figure H.5.

Operating state: Normal operating state of the substation, but Bus1 and Bus2 are
connected to each other through a bus-coupler circuit, which
comprises of switches 1, B5 and 2.
Result: The SSP refuses to open isolator 2 and displays the message shown
in Figure H.6. The reasons for not opening isolator 2 are as follows:
The adjacent circuit breaker B5, which is contained in the
same branch as isolator 2, is not open.

5. Open isolator 4, as shown in Figure H.7.

Operating state: The operating state that resulted after performing Test 3.
Result: The SSP opens isolator 5 as shown in Figure H.8. The reasons for
opening the isolator 4 is as follows:
There is a short circuit path across isolator 4 via the bus
coupler circuit that comprises of switches 1, B5 and 2.

8. Open isolator 13, as shown in Figure H.9.

Operating state: The operating state that resulted after performing Test 7.
Result: The SSP opens isolator 13 as shown in Figure H. 10. The reasons for
opening the isolator are follows:
Circuit breaker B3 adjoining isolator 13 is open.
Isolator 13 does not intempt any load or fault current.

9. Close isolator 8 in Substation 2, as shown in Figure H. 1 1.

Operating state: Normal operating state of the substation. Circuit parallel to isolator
8 is feeding power supply to Loadl. Circuit breaker B3, c m isolate
the circuit if a fault appears anywhere in Loadl.
Result: The SSP does not close isolator 8 but displays a message as shown
in Figure H. 12. The reasons for not closing the isolator are follows:
There is no short circuit path across isolator 8.
The branch parallel to the isolator is carrying curent.

1o. Open isolator 13, as shown in Figure H. 13.

Operating state: Normal operating state of the substation. The branch containing
isolator 13 also contains circuit breaker B3 which closed and the
branch is feeding Load 1.
Result: The SSP does not open isolator 13 but displays message as shown
in Figure H.14. The reasons for not opening the isolator are as
 follows:
Circuit breaker 83, adjoining isolator 13, is in closed state.
Isolator 13 interrupts the load current flowing to Load 1 if
the isolator were to be opened.

Il. Open circuit breaker B2, as shown in Figure H. 15.

Operating state: Normal operating state of the substation. The branch containing
circuit breaker B2 connects the Source 2 with the rest of the circuits.
Result: The SSP does not open circuit breaker B2 but displays message cts
shown in Figure H.16. The reason for not opening the circuit
breaker is as follows:
Circuit breaker B2 would intempt current flowing through
Source 2.
Assume that the operator chose to cancel the operation and chose
to provide an altemate connection between Source 2 and the rest of
the lines.

12. Close isolator 1, as shown in Figure H. 17. (It is intended to energize

Bus2 through the bus coupler circuit containing isolator 1 .)
Operating state: Normal operating state of the substation. that prevailed after
selecting option "No" in the previous test. Busl and Bus2 are
disconnected.
Result: The SSP closes isolator 1 as shown in Figure H.18 (where a
cornrnand to operate isolator 2 is k i n g issued). The reasons for
closing the isolator are as follows:
Adjoining circuit breaker B5 is open.
The isolator does not rnake or break currents.

13. Close isolator 2, as shown in Figure H. 18.

Operating state: Operating state of the substation that resulted after performing Test
12. Busl and Bus2 are still disconnected.
Result: The SSP closes isolator 1 as shown in Figure H.19 (where a
comrnand to operate circuit breaker BS is k i n g issued). The reasons
for closing the isolator are as follows:
 Adjoining circuit breaker B5 is open.
The isolator does not make or break currents.

