MATHEMATICS in BRITISH SECONDARY SCHOOLS: Curriculum Projects

Author(s): Lawrence G. Campbell

Source: The Mathematics Teacher, Vol. 62, No. 4 (APRIL 1969), pp. 329-333
Published by: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
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 INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICAL EDUCATION

Edited byHoward F. Fehr, Teachers College, Columbia University

New York, New York

inBRITISH
MATHEMATICS SCHOOLS:
SECONDARY
Curriculum
Projects
By Lawrence G. Campbell, United States Air Force Academy, Colorado

NOT long after American teachers be ities, but hardly any financial aid has come
gan the current reconstruction of the sec from the national government in Great
ondary mathematics curriculum, British Britain.
mathematicians and educators, also recog The British program that has been
nizing the need for rejuvenation, insti most widely accepted is that of the School
tuted several projects for reform of an Mathematics Project, started in 1961 by
out-of-date curriculum. Among these, the four secondary school teachers and one
programs of the School Mathematics Proj university professor.1 Their objective was
ect and the Midlands Mathematical Ex to produce student texts and teachers'
periment are most frequently cited. guides for an entirely new secondary
American programs, such as that of the school curriculum. All new material was
School Mathematics Study Group, were to be tested in the classroom before pub
usually organized by university mathe lication, and revised on the basis of that
maticians and professors, but secondary experience. The publication schedule is
school teachers were brought in as mem now virtually completed, with texts in
bers of writing teams to prepare materials. print that cover the years corresponding
Although the division of labor in the Brit to our sixth through twelfth grades. SMP
ish programs is similar, schoolmasters form materials are now in use in about 3,000
a larger proportion of the leadership of schools in England. [5]*
experimental projects in England. The subject matter of the SMP texts
Federal funds play an important part includes topics that would be familiar to
in supporting American programs?writ American teachers: equations, ratio and
ing projects and summer institutes for proportion, the Pythagorean theorem,
teachers have been financed generously trigonometry, the circle, three-dimen
by the National Science Foundation, al sional geometry?topics that have long
though universities and private founda been included in the curriculum. Many
tions have also supplied funds. While "modern" topics are also included: sets,
private foundations play an important identity and inverse, relationship and
role in supporting British programs, some
of the successful projects have had no 1The
university professor, Bryan Thwaites, now
financial support, and have been carried at Westfield College, London University, had been for
on by teachers in addition to their normal some years a teacher of mathematics at Winchester
College, a secondary school.
classroom duties. A little support has been * Numbers in brackets refer to references at end
given by local and regional school author of article.

International mathematical education 329

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 function, vectors, topology, flow diagrams, college; his British counterpart may have
matrices, probability, geometric transfor studied calculus over a period of years
mations?some of which rarely appear in before entering university?not all in one
American texts. The great difference, dose, but scattered throughout the last
however, is in the sequence of the topics in two or three years of secondary school.
the curriculum. An intuitive introduction to the idea of a
Even in modern programs, American slope of a curve at a point is often given to
schools tend to retain the division of thirteen-year-olds, and virtually all math
secondary school mathematics into one ematics programs, traditional and mod
year blocks: a year of algebra, a year of ern, present derivatives and integrals in
geometry, another year of algebra, and the texts used for sixteen-year-olds. Texts
then a course in something else, lasting for A-level students, those who study
for another year. The "something else" mathematics from age sixteen to eighteen,
used to be trigonometry and solid geom include the material that would be con
etry?a half year each?but now may be tained in the usual American college cal
Elementary Functions, Analytic Geom culus text.
etry, Introductory Calculus, Matrix Alge Some of the leaders in mathematics
bra, Probability, or a course called Anal education in England take an attitude
ysis containing topics from several towards mathematical rigor that differs
branches of mathematics. It has been from that of many American leaders. In
traditional in British schools to present "Some Lessons in Mathematics" [2], a
the same subject matter in a more inter handbook published by the Association of
laced fashion, with boundaries between Teachers of Mathematics, appears the
the areas all but disappearing. In one following: "... we do not confuse what
school that has not yet embraced "mod is often called 'modern mathematics'
ern" mathematics, the third-year syllabus with mathematics treated axiomatically.
(eighth grade) includes ratio, squares and For most purposes axiomatics are not im
square roots, four-figure tables, the binary portant . . . and for most children the
system, exponents and logarithms, area appeal of axiomatics is slight." This point
and volume of cylinder, pyramid, and of view is especially evident in the treat
cone, the Pythagorean theorem, slope of ment of geometry. The teacher's manual
a straight line, the tangent ratio, similarity to accompany Book 2 of the School Math
and congruence of triangles, tangents to a ematics Project says of the Pythagorean
circle, simple and simultaneous equations, theorem: "We should like to think that
fractions, and factors. It is significant that [the children] have the intellectual curi
topics from algebra, geometry, trigonom osity to ask why the theorem 'works.'
etry, and coordinate geometry are all in Should this curiosity not be present, or
cluded in the work of this one year?but should the teacher not be able to induce it,
as traditional mathematics! Such a se then [theproof]might best be omitted."
quence, of course, facilitates the introduc In Book 3 of the School Mathematics
tion of modern topics, and permits a Project, a definition of a circle is given
gradual evolvement from traditional to only after several questions about circles
modern conceptions of the subject. in the physical world and some construc
Another difference in the British ap tion exercises. Then, in a set of fifteen exer
proach to subject matter is that calculus cises, some involving construction, others
has traditionally appeared in the secon requiring thought and discussion, many of
dary school curriculum. It is not uncom the familiar properties of circles are intro
mon for an American engineering student duced, with no formal summary following,
to receive his first acquaintance with and no theorems proved.
derivatives and integrals as a freshman in A similar approach is used by SMP in

