Analog Signal Conditioning Learning Objectives ‘After completing this chapter, you will be able to: = Appreciate the purpose and importance of signal conditioner. Describe the ideal operational amplifier and its characteristics. Use the diagram of various types of operational amplifiers to explain thelr operations. ‘Construct and explain different types of noise fiers. Use diagrams of various converters to explain their operation. Use a bridge circuit for signal conversion. Design suitable analog signal conditioning circuit for simple applications. 1 this chapter, the primary purposes for the analog signal conditioning circuit ae explained. The input to T ivignal conditioners usaly the ouput fom a sensor The operations performed by a signal conditioner Such as isolation, impedance conversion, noise reduction, amplification, linearization and conversion, tc. are discussed here. The operational amplifiers the heart of many modern signal conditioners. The fundamental ‘concept of each type of operational amplifier circue will be explained. Further, this chapter will provide knowledge to analyze, specify or design signal conditioning system. 4.1 Signal Conditioner signal conditioner performs operations on signals to convert them to a form suitable for use by another A component The input tos sgl condones i normaly the ouput fom a sensor chat tuna ‘described in the form of an analog signal. The analog signal is continuous and time varying, The signals from sensors may note in the suitable form and will usually bein che milvolt range, In general, signal undergoes transformation when it passes through different processing, transmission or storing devices. Therefore, a signal can not only be distorted and weakened, but also voluntarily transformed to mitigate background noise as it moves. From this perspective, che operations performed by a signal conditioner include: 1. isolation and impedance conversion; 2, noise reduction; 3. amplification: 4, linearization and conversion. Isolation and Impedance Conversion The purpose of * ation and impedance conversion is to avoid or minimize the destruction of the signal measured and co protect the measuring instruments In some situations, chis means electrical isolation of the primary clemene with an isolation amplifier and supply of high impedance at the input co the signal conditioner.182_ Mechatronics Ieisalso important that when sensorsand transducers, controllers, plant equipment and signal conditioner hardwares are interconnected, the impedances should be matched property at each interface. Otherwise there will bea loading effect due to improper impedance matching. Voltage followers and isolation amplifiers can ’be used for the impedance conversion. Noise Reduction and Filtering Signal systems exist in an environment fled with high levels of electromagnetic energy causing noise in cleciric signal lines. It is very important to prevent the noise from entering the signal, Noise reduction is possible with various types of filters; for example, band pass filters, low pass filters, etc. Amplification ‘The small volege produced by the sensors needs to be amplified and converted into an electric signal suitable foruse by application devices. Changing the level ofan analog signal is often accomplished usingan operational amplifier. The operational amplifier is the heart of signal processing. The simplest and most common form of signal processing is amplification. Other forms include signal inversion, differentiation, integration, addition, subtraction and comparison, Linearization and Signal Conversion ‘Many primary elements produce nonlinear outputs and the signal must be linearized to produce a neatly ideal calibration. Specialized analog circuits, such as offxetting circuits, proportional output circuits, etc, are ‘used to linearize a signal. Figure 4.1 iluseratesthe purpose of linearization circuit to produce an output that varies linearly with some variable. TThe most common approach is to provide the nonlinear signal input to a computer fo perform the linearization using a computer algorithm. Sometimes iis necesaryto convert the signal from a voltage to a current or vie versa. Simple operational amplifier (op-amp) converter cicuits can be used for this purpose Also itis necessary to convert one type of electrical signal into another. For example, a bridge circuit can be used to convert the change in resistance ofa resistance temperature detector (RTD) into voltage 4.2 Operational Amplifier (Op-amp) n op-amp isan electronic device that behaves ikea voltage-controlled source. The op-amp was developed A inany yeas ago for analog computing and was designed to perform mathematical operations. They are highly sable high-gain DC devices. Since there is no capacitive coupling between their various amplifying varie | censor | Senter neater | OUD ‘Sensor | fo output Output Vaibie Varible Figure 4.1 | Linearization circuitAnalog Signal Conditioning 183 Positive Supoly Vee TL Vee Negative Supply Figure 42 | Acout mde! oan oertonal pe. stages, they can handle signals from zero frequency (DC signals) up to a few hundsed kz. Op-amps are among the most widely used electronic components today, and are used in a vast array of consumer, industrial and scientific devices. Basically, the op-amp is nothing butadiferential amplifier thacamplifies