14. Close circuit breaker B5,as shown in Figure H. 19.

Operating state: Operating state of the substation that resulted after perforrning Test
13. Busl and Bus2 are still disconnected.
Result: The SSP closes circuit breaker B5 as shown in Figure H.20 (where
a command to operate isolator 6 is k i n g issued). The reasons for
closing the circuit breaker are as follows:
It does not overload any circuit.
It does not create any ground fault.
This operation energizes Bus2 ans it is safe to energize Bus2 in this
manner because circuit breaker B5 could isolate Bus2 again in case
a fault is encountered in Bus2

15. Close isolator 6, as shown in Figure H.20.

Operating state: Operating state of the substation that resulted after perforrning Test
14. Bus2 is now energized.
Result: The SSP closes isolator 6 as shown in Figure H.21 (where a
cornrnand to open circuit breaker B2 is k i n g issued). The reasons
for closing the isolator are as follows:
It has a short circuit path across it via switches 12. B2,5, 1,
B5, and 2.
The short circuit path includes its affiliated circuit breaker
B5.
This operation has now created a short circuit path across the
branch containing the switches 12, B2 and 5. Source 2 is, therefore,
connected to Bus 1 via two alternate routes.

16. Open circuit breaker B2, as shown in Figure H.2 1.

Operating state: Operating state of the substation that resulted after performing Test
15. Source 2 is now connected to Busl through two parallel paths.
Result: The SSP opens circuit breaker B2 as shown in Figure H.22 (where
a command to open isolator 5 is k i n g issued). The reasons for
 closing the circuit breaker are as follows:
It does not break the connection between Source 2 and the
rest of the lines.
a It does not cause overloading of lines.
The circuit breaker can now be safeiy isoiated by opening isolators
5 and 12 as demonstrated in the next two tests.

17. Open isolator 5, as shown in Figure H.22.

Operating state: Operating state of the substation that resulted after performing Test
16. Branch containing the isolator is now open.
Result : The SSP opens isolator 5 as shown in Figure H.23 (where a
command to open isolator 12 is being issued). The reasons for
closing the isolator are as follows:
It does not intempt currents in the circuit.
Its adjoining circuit breaker B2 is open.

18. Open isolator 12, as shown in Figure H.23.

Operating state: Operating state of the substation that resulted after performing Test
17. Branch containing the isolator is still open.
Result: The SSP opens isolator 12 as shown in Figure H.24. The reasons for
closing the isolator are as follows:
It does not intempt currents in the circuit.
O Its adjoining circuit breaker B2 is open.
The circuit breaker B2 is now fülly isolated. Substation personnel
can now perform maintenance work on B2 after appropriately
grounding it.

20. Open isolator 143. as shown in Figure H.25.

Operating state: Normal operating state of the substation.
Result: The SSP refuses to open 143 and displays the message shown in
Figure H.26. The reason for not opening the switch is as follows:
Circuit breaker C 4 is closed, when its status tells that it c m
be opened. When C4 is "healthy". it must be opened first
before opening isolator 143.
 Now it is found that the grounding switch will not open till ail three
isolators around it are open and the isolators would not open unless
the circuit breaker C4 is open.

21. Open circuit breaker C4, as shown in Figure H.27.

Operating state: Normal operating state of the substation.
Result: The SSP does not open the circuit breaker C4 but displays a warning
message as shown in Figure H.28. The SSP warned because it found
that the opening of C4 will intermpt the load current flowing
tfirough line 7L4.

At this instance, the SSP had given two choices, either to proceed
ahead and open the circuit breaker or to back off and not open it.
For we are going to test the effect of opening the circuit breaker on
the status of its adjoining switches, the "Yes" button to permit the
SSP to open the switch was selected.

22. Open isolator 143, as shown in Figure H.29.

Operating state: Operating state resulting after the last test. The circuit breaker C4
has k e n opened by selecting "Yes" in the dialog box shown in
Figure H.29. It is apparent from the figure that the opening of circuit
breaker C4 has caused the isolators, 141,143and 144 to be enabled.
Result: The SSP opens isolator 143. Figure H.30 shows the resulting status
of the switxhes, where a command to open another isolator is k i n g
issued. The reason for not operating 143 are as follows:
Grounding switch G42 is open and circuit breaker C4 is
open. It is, therefore, not locked by the interlock expression
that blocked the operation during Test 20.
It does not interrupt currents and does not alter the voltages
or currents in the circuit.
The status of grounding switches G4 1and G42 indicate that they are
still disabled.

