Stephanie Azzopardi HSC ANCIENT HISTORY

HSC Ancient History

Part 1: Core Study: Cities of Vesuvius - Pompeii and Herculaneum
Key
Highlighted: Syllabus dot point
Dark blue writing: Ancient written source
Light blue writing: Modern written source
Green writing: Archaeological Source

1. Geographical context
 The physical environment: the geographical setting, natural features and resources
of Pompeii and Herculaneum
 eruption greatly altered topography of the area
Pompeii
 Sources: Map of Campania, Strabo “Geography”, Pliny the Elder “Natural
History”, Florus “Brief History”.
 located in Rome
 near the Bay of Naples
 Southern area of Campania
 built on volcanic plateau, between the Sarno River and Mount Vesuvius
 66 hectares
 connected coast with fertile agricultural region inland
 south of Mount Vesuvius
 economic prosperity due to fertile plains

Herculaneum
 Source: Map of Campania
 located in Rome
 near Bay of Naples
 South area of Campania
 7km from Mount Vesuvius
 steep landscape
 approx: 12-20 hectares (entire town not yet excavated)

Resources
 access to natural water springs for drinking
- this water went through an aqueduct
 ideal climate for growing food: hot dry summer, mild moist winters, early spring
 natural vegetation grew along rivers e.g. willow trees, rosemary
 used pumice as millstones for grinding grain and pressing olives
- also used to build roads and buildings
 flowers, roses, used for perfume
 olives used for olive oil
 grapes used to produce wine
 coast provided seafood e.g. tuna, anchovies, eels
- fish  garum

Evidence:
 Stephanie Azzopardi HSC ANCIENT HISTORY

Seneca  pleasant bay

Natrurales Quasestiones  bounded by sea

Pliny the Elder  life sustaining

Natural History  healthy atmosphere
 mild climate
 forest
 corn, vines and olives
 sheep

Map of Campania  shows the geographical features of the area

 near Vesuvius

Fresco from the House of  shows fertile plains

the Centenary (Pompeii)  grapes
 birds
 rich nature

Source:
http://www.electrummagazin
e.com/2013/11/volcano-
lovers-exhibition-review-
hypo-kunsthalle-munich-
november-2013-23-march-
2014/

Plans and streetscapes of Pompeii and Herculaneum

Evidence: Maps
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC ANCIENT HISTORY

Pompeii Herculaneum
Area: 66-67 hectares Area: 12-20 hectares
only two-thirds excavated - only 4 complete insulae blocks excavated
Roads: narrow valleys, 5 metres wide Roads: wide for Roman town, 2.5-7 metres wide
- Streets paved with stone

Gradient/Slope: 10-40m above sea level Gradient/Slope: very steep

Architectural influence: Greek Architectural influence: Greek
Water: flowed into water tower from Water: through drains, flowed into fountains
aqueduct in Misenum from aqueducts
 went to three main pipes
Houses: one storey Houses: two storey
Defensive Walls Defensive walls
Gates: 8 gates named after towns they lead
to
Towers: 12
42 Public Fountains 3 Fountains
Heavy traffic, imprint on roads Less traffic, better drainage

2. The nature of sources and evidence

The range of available sources, both written and archaeological, including:
Ancient writers
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC ANCIENT HISTORY

Pliny the Younger - Letters: details of the eruption

Strabo - Geography: geographical setting, historical background of Pompeii
Suetonius - Titus: Relief work in Campania after eruption
Dio Cassius – Roman History: Eruption
Pliny the Elder – Natural History: Geography of Pompeii and Herculaneum

Official inscriptions
 at Hall of the Augustales: Herculaneum
 family tomb of Clodii: “Aulus Clodius Flaccus, son of Aulus… on the next day in the
Amphitheatre (he presented) by himself 30 pairs of athletes and 5 pairs of gladiators”
(CIL X 1074d)
Graffiti
 near Amphitheatre in Pompeii of actors: “Actius, master of stage performers”
Wall paintings (Frescoes): paint painted on wet plaster, become fixed as it dries
 Sappho fresco: Pompeii