the difference berween two inputs Ic comprises resistors, transistors, diodes and capacitors. Figure 4.2 shows the model cuit ofan op-amp. “The output voltage of the op-amp is lineaely proportional to the voltage difference between the input terminals V, and V, by a factor of the gain A. However the ourput voltage is limited to the range ~ Vz. t0 Viz, where V,_i che supply voltage specified by the designer of the op-amp. The range ~V.. < V, <+V.c is often called the linear region of the amplifies, and when the output swings to +¥,_ or ~V. the op-amp is said to be saturated. Figure 4.3 illustrates three modes of op-amp depending upon the input voltage. The three modes are: 1, positive saturation, where V, = Vas 2. linear region, where — Vue < Vy < +Veci 3. negative saturation, where V, = —Va ‘An ideal op-amp has infinite gain (4 = oo), infinite input resistance (R, = oe) and zero output resistance (R= 0). Figure 4.4 shows the symbol for an op-amp. There are two inputs, the inverting input (—) and the non-inverting input (+). Here V, or V-+ isthe non-inverting input, V; ot V— the inverting inpuc and V, the output. "An op-amp requires two power supplies to operate the supply ofa postive voltage (+-V..) and a negative voltage (~V..) with respect to circuit common. This bipolar power supply allows op-amps to generate output signals of cther polarity. The output signal (V,) range is not unlimiced. ‘A eypical practical op-amp integrated circuit (IC) (some single, some dual) in eight-pin dual in-line packages (DIP) is shown in Figure 4.5 along with pin configurations. Linear Op-amp Circuits Inverting Amplifier “The baste circuit oF an inverting amplifier i shown in Figure 4.6, The inverting amplifier changes the sign and the level of the input signal. The output impedance is low.184 Mechatronics Postve Saturation Linear operation (eV) mv Negative Saturation Vo Figure 4.3 | Characteristics of an op-amp. Ms Inverting «| lnput Ye Nominvering «© | Input Figure 4 | cout symbol ten opamp. ‘The equation for output signal is derived as follows: Considering the arbitrary current directions and applying Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL), we have (test nay I! 8 Not conectod pat 2 715 +Ve ‘nee s| oun | 5 tee) @ w® Figure 45 | (a) Practical op-amp IC and (b) pin configuration.Analog Signal Conditioning 185 Figure 4.6 | Circuit for an inverting amplifier. ‘The non-inverting npucis connected directly to the circuit common (i. V, = OV), therefore Vi= OV, therefore fa qani= Since there is no current flow to any input, therefore j, Therefore, the output signal of the inverting amplifier is given by 2) RM ( Th pa ce erngopa an ene i ogi, Non-Inverting Amplifier ‘The non-inverting amplifier circuit can increase the size ofthe signal and in some cases, leave it unchanged. A non-inverting amplifier circuit is shown in Figure 4.7. In chis case, the input voltage Vis applied directly a the non-inverting input terminal. Applying Ohm's lw, we have j +4, = 0, such that Therefore AL eR, s Fore 47 | Creat a noninverting spi188 Mechatronics oN ‘The gain ofthe non-inverting amplifier depends on the ratio of the feedback resistor R-and the ground resistor. A non-inverting amplifier is designed to provide a postive voltage gain. Summing Amplifier ‘The summing amplifier is a logical extension of the previously described circuit, with two or more inputs. A summing amplifier adds ewo or more input signals forming an output tat is the inverse ofthe sum. The summing amplifier shown in Figure 4.8 is a variation of the inverting amplifier. Applying KCL we have ishtitigte ti, “The equation forthe oueput ofthe summing amplifier can be derived 2s “Thus ifall input resistors are equal, the output isa scaled sum of all inputs; whereas if they ae diferent, ‘the output is a weighted linear sum of all inputs. Difference Amplifier ‘difference amplifier precisely amplifies the diference of two input signals Atypical circuit for cis amplifier is shown in Figure 4.9. The circuit uses two pairs of matched resistors R, and Ry, Ry and Ry. By taking V, = V, and applying the voltage divider rule for V, co resistors R, and Ry, Figure 4.9 | Circuit for a difference amplifier‘Analog Signal Conditioning 187 ‘The voluage V, is across R, and Rand the currenc through R; must be equal to that from V, through R,: vir¥, (On substituting for V, and rearranging, the output ofthe difference amplifer is given by: RB (RAR & =RlReae) (ge) eR (Ren) (a) IER, = Rand Ry = Ry then Kawa In real life, the op-amp output will be different for the two similar input conditions due to a sight difference in the way the op-amp handles the wo inputs. The inputs are amplified by slighty different gain. Therefore, the common level ofthe two signals is amplified and added to the output. The voltage that is common to both input leads ofa differential op-amp is called a common mode voleage. Common mode voltage can be a problem in many applications where itis present. The ability of an op-amp co minimize the influence of the common mode voltage is measured by the common mode rejection ratio, whichis the ratio of the differential gain of the op-amp to the common mode gain. The common mode rejection ratio is 1 major concern in a differential amplifr. Instrumentation Amplifier ‘The basic differential ampliferis an important component