Open isolator 141, as shown in Figure H.30.

Operating state: Operating state resulting after Test 22. The switches C4 and 143 are
now open. The isoiator 14 1 is enabled since the circuit breaker C4
was opened..
Result: The SSP closes isolator 14 1. The resulting state of the substation is
shown in Figure H.3 1 . The reasons for opening the isolator are as
follows:
O Isolator 142. grounding switch G41 and circuit breaker C4
are open. The isolator is, therefore, not locked by its
interlock expression.
Isolator 14 1 does not interrupt currents and does not alter the
voltages or currents in the circuit.
The status of grounding switches G4 1 and G42 indicate that they are
now free to operate. This is because the circuit breaker C4 is open
and isolators 141,142 and 143 are open.

24. Close grounding switch G42, as shown in Figure H.32.

Operating state: That resulted after performing Test 23. The grounding switches G4 1
and G42 are free to operate.
Result: The SSP closes grounding switch G42 as shown in Figure H.33.
This was possible because of the foilowing reasons:
The circuit k i n g grounded is fully isolated from the rest of
the circuit.
The switches 143 and C4 are now disabled. The SSP wiil not close
them unless the grounding switch G42 is opened again.

25. Close grounding switch G4 1, as shown in Figure H.34.

Operating state: That resulted d e r perfomiing Test 24. The grounding switches G42
is closed and G41 is free to operate.
Result: The SSP closes grounding switch G4L as shown in Figure H.35.
This was possible because of the following reasons:
The circuit k i n g grounded is fully isolated from the rest of
the circuit.
The switches 141,142,143 and C4 are now disabled. The SSP will
not close them unless the grounding switches are opened again.
 The switches C4.14 1 and 143 again become enabled, when G4 1 and
G43 are opened.

While performing these tests, isolator 142 remained disabled except

when isolator 141 was open,

26. Close bus coupler CO, as shown in Figure H.36.

Operating state: Normal operating state except that isolators IO1 and 102 of the bus
coupler circuit are closed. Isolators 112, 122, 132, 142, 152 are
disabled as the isolator adjacent to them and connected to Bus 1 are
closed.
Result: The SSP closes CO. as shown in Figure H.37. This was possible
because of the following reason:
O The closing of the circuit breaker does not alter the flow of
current in systern.
The switches 141, 142, 143 and C4 are now enabled due to the
following reason:
There is a shon circuit path across them via the bus coupler
circuit.

H.2. Switching Sequence Test

A small sample of the results of switching sequence tests were provided in Chapter 7. Sorne
more test results are provided in this appendix.

27: Disconnect Loadl from busbars, as shown in Figure H.38.

Operating state: Normal. Al1 lines are connected to Bus 1. The auxiliary bus Bus2 is
not energized.
Result: The SSP disconnects Load 1 from Bus 1 as shown in Figure H.39 by
opening the following switches:
Circuit breaker B3
Isolator 7
In this case, the circuit breaker has been opened before the isolator
so that the current flowing through the circuit between Loadl and
 Bus1 is already interrupted before the isolator starts opening.

28: Disconnect Source 1 from busbars, as shown in Figure H.40.

Operating state: The state that resulted after executing Test 27. Loadl is now
disconnected from the busbars.
Result: The SSP disconnects Source 1 from Bus 1 as shown in Figure H.4 1
by opening the following switches:
Circuit breaker B I
Isolator 3
Again in this case, the circuit breaker has k e n opened before the
isolator.

29: Connect Source 1 to Load 1, as shown in Figure H.42.

Operating state: The state that resulted after executing Test 28. Lines Loadl and
Source 1 are both disconnected from the busbars.
Result: The SSP connects Source 1 with Load 1 as shown in Figure H.43 by
opening the following switches:
Isolator 7
Isolator 3
Circuit breaker B 1
Circuit breaker B3
In this case, the foliowing events are taking place:
The isolators have been closed before the circuit breakers
ensuring that the isolators do not make any current.
When the circuit breakers are closed, the source side breaker
is closed before the load side breaker.
The lines are connected via Bus1 not Bus2. The SSP has
chosen an already energized (and also having higher
priority) bus in establishing the connections.