Source: https://www.awesomestories.com/asset/view/Girl-with-Stylus-and-Tablets-
Sappho-from-Pompeii
Statues
MARCUS NONIUS BALBUS: HERCULANEUM

Source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/magika2000/4419088977

Mosaics
House of Faun Pompeii
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC ANCIENT HISTORY

Source: http://gallery4share.com/a/alexander-mosaic-house-of-the-faun.html
Human Remains
 Skeletons found in Boatsheds at Herculaneum
 Plaster cast bodies Pompeii

Animal Remains
 Chained dog at Museum at Boscoreale

The limitations, reliability and evaluation of sources

Limitations:
 Incomplete sources
 Problems dating political notices
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC ANCIENT HISTORY

 Parts of both Herculaneum and Pompeii have not been excavated

 Lack of written sources about every day life

Reliability and Evaluation:

 Where was it found?
 Who made it?
 When was it written?
 Who wrote it?

Evidence for the eruption

Historical evidence
 Date: 24th August AD 79
 11 different accounts
 2 x coins Titus (emperor at the time)
 preparing for harvest
 Pliny the Younger letters to Tacitus
Letter 1: Uncle’s death during eruption: Pliny the Elder
- describes initial stages of eruption (plinian phase)
Letter 2: describes own activities during eruption
“Behind us were frightening dark clouds, rent by lightning twisted and hurled,
opening to reveal huge figures of flame”
Sigurdsson: Pliny’s letters are first eyewitness to volcanic eruption
(reconstructed phases of the eruption by examining the given sizes in the strata)

Geological Evidence
TWO phases of the Eruption
 The Plinian Phase: initial burst of pumice, ash and stone
 Nuee ardente: pyroclastic surge

Buildings
 The damage done to the buildings throughout the eruption tells us the nature of the eruption
and the fact that it actually did occur

Map of where bodies were found

 most people ran to public places
 good shelter

Human Remains
 Plaster casts
 Skeletal remains
 shows us what they thought were valuables
Causes of death:
 Baxter  Out of 41 bodies studied, only half would have died from asphyxiation and
thermal shock
 Collapsing of buildings and accumulation of ash/debris
 Pyroclastic surge (Herculaneum)  killed instantly

Evidence for the economy

Trade
 Strabo: Pompeii was a trading centre for agricultural produce
 Pompeii: Played important role in economy of Campania
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC ANCIENT HISTORY

 Herculaneum: economy served local needs only

 Shipwrecks found
 Ancient writers (Pliny) wrote about wine and garum
Imports Exports
 Tableware  Garum
 Wine  Wine
 Olive oil
 Garum

Commerce
 Shops in the front rooms of Houses
 a mason’s shop
 a carpenter’s shop
 Markets
 Macellum in Pompeii: meat and fish market
 fish bones found
- dates regulated: evidence for planning and organisation in Pompeii
 Temple of Apollo: Mensa Ponderaria: measuring weights
 Temporary stalls
 sold shoes, vegetables, cloth, fruit
 set up near Amphitheatre and Forum
 Thermopolia
 dolia in counter stored food and drink, e.g. dried food: nuts, vegetables
- Problems with source: cannot be sure that dolia only held those types of foods
 carbonised remains of nuts in dolium in Pompeii
Industry
 agriculture, wine and olive oil production: dominant
 cloth manufacture
 Fullery of Stephanus: dying of clothes through urine
Wine Industry
 excavated farms, vines
 traces of production from vats and presses
 storage jars found with traces of wine
 transported wine in vast leather wine skin on a cart

Metal Industry
 Marble plaque (Pompeii)
o Reveals how objects were made and weighted
o Typical workshop in Pompeii
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC ANCIENT HISTORY

Source: http://www.gettyimages.com.au/detail/photo/marble-relief-sign-of-coppersmiths-
shop-high-res-stock-photography/98952931

Occupations
 Beard: “More than fifty ways of making a living in Pompeii”
 Artisans
- artists, metal workers, potters
 Tradesmen
 Weaver
 Gem cutter
 Architect
 Pastry cook
 Wealthy merchants
 Bakers
 Bath attendants
 HOUSE OF VETTII FRESCO shows various occupations
o Wine making
o Fulling
o Perfumery
o Production of jewellery and large bronze vessels