ofan instrumentation amplifier. An instrumenta- tion amplifier isa differential amplifier with high input impedance, high common mode rejection ratio and balanced differential inputs. Instrumentation amplifiers are essentially sed in process control or measurement application. Figure 4.10 shows one type of instrumentation amplifier. Here the value of external resistance (R,) can be adjusted to obtain a wide range of gan. The following equation forthe output of instrumentation HE) (Roe-n lw Ry Figure 4.10 | Circuit for an instrumentation amplifier.188 Mechatronics Figure 4.11 | Circuit for a differentiator. Differentiator ‘The differentiator generates an output signal proportional to the rate of change of the input voltage. A typical circuit ofthe differentiator is shown in Figure 4.11 and is realized with only a single capacitor and a single resistor. Applying KCL, we can write ‘The ourput of this cicuieis Obviously a constant input (regardless of its magnitude) generates 2 zero output signal. In reality, the differentiator cicuit exhibits an erratic and unstable response. Thus, itis used in combination with other circuitry to minimize the instability Integrator “The integrator generates an output signal proportional to che rate of time integral of the input signal. An inverting amplifier can be converted into an incegrator by replacing the feedback resistor by a capacitor as shown in Figure 4.1 Referring to che integrator circuit and applying KCL atthe inverting input terminal, we have a de R (On integrating the above equation and rearranging we get 1 ZL) fuer Ke ) [¥%@e a Ye S Circuit for an integrator.‘Analog Signal Conditioning 189 Figure 4.13 | Circutt for a comparator. A typical application of the (analog) integrator in chemical instrumentatio matographic peaks, because its output will be proportional to the peak area. the integration of chro- Comparators ‘A comparator is used to determine whether one signal is greater than the other. Hence, a comparator circuit accepts two input voltages and indicates which one is greater. It consists of an op-amp in open-loop config- rations with no feedback or input resistor as shown in Figure 4.13. The inverting terminalis connected to the reference voltage, and the input will b the variable voltage connected to the non-inverting terminal TThe practical operation of the comparator circuit is as follows: 1, The lamp is OFF when ¥; is less than Vig. 2 The lamp is ON when Vis greater chan Ve Voltage Follower An op-amp voltage follower has unity voltage gain and very high input impedance. A voltage follower is shown in Figure 4.14, The input voltage is connected to the non-inverting input, and the output terminal is connected to the inverting input terminal. A voleage follower is placed in berween the primary sensor and the signal conditioner to reduce the current produced by the sensor and the loading effect. Current Amplifiers Current amplifiers amplify the current signal and are used to accomplish current compatibility in electronic circuits. The general model of the current amplifier is based on the equation Asimple current-amplify isshown in Figure 4.15 where the input , is connected to the negative lead of the op-amp, and positive lead and the resistor R are grounded. The feedback resistor drawn through the output load is connected to the negative terminal. Nore that che current flow is through the feedback 1 Vie——+ Y= Pure 414 | Grout ora votage over190. Mechatronics Figure 415 | Ceuta curt amp: resistor. The resistor R influences the current gain. The ourput current is given by the sum of current flowing through R and 2 ‘The gain of current amplifier is given by 4.3 Noise Reduction pecial circuits called filters are used to reduce noise inthe signals. Actually, Alter isa device that allows S nly de desirable par ofa signa o pas through ejecting the unwanted pat. In ypc applications the Alters ate used to remove a certain band of frequencies from the signal and allow other signals co transmit ‘The range of frequencies allowed to transmit is known asa pass band. Passive and Active Filters Passive analog filters employ circuits containing elements such as resistors and capacitors, and do not require an external power source. Active filters use active components such as transistors and an op-amp including passive elements. Here, external power is needed for the operation of active elements. Active filers are widely used due to their following advantages: 1. The loading effece is negligible. 2. Low signal level can be amplified along with fering. 