30: A. Disconnect Loadl from bus, as shown in Figure H.44.

B. Disconnect Load3 from busbars, sirnilady as done for Loadl.
Operating state: Normal operating state. This is Test Substation 3 as shown in Figure
7.3.
Result: A. The SSP disconnects Load 1 from Bus 1 by opening the following
switches:
Circuit breaker B3
Isolator 7
B. The SSP disconnects Load3 from Bus3 and Bus4 by opening the
following switches:
Circuit breaker B8
Circuit breaker B 12
The final state of the switches are shown in Figure H.45,which also
shows the event log that records the order of operations.

3 1: A. Connect Loadl to bus, as shown in Figure H.46.

B. Connect Load3 to bus, as done for Load 1.
Operating state: The state that resulted after perfonning Test 30.
Result: A. The SSP connects Loadl to Bus1 by closing the following
switches:
Isolator 7
Circuit breaker B3
B. The SSP connects Load3 to Bus3 and Bus4 by closing the
following switches:
Circuit breaker B8
Circuit breaker B 12
The final state of the switches are shown in Figure H.47, which also
shows the event log that records the order of operations. The SSP
automatically recognizes the differences in the configuration of the
sections of the busbars. It connects the load to both the busbars
when a circuit breaker was available on paths leading to each
busbar. The isolators have been closed before the circuit breakers
when connecting a line to a busbar.

32: A. Disconnect h a d 2 from busbar, sirnilarly as done in earlier tests.

B. Declare isolator 9 as unhedthy as shown in Figure H.48.
C. Connect b a d 2 to busbar as shown in Figure H.49.
Operating state: Operating state that resulted after perfonning Test 31.
Result: A. The SSP disconnects Load2 from Bus 1 by opening the following
switches:
Circuit breaker B4
Lsolator 9
B. The SSP declares isolator 9 as "unheaithy".
C. The SSP connects Load2 to Busl by closing the following
switches:
Isolator 10
Isolator 14
Isolator 13
Circuit breaker B5
Circuit breaker B4
The final state of the switches are shown in Figure H.50, which also
shows the event log that records the order of operations. The SSP
connected the load to both the energized busbar Busl of its own
bus-section via Bus2 and the bus-coupler circuit. The SSP closed
the isolators involved in the path before the circuit breakers when
connecting a line to a busbar.

33: Disconnect 7L4 from busbar, as shown in Figure H S 1.

Operating state: Normal. This is Test Substation 6 as shown in Figure 7.6.
Result: The SSP disconnects line 7L4 from the busbars by opening the
following switches:
Circuit breaker C4
Isolator 14 1
Isolator 143
Isolator 144

The final state of the switches are shown in Figure H.52, which also
shows the event log that records the order of operations.

The following points are to be noted in this operation:

The SSP opened the circuit breaker involved in the path
before opening isolators.
 The SSP opened load side switches first and progressed
towards the source side switches.
a The SSP opened the isolators 143 and 144,which it would
not do in the absence of G42 and in the absence of
branching off the node between 143 and 144.

35: Transfer lines from busbar Bus 1 to Bus 2, as shown in Figure H.53.
Operating state: Normal. Al1 lines of the left section are connected to Bus 1 and al1
lines of the right section are connected to Bus3.
Result: The SSP closed the following switches:
Bus coupler isolator 1 and 2
Bus coupler circuit breaker B5
Bus selector switches 4,6,10 and 8
Bus sectiondizing isolator 16
Bus coupler isolators 18 and 17
Bus coupler circuit breaker B 10
The SSP then opened the following switches:
Bus sectionalizing isolator 15
Bus selector switches 3, 5, 7 and 9
Bus coupler circuit breaker B5
Bus coupler isolators 2 and 1.
The state of the substation after transferring the lines from Bus 1 to
Bus2 and the switching operations carried during the process are
shown in Figure H.54.During this bus transfer process the SSP has
performed the following operations:
Energize Bus2 through bus coupler circuit and bring Bus 1
and Bus2 to the sarne voltage level.
Create a short circuit path across the bus selector switched.
Connect al1 the lines to Bus2 via the bus selector switches
adjoining Bus2.
Connect Bus2 to the energized bus of the next section,
which is Bus3, vis bus sectionalizing switch.
Disconnect Bus 1 from the adjoining section.
Prepare lines to disconnect from Bus1 by opening bus
 selector switches adjacent to Bus 1.
I, Disconnect Bus1 from Bus2 by opening the bus coupler
circuit between them.