330 The Mathematics Teacher | April 1969

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 calculus in Book 2 of its Advanced Math and sines and cosines as derived from unit
ematics text. The chain rule is introduced vectors.

through several worked examples, then The subject matter of MME differs
the students are asked to "write down most significantly from SMP in its ap
what you think will be the derived func proach to geometry. School Mathematics
tion" of several more functions. An intui Project texts introduce ideas of symmetry,
tive explanation follows, but a proof of the and reflection and rotation, in early vol
rule is not attempted. umes, then move into matrix transforma
The SMP texts seem to reverse the tions and a study of networks and topolog
roles of textbook and teacher; traditional ical equivalence. In MME, eleven-year
texts present the formal conclusions, and olds begin their study of geometry by
leave the real teaching?the introduction learning how to plot bearing and distance
to new ideas and the relations with the in navigation problems. Later, the ideas
real world?to the teacher. SMP texts do are extended to "eastings" and "north
the hard part by guiding the student ings," whence a short step takes them to
through some experiences that could lead vectors as pairs of ordered numbers.
to discovery, and leave the summarizing Vector concepts are then used to establish
to the teacher. This emphasis on discovery many properties of triangles and quadri
is similar to that advocated by some of the laterals that in other texts are developed
American programs: what the student by Euclidean proofs. Although the devel
does is more important than what the opment of mathematical ideas in these
teacher does. texts is often carried on through children's
The Midlands Mathematical Experi experience in construction and measure
ment, under the direction of Cyril Hope, ment, the notion of proof does arise. Stu
Principal Lecturer atWorcester College of dents are asked to "draw conclusions"
Education, states that it "... is con about figures, and a sequence of reasoned
cerned to construct a new syllabus which steps is required. Some of the early ideas
(i) takes notice of contemporary mathe of symmetry are conveyed through exer
matics, (ii) includes contemporary uses of cises in paper-folding, as are the notions
mathematics in industry and science, (iii) about the various centers of the triangle.
puts mathematics into a setting which the In explaining its vector approach to
pupils recognize as within their experi geometry, the leadership of MME points
ences of the twentieth century, (iv) is out that in the traditional study of geom
taught in the light of educational develop etry, three starts are made: first in Eu
ments of the past thirty years paying due clidean geometry, which lacks mathe
attention to providing background ex matical structure in its early stages and
perience, aiming at insight into structure becomes unwieldy when applied to conies;
and encouraging pupils to recognize the then in coordinate geometry, which be
patterns into which mathematical ideas comes bulky when applied to more than
fall" [1]. two dimensions; and finally in vector
Textbooks published by theMidlands geometry, which is more easily applied to
Mathematical Experiment are in use in further dimensions. MME further suggests
about 140 schools [3].Following theusual that many teachers, having learned about
British custom, all areas of mathematics vectors as university undergraduates, are
are included in the subject matter for any not comfortable with them because they
single year. Work for twelve-year-olds, for lack the familiaritythat is gained by a
instance, includes probability, significant slow process begun early with a basis of
figures and estimation, logarithms, trans concrete application.
formations, matrices, slide rule, ratio, The two projects described have made
number sets, the circle, vector geometry, a clear break with the traditional curricu