13. Theyare availabe in a low cost and compact IC form. 4. They ate free from electromagnetic interference. “However, passive filters can be used at very high frequencies, do not require power supply and are less expensive,Analog Signal Conditioning 191 ‘Magnitude (48) @, Frequency” Figure 4.16 | Ideal frequency response curve for low pass fiter, Types of Filters ‘There are four categories of filers: low pass filter; high pass filter; band pass filers band reject (notch) filter. Low Pass Fitters ‘Allow pass filter allows all signals below certain frequency to passthrough. This Frequency is called cut-off or break-point frequency (,) as shown in Figure 4.16. ‘All components ofthe signal that are above the cut-off frequency are reduced in amplitude. The simplest iret ofthe low pas filters shown in Figure 4.17(a) with RC pase elements. The passive filters associated with the circuit loading that arises because che input impedance isnot suficienly high. This can be resolved ausing an active filter as shown in Figure 4.17(b) with very high inpuc impedance and low output impedance, ‘while maintaining unit voltage gun. nthe case of the low pas ler, the actual vatation of rejection with fequency is shown in Figure 4.17(), Analog low pass filters are very common in signal conditioning, as they can be designed to reduce noise without affecting the information content of the signal. Analog active filers ate also widely used as anti-aliasing filters in digital signal processing. “The equation of low pas filer can be obtained as av, "oe where 7= RCis the time constant. The transfer function relating input and output i given by 1 VQ ~ w+t “The cutoff frequency can be derived aso =1/r. If the attenuation factor A, defined as the ratio of the amplicude before fiering to the amplicude after Altering, is known then is given as @, = Alt. Y=% High Pass Filters ‘A high pass filter is just che opposite ofthe low pass filter and allows al signal components above the cut-off frequency to pass through, and prevents all signals below that frequency (Figure 4.18). High pass filters do not make much sense in signal condition due to noise interference. Passive and active high pass fers and their characteristics are shown in Figure 4.19,192 Mechatronics f Yo @ © Magnitude (48) > Frequency —> Figure 4.17 | Circuits or (@) passive low pass fiters; (b) active ow pass filters and (c) frequency response curve. Band Pass Filters ‘A band pass filter has two frequency values that are separated by a frequency range called che band width. ‘An ideal band pas iter pases all signal components within a frequency band as shown in Figure 4.20. All ‘components of the signal that are outside the two frequency values (an, and «,) are reduced in amplitude ‘The passive circuit shown in Figure 4.21(@ is obtained by combining elements of low pass and high passes passive filters. Figure 4.21(b) represents an active band pas filter. The radio tuner isan adjustable band pass filer. Magnitude (48) es Frequency Figure 4.18 | ideal frequency response curve for a high pass fier.Analog Signal Conditioning 193 A c ca :..~COTS ¢ TS + vy aoy ft “ 4 ' vi A ve @ ©) Magnitude (48) @ ‘Frequency Pur 10 | Cruts (0)paav gh pas or ae Hgh pesos ane) oqvrey eco Band Reject Filter (Notch Filter) ‘A band rejec filter i just the opposite of the band pass filter and is used to filter out narrow bands of noise components from the signal. It does not affecr the components of signal on either side of frequency values as shown in Figure 4.22. ‘A passive band reject filter is formed when the output RLC series resonant circuits taken offthe LC series combination as shown in Figure 4.23. An active circuit that could serve as @ notch filter and its frequency response are shown in Figure 4.24 Magnitude (88) a Frequency Pure 420 | teal equeny respons cfr aban pat ir194 Mechatronics Ry o vi a= Pe Yo i , @ Ry a I vi a Pe Vo ‘Magnitude (48) oy ‘2 Frequency © Figure 421 | circuits for (passive band pass ites; 2) acve band pas fiers and (c) fequency response curve, ay Frequency Figure 4.22 | ideal frequency response curve for a band reject fier.‘Analog Signal Conditioning 195 i" a . Vy I ee Figure 425 | Greta pasve bart ter 4 = s gz Frequency ©) Figure 4.24 | (a) Circuit for active band reject fter and (b) frequency response curve. 4.4 Bridge Circuits A bridge circuit is used for detecting form of measurement such as change in resistance, change in induc- ‘ance, change in capacitance, etc Ics the traditional method of measuring small change inthe resistance ‘of an element. There are two basic methods of making the measurement. 1, ridge balance method: 2, imbalance ourput method. ‘A bridge is said to be balanced when the output shows zero voltage. In the bridge balance method, the bridge is initially balanced but when measurement is made, the balance is disturbed duc to variation in the ‘quantity measured. The bridge is balanced aguin by varying one of the arms, The change required in one of the arms to restore the 2eo voltage output is measured. [n the imbalance output method, the bridge is initially balanced, The balance of bridge will be upset asa result ofthe change in variable during measurement. The ‘output ofthe bridge itself is measured as the bridge measurement. "The Wheatstone bridge is the most common bridge circuit used. The circuit shown in Figure 4.25 isthe resistance bridge, with a constant DC voltage, and it has been extensively used to convert a resistance change +o a voltage change, This full bridge circuit has four arms. "The output voltage V, can be determined by applying voltage divide rule at points A and B. Y=%a-M - (atx) "-(aee)”196 Mechatronics Figure 425 | Grutor aresisance bio. ~ (tanta) RR RR, -(qibatm)” oo [If the bridge is balanced, the condition is TER, is 2 variable resistor, the change in resistance is from R, to R, +R, and the change in the output voltage i from V, to (V, + 8V,), then = R +R, & ) vtov.