37: Isolate the circuit breaker B6,as shown in Figure H.55.

Operating state: Normal but it is required to isolate the circuit breaker B6 to perfonn
scheduled maintenance. This is the Test Substation 5 shown in
Figure H.5.
Result: The SSP closed the following switches:
Bus coupler isolators 17 and 18
Bus coupler circuit breaker B 10
Bus transfer isolator 20
The SSP then opened the following switches:
Circuit breaker B6
Isolators IO 1 and 102,which are adjoining to B6
The state of the substation after isolating the circuit breaker B6 and
the switching operations carried during the process are shown in
Figure H.56. During this process the SSP has performed the
following operations:
O Energize Bus2 through bus coupler circuit
O Connect Source3 to Bus2, and, therefore to Bus 1, providing
an altemate route of power flow between Source3 and the
rest of the lines.
O Interrupt the current flowing through B6
O Isolate B6 by opening the isolators imrnediately surrounding
it.
39: Isolate Bus 1, as shown in Figure H.57.
Operating state: Normal. This is Test Substation 5 as shown in Figure 7.5.
Result: The SSP isolated Busl. The lines connected to Bus1 were first
connected to Bus2 by closing the following switches:
Bus coupler switches 1.2 and B5
Bus selector isolators 4,6, 10,8
Bus sectionalizing isolator 16
Bus coupler switches 18, 17 and B10
 The SSP then isolates the bus by opening the following switches:
Bus sectionalizing isolator 15
Bus selectors 3, 5, 7 , 9
Bus coupler switches B5,2,and 1
The final state of the substation and the switching operations
recorded in the event log are shown in Figure H.58.

40: Isolate busbar Bus 1, as shown in Figure H.59.

Operating state: Normal except that Bus1 needed to be taken out of service for
maintenance. This test is carried on Test Substation 7 shown in
Figure 7.7.
Result: The SSP isolates Bus1 by first connecting al1 lines to Bus2 by
closing the following switches:
Bus coupler isolator 102, IO1 and CO
Bus selector isolators I42,152,112,I22 and 132
The SSP then opens the foHowing switches to isolate Bus 1:
Bus selector isolators 141.15 1-11 1, ï2 1 and U 1
Bus coupler switches CO, IO 1 and 102
The final state of the substation and the switching operations
recorded in the event log are shown in Figure H.60.

41: Declare isolator 9 as not healthy, as shown in Figure H.6 1.

Operating state: Normal state of Test Substation 3 shown in Figure 7.3, except that
Load2 is disconnected from the busbars.
Result : The SSP treated isolator as not healthy. The status of the switch was
changed and the isolator 9 was displayed with red color as shown in
Figure H.62 where a command is k i n g issued to connect Load2 to
a busbar.

42: Connect Load2 to a busbar, as shown in Figure H.62.