International mathematical education 331

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 lum for British secondary schools. The be shown?multiple choice and short
secondary school teachers have varied answer testing have not become well
greatly in their reaction to the proposed established in England.
changes. Some schools, notably the well The examination system in Britain,
established "public schools," have em however, is flexible enough to accom
braced the innovations without hesitation; modate the needs of new programs. All of
others have ignored the new programs. the university examining boards have
Some are interested but cautious; others accepted examinations that test the new
are strongly opposed to any change. Many subject matter, and the universities con
schools are hesitant to attempt a new pro sider successful performance on the new
gram that may not lead to success on the tests sufficient evidence of mathematical
"
O "-level examination. competence. A recent School Mathematics
In America, local school authorities, and Project "0"-level test [4] (the "0" stands
even individual teachers, set their own for "Ordinary," as distinguished from
examination standards. CEEB tests may "A"-level?"Advanced") consists of two
serve as an evaluation of student perfor parts : the first part contains fifteen short
mance, but chiefly as a selection tool for answer questions such as "Express 2134
further education. The individual school as a number written to base 10," "State
decides who passes a course in algebra or the smallest possible value of y if
?
geometry. In England, credit for schooling 2y 3 > 5," "State the coordinates of
is given on the basis of performance on a the reflectionof the point (3, 2) in the
test constructed and graded by a commit line = 1." Another involves
question
tee appointed by one of several university stating the number of elements in the
examining boards. The "0"-level tests union of two sets, having been given the
are taken at the end of the fifth secondary number in each set and in the intersection.
school year?our tenth grade. Another requires the student to multiply
A recent "0"-level examination [6], for two 2X2 matrices. The second part of
which two and a half hours were allotted, the examination consists of eleven ques
consisted of twelve problems, of which tions of multiple-choice form. The mathe
two of the last four could be omitted. The matical skills include much traditional
problems included such skills as simpli work such as evaluating trigonometric
fying fractions in algebra, evaluating ex functions and geometric locus, but some
pressions using exponents, computing questions are about reflections and rota
percents, solving a quadratic equation by tions, symmetry, and probability. The
means of the Quadratic Formula, solving third part of the examination consists of
a pair of linear simultaneous equations, eight more short-answer questions, about
calculating some angles involving tangents evenly divided between traditional and
to a circle, proving a pair of triangles to be new topics.
congruent, a simple construction problem, The scope of education in Britain is
calculating the volume of a solid of broadening. It is planned in the near fu
revolution, finding the slope of a tangent ture to increase the school-leaving age to
to a parabola at a given point, finding the sixteen, and teachers must find new topics
length of a belt around two pulleys of given in mathematics that appeal to broader
size, using trigonometric functions to find ranges of ability. Leaders of the new
the height of an inaccessible spire, cal projects believe that the emphasis on
culating the volume of a geometric solid concepts rather than manipulative skills
consisting of a hemisphere and a frustum may make mathematics more suitable as
of a cone, and solving a problem involving a subject of general education.
the speeds and distance traveled by two With all the differences in the American
trains. All problems required all work to and British methods of presenting new

332 The Mathematics Teacher | April 1969

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mathematical ideas in the secondary
school, one similarity is indicated by two
quotations. From the foreword to "Ele An introduction to
mentary Functions" of the School Math
ematics Study Group: "It is not intended CONTINUED
that this book be regarded as the only FRACTIONS
definitive way of presenting good mathe
A of continued
matics to students at this level. Instead, it presentation fractions,
written especially for the intellectually
should be thought of as a sample of the
curious high school students and their
kind of improved curriculum that we need teachers.
and as a source of suggestions for the
authors of commercial textbooks." And Contents
from the School Mathematics Project in
1. Expansion of Rational Numbers into Sim
England: "As for this series of publica
ple Continued Fractions
tions, it is not claimed for one moment
2. Convergents
that the texts represent the best possible
3. Continued Fractions and Linear Diophan
development of the subject ... we look tine Equations of the Type am + bn = c

forward to the possibility of a more or 4. Continued Fractions and Congruences

less continual process of change." Thus 5. Continued Fractions and Determinants

projects in both countries are considered 6. Some Practical Applications of Continued

by their proponents not to be new dogma
Fractions

to be substituted for the old, but improved 7. Continued Fractions and Quadratic Irra
tional Numbers
programs which may be continuously im
8. Continued Fractions and Pell's Equation
proved.
9. Initially Repeating Continued Fractions
and Quadratic Equations

10. Initially Repeating Continued Fractions

REFERENCES and Reduced Quadratic Irrationals

1. The Mathematical Association. Mathematics 11. Other Facts About Continued

Interesting
in British Secondary Schools. Fractions
Projects
London: G. Bell & Sons, 1968.
2. Members of the Association of Teachers of include Proofs of Selected Theo
Appendices
Mathematics. Some Lessons in Mathe rems, Answers to Exercises, and a Bibliogra
matics. Cambridge: The University Press, phy.
1965. 95 pages 8(ty each
3. Midland Mathematical Experiment. Vol. I.
London: George G. Harrap & Co., 1967.
4. Oxford and Cambridge Schools Examination Orders for $5.00 or less must be accompanied
Board. General Examination, Ordinary by remittance. Postage and handling charges will
Level. School Mathematics Ele be added to all billed orders.
Project.
mentary Mathematics I.
5. School Mathematics Project. Books 1,2,3, 4,
'4; Teacher's
, Guide for Books 1,2,8, 4, NATIONAL COUNCIL OF TEACHERS
4; Advanced
, Mathematics Books 1, 2. OF MATHEMATICS
Cambridge: The University Press.
1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W.
6. University of London. General Certificate of
Education Examination, Summer 1967. Washington, D. C, 20036
Ordinary Level. Pure Mathematics II.
Syllabus B.

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