= 0, (gan +R (42) Subtracting Eq. (4.1) from Bq, (4.2), we have 8V, =(V+8V,-V,) 7 (atte - 3a) -(atx ~aR)] =«( Rte RK ) UNRFORAR RAR, TEAR, <<< R, then av, (ate) ‘Note that the change in output is proportional to the change in resistanceAnalog Signal Conditioning 197 | crete votagote rent comer 4.5 Current-to-Voltage and Voltage-to-Current Converters in ofthe important applications of op-amps is to frequently convert input voltage into ourpur current. Oi this peat op-amp fds its application where the sensors produce aval vlogs, andthe conto circuit requires a changing current such as 4-20 mA signal Figure 4.26 shows a circuit for voltage-to-current amplifier. The load is connected as a feedback resistance, and the input voltage is connected to a negative terminal. Note that the load current wil flow through the input resistor that is connected to the positive terminal. Therefore, cher is a change in voltage drop at positive input with the change in input signal being atthe inverting input. Ie is observed chat ig = haa 10 ig ‘Therefore 4 ja Figure 4.27 shows the electrical circuit for a current-to-voleage converter. The non-inverting input of ‘op-amp is grounded, The input current is connected to the inverting terminal that has high impedance; therefore, all the current from the source will low through the feedback resistor Ry. The voltage across the load resistor isthe output voltage which is proportional tothe input current, that is V, =i, x Re 4.6 Voltage-to-Frequency and Frequency-to-Voltage Converters ‘some of industrial applications such as frequency modulation, analog,to-digtal conversion, signal gen- Tirtsion, ct iis nccesary to produce an ouput signal whoee fequenc is proportional tothe level of the input signal. These devices are known as volage-to-fequency converters (VFO) or volage-controlled oscillators. A common type of VEC circuit using a eapacitor is shown in Figure 4.28. Here, the capacitor is made to periodically charge and discharge. As the time required for charging a capacitor with a fixed voltage level is inversely proportional to the charging voltage, the output will be fixed amplitude with frequency dependent on the charging voltage. This means that the frequency thats the inverse ofthe charge~discharge period, depends upon the charging voltage. In order to achieve this, a voltage-sensitive switch is connected198 Mechatronics Figure 4.27 | Circuit for a current-to-voltage converter, across the feedback capacitor. The switch will close when the voltage across it exceeds a reference level, and will open when the voltage falls below a lower limit. A frequency-to-voltage converter (FVC) produces an output voltage, which depends upon the frequency of che input al. The circuit shown in Figure 4.29 consists of comparator and capacitor circuits, The com parator circuit wll have ewo inputs: one is the fequency input and the other one is fora reference voltage. Figure 4.28 Switching devieo ©) 7 (@) Circuit for a voltageto-trequency converter and (b) output signal.Analog Signal Conditioning 199 Frequency signal ~N ~ ‘Switching Capacitor ‘Smoothing Ver rout ‘icuit ‘lout ‘Charging voltage Figure 4.29 | Circuit for a frequency-to-voltage converter, The comparator circuit will produce either negative signal or positive signal depending upon the input signal in relation with the reference voltage. The sign change (say negative to positive) in the comparator will tigger a switching circuit for charging che capacitor to a fixed voltage. The next sign change (positive to negative) will cause the switching circuit to short circuit and thereby cause an instantaneous discharge of the capacitor. Note chat the voltge to which the capacitor i charged purely depends upon the frequency of the input signal. ‘Therefore, the output voltage of the capacitor will be related to the input signal frequency. ‘Asensor produces an output voleage that range from Oto 100 mY. A signal conditioning unit produces an output in the range of O10 5 V. Develop appropriate op-amp circuits for signal conditioning. [Hint: With the required ‘gain = (5V)|(100 mV) = 5/0.1 = 50, we can design the circuit using both inverting and non-inverting prams] Solution (@) Circuit with an inverting amplifier: If we choose che value of R, = 1k, then required value of Ry can be determined. TER = 1 KO, then R= 50 kA then R Gain of an op-amp = = 50. Pamp= 3 + , -R The ourput ofan inverting amplifier V, = (=) ¥/= —50¥,. In order to obtain a positive signal output, we can use one more inverting amplifier with unity feedback as shown in Figure 4.30. (6) Circuit with non-inverting op-amp: The required gain equals 50. Fora non-inverting op-amp, the output is given by200 Mechatronics 1k + V_ = 60, inverter Figure 4.30 | Circuit with an inverting ampiiter for Problem 4.1. ‘Therefore, R:= 49 kO ‘The circuit is shown in Figure 4.31. Figure 4.31 | Circuit with a non-inverting amplifier for Problem 4.1. Problem 4.2 Develop an op-amp circuit that can provide an output related to the inpus voltage by V,= 5.5 V, +10 Vy-+4. Solution ‘The output of summing amplifier is given by [GGG] ‘We can use a summing amplifier with V,, V3 and 4 V (V4) as input signals. Resistances Ry, Rj and Ry can be selected appropriately as R, = 10 K&D, Ry = 5.5 kf and R, = 55 kO. Keeping R= 55 k0, the ourpuc equation can be rewsiten at v, V,=55V,+10¥, +4 [Cia nC)" G)4]‘Analog Signal Conditioning 201 “The output ofthe summing amplifier is ~V,, and an inverter with unity gain is used ro obtain postive output as