Operating state: State of Test Substation 3 after performing Test 41. Load2 is
disconnected from the busbars and isolator 9 is not operable.
Result: The SSP connected Load2 to BUS 1. The final configuration of the
substation and the switches operated during the process are shown
 in Figure H.63. The SSP closed the following switches to energize
Load2:
Bus selector isolator 10
Bus coupler isolators 14 and 13
Bus coupler circuit breaker B5
Line breaker B4
The SSP performed the foIlowing operations during this process.
a Avoided isolator 9 when creating a power flow path
a Connected Load2 to BUS 1that was already energized; it did
not simply connect to BUS2 that was not energized
a Chose an energized busbar of its own section than from
another section

Issue the following commands in a sequence:

A. Disconnect line 7L4 from busbars; issue the command as shown
in Figure H.64 and capture the result in Figure H.65.
B. Issue a command to bypass circuit breaker C4 as shown in Figure
H.66.
C. Connect line 7LA to busbar, as shown in Figure H.67.
Operating state: Normal Al1 the lines are connected to Bus 1.
Result: A. The SSP disconnects Iine 7 U by opening the following
switches:
Circuit breaker C4
Isolators 141,143 and 144
The state of the substation is shown in Figure H.65.
B. The SSP puts circuit breaker C4 in "bypass" mode to exclude it
from new power flow paths. This state change is captured by the
event log shown in Figure H.66.
C. The SSP connects line 7L4 to Bus1 while bypassing circuit
breaker B4 by closing the following switches:
Isolators 144,146
Bus coupler switches 102,101 and CO
The final state of the substation and the switches operated dunng the
transition are shown in Figure H.68.
H.3. Validating voltage and current limits

The effect of operating a switch on bus voltages and line currents of the system are
evaiuated by performing load flow calculations. This section presents how the SSP
facilitates the incorporation of the load flow data of the system in the validation of
switching operations and presentation of line currents and bus voltages for graphical
cornparison of their values.

A 9 bus system configuration as shown in Figure H.69 is used in this section to illustrate
the effects. Test Substation 4, shown in Figure 7.4, is to be represented by bus 3 of the 9
bus system represented the substation. Source2 of the substation is connected to the system
bus 9 via transmission line 8. Sourcel, Loadl and Load2 of the substation are lumped and
represented by a single source, 3, in the power system diagram of Figure H.69. System bus
1 is used as a slack bus, where the voltage magnitude is kept constant at 1.O5 per unit, and
voltage phase angle is considered as O degree. This bus injects the active and reactive power
not supplied by the rest of the generating units in the system to fulfil the load demand. The
phase angles of al1 other buses are measured with reference to that of the slack bus. Buses
2 and 3 of the 9 bus system are voltage controlled, where the magnitude of the voltage is
kept at 1.00 per unit and the amount of active power injected into the buses are kept
constant at 1.25 per unit. All other buses are load buses and the active and reactive power
drawn from those buses are known.

Figure 1 of Appendix H shows the bus data and line data of the nine bus power system. In
the tables, the per unit values are measured on a 100 MVA base. After acquinng the bus
data and line data o f the power system the substation switching scheme is updated to
incorporate the data when making the switching decisions. The SSP has the following
interfaces to specify the system data to the switching scheme:

O Edit the single line diagram of the power system as shown

in Figure H.69.
Edit the single line diagram of the substation as shown in
Figure H.70 and from the menu select: "Edit" and
"Properties" as shown in Figure H.70.
SpeciQ system bus number to be 3, as shown in Figure
H.7 1. Similarly specie the filenames and directories of the
 input and output data files. The minimum and maximum
voltage levels within which the bus voltage of the substation
is permitted to fluctuate.
9
Specify the active and reactive powers at the sources and
loads through data dialog boxes as shown in Figure H.72.
O
Specify the properties of the input-output nodes that are
connected to adjoining substations. These nodes use two
extra enûy of data to represent the line number of the system
that leads to this node and the bus number of the adjoining
substation. In the example, Source2 shown in Figure H.72
connects this substation with system bus 9 (Bus9) via line 8.