shown in Figure 4.32. y= 55k y mstae wean vy gfe BS KO 10K0 | ay 558 | Ve - Tk ‘Summing op-amp Wrwerter Figure 4:32 | cicut diagram for robiom 4.2. For the summing op-amp shown in Figure 4.33, determine the output voltage V,. Ay = 100k —#¥0 Figure 4.33 | Circuit diagram for Problem 4.3. Solution For a summing amplifier Y,4 iM vaa(Gtg te) Here, R, = 30k, R, = 20 KO, Ry = 10 kM and R; = 100k oa 0 (22 to (& =-2033V Hence, che output voltage, V, = —20.33 V.202_Mechatronics A voltage of ~1.5 Vis supplied to an op-amp integrator having R = 100 KO and C= 2 w Assuming the initial capacitor charge is ero, determine the output afer 50 ms. Solution i % zl Veds ot = To0000 2% 10° sono? (15) de 5x-15 [0 = 5% 1.5(50x 107] .375.V gsi 421 | fan asgunerPrton as © V,=40 mV and Vz =30mV @ V;=25 Vand V, = 40 mV. Solution @ vy, 4 mV and V; = 0. Therefor, the differential imple will act as an inverting amplifier. =(120/8) x 4=—60 mV. ‘Oand V; = 6 mY, the differential amplifier will ct asa non-inverting amplifier. ThereforeAnalog Signal Conditioning 203 Roth, ian) (R) nn) 20 (12048) ““e \ serine, =90mV (© IfV, =40 mV and ¥, = 30 mV, for differential op-amp with R, = R, and R= Ry, we have x=4-10(#) = 0-4 (4) =-150 mV (@) If V,=40 mVand V; =25 mV Design a voltage-to-current converter that conver: 10 V DC input into a standard 20 mA current signal Solution ‘The equation for voltage-to-current converter is given by % jt = R vw fat R=204 Mechatronics 0 * 20x10 =500.0 ‘The converter circuit is shown in Figure 4.35. 10v' Figure 4.35 | Converter circuit for Problem 4.6. A low pass RC filter will provide an attenuation factor of 20 for 50 Ha: signal, Caleulat the resistor required if 10 uP capacitor is wed inthe circuit. Solution The cut-off frequency w, =2af = 2m x 50 = 314 rad/s ‘The time constant 7 = A/RC 20/314 = 0.0637 5 The resistor required should be of resistance R= 1/C seus ‘A sensor produce a voltage ranging from 10 t0 90 mV as a variable. Develop the required signal conditioning iret so thatthe ouipu from the device is 0— 4 V.Analog Signal Conditioning 205 Solution ‘We are required to do a voltage-to-vokage conversion using an op-amp circuit. For this type of prablem, Jet us take the following equation relating the output and the input. Vag, = Vig + Ve, where mis the slope or gain and V, i the ose voltage Applying input and ourpat conditions, we have 0=001m+¥, (1) 4=0.09m+V, (2) Subtracting (1) from (2), we get 4=0.08 m ‘Therefore, we get m = 4/0.08 = 50. Substituting this in (1) we get V, = ~0.5 V. ‘The final equation on substiuting the above values, can be written as =50¥,,-0.5. ‘The above equation is represented using a differential amplifier. The output of differential amplifier is given by R i Reh if > Vi nt Instrumentation Diferenia amplifier ‘The equation Vix, = 50V;,~0.5 can be rearranged to get standard form ‘ 05 Vo = 50 (%- 33) = 50(Vj, ~0.01)208 Mechatronics ‘The resistances 100 and 2 k( can be selected to obtain 2 gain of 50. The input of 0.01 V is fed to the inverting side that can be obtained with a voltage divider. A the front end of differential amplifier, instrumentation amplifersare connected. The signal conditioning circuit for theabove problem is depicted in Figure 436. Problem 4.9 ‘A Kenpe thermal couple measurement sytem is required to provide an ouiput of O— 2.5 V for a temperature variation of 500-— 700° C with reference asumed tobe at 25°C. Develop an analog signal conditioning circuit Solution From the table of type K thermocouples{Appendix I (in CD), the thermocouple voltage at various tem- peratures can be obtained as follows: Vogorc = 20.65 mV, Von xc 9.14 mV and Vas c= 1 mV. ‘With reference tniperatre of 25°C, the net voltage outpur at SOO*C is Vesa «¢ = 20.65-— For 700°C, Vey se = 29.14— 19.65 mV 28.14 mV “Typieal thermocouple ourput can be represented by the equation Ving ‘Using outpur condicions, we have Vig + Vue 0=m0.01965+V, 2.5 m0.028144V, Solving the above equations as done in Problem 4.8, the values of m and V, are obtained as 294.5 and 5.79 V, respectively. “The final equation for output is Vig = 294.5 Vr — 5.79. ‘Avcwo-stage amplification with differential (gain = —10) and summing amplifies (gain bbe used for che signal conditioning circuit governed by the Final equation. "The negative gain of che differential amplifier can be obtained by connecting appropriate leads ofthe thermocouples such that V; < Vj “The equation Vay = 294.5V— 5.79 can be re-written as Vigg =29.45(10¥4)— 5.79. "Above equation reflec the needs for amplification in two stages having gain of 10 and 29.4 with differential ‘amplifier and summing amplifier, respectively. ‘A volrage divider with 5 V source will be used to supply fractional voltage of 0.197 V to the summing amplifier (0.197 x 29.45 = 5.79). "Note thatthe final equation that is obtained, based on the circuit shown in Figure 4.37, conforms to the equation required. Final expression forthe Vz, from the circuit can be written as 9.45) can Ve‘Analog Signal Conditioning 207 eV 2a ka, t0ko jooxn 0.1968 VI kn | 245k. Pa, 10K a 19k0 “i * Mr ag 2-10 vy 0.1966] 10 + 10K Rane Dilerentiat amir with gain= -10 — summing amplifier wit gan 2045 Figure 4.37 | Circuit for Problem 4.9. eure) ‘An RTD will be used 10 measure the proces temperature ranging from 20°C to 100°C. A signal conditioning circuit with op-amp is required to provide an output of O~ 10.0 V using the RTD with a = 0.0034/°C and R= 1000 as 20°C, power disipation = 28 mW/*C. Develop a bridge circuit such thatthe ervorshowld not exceed & °C. The cirewit should give output to an alarm ifthe temperasure rises to 120°C. Solution Specifications of RTD are: ‘We can assume linear relationship of RTD for resistance as Ry = Ro(1-+@AT ) ce at 20°C, Rog = 100 2. 