A. Run Load Flow as shown in figure H.73.(A command that

involves operation of switches such as Open-switch, Close-switch,
Connect-line, Disconnect-line and Isolate-component automatically
causes the load-flow program to be envoked in the background. This
command activates the load flow calculations even when any
switching operation in not under way.
B. Plot Voltage, Current as shown in figure H.74.
Operating state: Normal operating state of the substation. Al1 lines of Test
Substation 4 are connected t o Bus 1.
Result: A. No overloading of line or abnormal bus-voltage is encountered
as indicated in Figure 6.75.
B. An application named PlotData is launched and linked with the
data-files generated by the load-flow program. The quantity to be
plotted are selected from PlotData by using its Quantity menu. The
type of graph are selected among Line, 3D-bar and 2D-bar, which
is the default graph type. To plot the bus voltage vaiues of al1
system buses, the selection are made as shown in Figure H.76. The
plot for the case under analysis appears as shown in Figure H.77.
The numerical value of the data also appear on an edit box beside
the graph. The selection made to plot the line current values is
shown in Figure H.78; the plot and part of the numenc data file are
shown in Figure H.79.
;.
2
b3
1 -
- 4,; \-
3 'ri
Figure H.13. Command being issued io open isolütor 13.
'Ji
. .
brrr'
I- l - - 1-Y
l a d
- -- - - ----- - -

Figure H.25. Comrnand k i n g issued to open isolator 143.

 -

Figure H.26. The SSP refuses to operate 143 and displays the reason for the refusal.
Figure H.27. Cornmand k i n g issued to open circuit breaker C4.

248
 1

Figure H38. The SSP wams about the interruption of current, and gives
- a chance to
cancel the closing operation.
Figure H . 3 . The SSP has opened isolator 143 and a cornrnand is k i n g issued to open
isolator 14 1 .
Figure H.31. The SSP has opened isolator 141 and enabled grounding switches G41
and G42.
Figure H32. Command k i n g issued to close grounding switch G42.
 I

Figure H.35. The SSP has closed grounding switch G41 and has disabled isolators 141
and 142.
Figure H.36. Cornrnand is k i n g issued to close circuit breaker CO.
 :it , CL* 1

F q A42

~ ~
134
4 1

Figure H.37. Switches 112,122,132,142 and 152 are enabled.

 Comnand: Disconnect
Loadl £rom buses

B3 : Open
7: Open

Command: Disconnect
Load3 £ rom buses

B8: Open
B12: Open

Command: Connect Loadl

7: Close
B3: Close

Comnand: Connect Load3

B8: Close
B12: Close

Figure H.47. Loadl and Lod3 connect back to the busbürs.

Figure H.49. Connecting Load2 to the busbar.
 :amand: Disconnect IL4 fror, buses 1
:4: Open
141: Open
143: Open
144: Open

Figure H.52. The stütus of switches after the SSP disconnccts line 7L4 from the busbürs.
 Connand : Transf e r
Busl t o Bus2

1: Close
2: Close
ES: Close
b: Close
5: Close
10: Close
): Close
16: Close
18: Close
17: Close
310: Close

15: Open
3: Open
i: Open
1 : Open
P: Open
B5: Open
1: Open
1: Open

Figure H.54. The substation after the SSP transferred lines from Busl to Bus2.
Figure H.55. Command being issued to isolate circuit breaker 86.
Figure H.62. The SSP has declared isolator 9 as not healthy and a command is being issued to connect Loüd2 to the busbar.
 Connand : Disconnect 7 ~ &
1,:

C4 : Open
141: Open
143: Open
144: Open

Comnand: Bypass C4 c

C4 : DontBypass = FALSE -
1

c
Comrnand: Conncct 7L4 to

144: Close
146: Close
1 0 2 : Close
101: Close
-
"'CO: Close

Figure H.68. Connection made between line 7L4 and Bus I while bypüssing C4.
 I l ,
14 1 1

Ebtk ... . .,.....'... . - d k aVh y ...

. . :w*d . .. .,

r:,,~
< ., ,

1-lNUM
, , I
1

;: - .*2 : . .4 ; , . . , . . .. . . , .. L . ' . . ~

Figure H a 7 0 a Command king issued to edit data that relate the substation with the power system.
?-- O-, cl
Figure H.75. Graph plott ing program being launched.
 l ~ ~ s t eData
m 1
--

S ynem Wide Dda :0LFLhD.dat

I Line nunber
I
Figure H.79. Display of the load-flow output data in numeric form along with the graphical plot.