100[1 + 0.0034(100— 20)] = 127 2. (©) Resistance at 120°C = Rap = 100[1 +0.0034(120—20)] = 134 2. Maximum power P = Py AT’ taking AT = 1°Cerror because of selheating, P= PyAT = 28 mW/°Cx C= 28 mW. pyle cunenti= (7) Ra, _ (28m! “Via = 14.8 mA.208 Mechatronics ‘The bridge is balanced at 20°C and is excited from a 5.0 V DC source. Using the RTD as R, of che circuit, the voltage drop across RTD at 100 °C is given by Vero = Rgrp = 14.8 mA x 127 0 = 1.88 V ‘Therefore resistors Ry and R, are in series and Ry can be determined as _ 6-188) V 215.8 mA =2100 ‘We use R, = 220 00 asa standard value instead of 210 0 to take into account any eror. For the br circuit R, = Ry = 220 © and R, = 100 is st as null voltage at 20°C. ‘We can determine the offet voltage of bridge circuit a various temperatures: Offset voleage at 20°C = 0 (bridge is balanced at 20°C) sca s(_227___100 =025v : 134100 Offset voltage at 120°C (atte mem) =033V ‘The amplifier is required to boost the of volage from 025 010. 0, a5 49 ‘A differential amplifier with a comparator circuit is used as shown in Figure 4.38. The comparator reference voltage is et at 0.33 x 40 = 13.2 V as it is required to produce a high voltage at any temperature above 120°C for alarm purpose. Bridge 19ko. ‘Comparator Iho Figure 4.38 | Circuit for Problem 4.10.‘Analog Signal Conditioning 209 SUMMARY The need for analog signal condition ing was discussed and the operations per- formed by a signal conditioner are isolation and impedance conversion, noise reduction, amplificaion, linearization and conversion. 2. The op-amp is a high gain amplifier cha has high input resistance and low output resis- In an inverting amplifier, the ourputisa neg acive multiple of the input. But the ouput is a postive multiple ofthe input for a non- inverting amplifier. 4. The gain of voltage follower is unity and out- ppc follows the input” ‘Summing’ amplifier provides linear sum of input signals. 6 Indifference amplifies, the output is propor- tional to che difference ofthe two inputs. ‘The comparaor is the simplest op-amp cit- cuitand itean be adjusted to operate around asecpoine voltage applied to its non-inverting input. Special circuits called fitersareused to reduce noise in the signals. A filter is a circuit designed co pass a band of frequencies and KEY TERMS Signal conditioner Operational amplifier Passive filers Active filters OBJECTIVE-TYPE QUESTIONS ‘Wheatstone bridge Comparators Integrator Differentiator Multiple-Choice Questions 1. An ideal amplifier has impedance igh blow medium d. none inpuc 10. ue 2 2 sejeccothers, Passive filters consist of resiser, capacitors and inductors. Active filters are constructed with operational amplifiers and passive elements, Four common types of filters are low pass, band pass, high pass and band reject. A low pass filter passes only signals whose frequen- cies are below the cut-off frequency and high pass filter passes only whose frequencies are above the cut-off frequency. The band reject filter passes only signals whose frequencies are ‘outside a prescribed range and a band pass fil ter passes only signals whose frequencies are within a prescribed range. Bridge circuits are used for conversion of signals from one form to another, where a changing resistance is measured either by @ current oF by a voltage signal. A frequency-to-voleage converter (FVO) pro- duces an ourput voltage, which depends upon the frequency of the input signal Voltage-to-frequency converters (VEC) or volrage-controlled oscillators produce an ‘output signal whose frequency is propor tonal to the level of the input signal Voltage follower Common mode rejection ratio Cur-off fequency ‘An ideal amplifier would have __ output impedance a high b. low medium 4. none210 Mechatronics 3. Ifthe signal o the inverting input eerminal of the op-amp is negative, the output signal will be a negative b. positive 4. impossible to ell 4, If the voltage from +V to ground on a dif- ferential power supply is +14 V, you would expectto measure from —V to ground. 2 +28V b. +14V © -M4V a ov 5. Filter chat allows all frequencies below a cut off frequency is known as a. low pass filter 1b. high pass filter band pass filter d. notch filter 6. One ofthe applications for a___ circuit is in sensors that use piezoelectric elements to produce small amounts of microvolts when they have force exerted on them. a current-to-voltage converter b. comparator © voltage-to-current converter REVIEW QUESTIONS Explain the various operations performed by a signal conditioner. 2. Define electrical impedance and loading 3. Explain the following terms in relation to’an operational amplifier a Offiet voltage b. Gain 4. What is 2 voltage follower? 5. Describe operation of 2 summing amplifier using a diagram. 6. Draw the diagrams of following operational amplifiers and explain their operation: ‘& Inverting amplifier b. Non-inverting amplifier Integrator % d. notch filter Avvoltage follower has again. a. high b. low unity 4. none The instrumentation amplifier circuit is a —— amplifier optimized for high input impedance and a high common mode rejce- summing bi differential differentiator none Passive analog filters employ circuits contain- ing elemene such as a transistor b. opamp none A circuit that does not change components within a specified band of frequencies is known as a low pass filter b.high pass filter band pass filter notch fier d._Differentiator A summing amplifier has 0.5, 1.2and 1.6V input voltage applied to it. Determine the output signal if &;= 30 kM and R, R= 10k. ‘An ideal operational amplifier has input vole age of 04 V, Ry = 90 kM and R = 10 KO. Calculate the ourput voltage ifthe opera- tional amplifier used. averting amplifier b. Non-inverting amplifier ‘A primary clement produces an output volt- age that ranges from 0 to 20 mY. Design an inverting amplifier that produces an output voltage in a range of O-5 V using a 1 kM resistor for R,‘Analog Signal Conditioning. 211 10, Design a currentto-voltage converter that 17. A bridge circuit has & = R= R, = 200 0 converts 10 mA input into a 20 V ourpur. ‘witha source voltage of 10 V. Design an ana LL. Define the terms log signal conditioning system that provides 2. Common mode valtage an ouspust of 0-5 V when R, varies from 200 sa Pengammen mode nection ao 103000. ax ae active fers? (Hine: Gain required i 5, ue a differential 13, What are passive ers? List advantages and. a rife er bre) disadvantages of passive filters, i . 18. A signal conditioning circuit is developed 14, An analog low pass filter is co be designed eet ae onde stor and a capacitor. The output y eating the ourputvolmage co the input using a resisto . up f wines ue voltage is attenuated by a factor 25 at a fre- ants, wenn we he relation Vou quency of 1.2 kHz. Determine the time con- aa ae stant of the filter circuit and select suitable : value ofthe capacorif R= 1 KO. (Elta: Summing amplifier ssh grin of pas i 2.35 is used and will receive one of the 15. Explain construction and application of the seeing one ofthe tone fellowing types of analog filters: of 0.715 V from a voltage divider.) a. Low pas: filters 19. Asensor output ange of 10100 mV is fed Be Hight pass filters toa signal conditioning system that produces Band pass filers an output in the ange 0-20 V. Develop an d. Worch Bters appropriate analog circuit for this purpose. 16, The citcuit shown in Figute 4.39 isa differ Hine: Gain = 250, use a summing ential amplifier driven by the bridge circu amplifier) Find the outpuc vokage 10K0 tv ee 20K. Y% av * Sonn. 3ve— aie Figure 4.29 | ANSWERS Muttiple-Choice Questions 1 @ 3 ®) 5. @ 7 © 2. © 2 o) 4 0) 6 © & 0. © Review Questions 7 99V 10. R=5000 8 ~3.6Vand 4V 14, 0.0033 sand 3.31 uF 9. Gain = 250 and R= 250k 16. -9VHydraulic and Pneumatic Actuating Systems Learning Objectives After completing this chapter, you will be able to: = Understand working principles of components of fluid power systems and their use- fulness as mechatronics elements. = Appreciate the working of control valves and their application. = Describe the operation of pneumatic, electro-pneumatic and hydraulic actuators. = Design fluid power circuit diagrams for the control action of cylinders. 1 this chapter, principles of fluid power systems comprising pneumatic and hydraulic systems, their Tindustal applications and how they ar ued for operating conaling andor eking meaturement of ‘equipment, machinery and plane with examples ae outlined. Further, accessories, components and actuators used in hydraulic and pneumatic systems are explained. Finally, we will eal wich design of fluid power circuit dliagrams for simple control application problems. 5.1 Fluid Power Systems Piste sshing bu ution fie ich of wes and gt ea for sano of ceneigy. Itis known 28 an efficient means for conversion from one form of energy to another. Continuous development of fluid power technology over the years has contributed to the applications ‘of pneumatic and hydraulic systems in many areas such as manufacturing, process industries, transportation systems and utilities. The fluid power systems (pneumatic and hydraulic) may be used forthe following: 1. Carrying out mechanical work: Fluid power systems are used for carrying out mechanical work using lineas, swivel and rotary motion for plant equipment and machinery. Ths includes application for ‘operations such as clamping, shifting and positioning, packaging, feeding, sorting, stamping, drilling, ‘uring, milling, sawing, et 2. Controlling application: Prcumatic and hydraulic systems are used for controlling of plant, process and equipment. They are also used to sense operational satus of process and feed this information to the controller element to take necessary corrective action. ‘Measurement of process parameter: Pneumatic and hydraulic systems can be used to provide mea- surement of process parameters. These process measurements are then used to act on necessary output. 5.2 Hydraulic Systems In hydraulic systems, a liquid-based solution, such as oil, is used under pressure to carry out work. A simple hbydraulic linear acuacor i chown in Figure 5.1. The system estentally consist ofa movable piston connected directly to the ourput shaft. The fluid is pumped into pipe M or V to move the piston up or down. Nore