Baker
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC ANCIENT HISTORY

Source: http://factsanddetails.com/world/cat56/sub369/item2073.html
 Much along Via dell’ Abbondanza
 More than 35 bakeries in Pompeii
 Process: milled the grain, baked the bread and sold it
o Powered by donkeys, mules and small horses, evidence: skeletons found
chained to mills
 North east of Forum: 7 bakeries in 100 metres
 Bread sold in temporary stalls too

Banker
 Lucius Caecilius Jucundus

Source: https://vcessclassicalstudies.wordpress.com/
 In charge of transactions of money, evidence documents found

Garum Maker
 Aulus Umbricius Scaurus
 Pottery containers
 Mixed together pieces of seafood with salt and left it in a vat for a couple of months to
ferment in the sun
 Large salt pans outside city

 Social structure
o Men (Upper Class) (Freeborn)
– Had full legal rights
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC ANCIENT HISTORY

– Could hold political office

– Controlled public finances, spaces and religion
– Privileged seats in Amphitheatre and Theatre
– Statues and tombs erected
– Evidence: Marcus Nonius Balbus

Source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/magika2000/4419088977

o Women (Upper class) (Freeborn)

– could not hold political office
– under legal control
– could own property
– conducted businesses
– constructed buildings and tombs
– held priesthoods
– Statues and tombs erected
WOMEN
Upper class women
- Source: Portrait of Terentius Neo and his Wife, from House of Julia Felix
 read and write
 sung and played the lyre (small harp)
 believed educated women were better wives and women
Eumachia
 Father rich brick manufacturer
 used wealth to build the collegium of the fullers in the Forum
Inscription: “To Eumachia, daughter of Lucius, public priestess; the fullers (set
this up)”

Source: http://journals.worldnomads.com/macedonboy/photo/34839/890406/Italy/Statue-of-
Eumachia-in-the-Building-of-Eumachia
Lower class women
o Business women
- partnership with husbands
- allowed to earn profit
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC ANCIENT HISTORY

- could own property

- not allowed to become bankers

o Tradeswomen
- worked in homes, making and mending clothes
- earned little money
- employed in fullonicae to brush and thicken cloth

o Slave women
- duties dependent on needs of owner
- cooking, cleaning and nannies
- personal attendants for wealthy upper class women
- some well treated
gold snake bracelet in Pompeii inscribed: “from master to his slave girl”
o Prostitutes
- act not illegal
- patricians and Equites forbidden to become prostitutes

o Freedmen (liberti)
 men and women freed from slavery
 worked for former masters
 many become wealthy and influential

 Men
– Could be voted in elections
– Owned businesses
– Participated in some religious cults
 Women
– Could not hold formal political office
– Some worked for former masters
 Slaves
– 40% of population
– few tombstones attributed to slaves
– Roman Empire relied on slaves for labour
– large household could own hundreds of slaves
– considered property
– no legal rights
– could not take action against owner for mistreatment
– children property of owner
– once freed had to buy children from owner

UPPER CLASS
1. Patrician
 toga with purple stripe
2. Equites
 toga with narrow purple stripe and gold ring
 achieved status by holding public office

MIDDLE CLASS
 Freed citizens: Men and women who made moderate living through businesses such as
fulling, bread making and wine production
 provided essentials goods and services
 would work for past owners in businesses, although majority of profit went to owner
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC ANCIENT HISTORY

Local political life

 Self governing town BUT subject to imperial rule by Rome
o Nero banned gladiatorial contests for 10 years in 59 AD
 Only male citizens could vote
 Women could not hold political office
 People in positions of power  wealthy
 Wealthy  used position to develop strong patron-client relationship
o With citizens
o Gain political and economic power
 Comitia voted annually on:
o Aediles: two junior magistrates
 Prerequisite for duumvirship
 Supervised markets, temples and streets
 Made public offerings
o Duumvir: two chief magistrates
 Presided over curia and courts
 Oversaw revenue and taxation
 Supervised public projects
 E.g. Marcus Nonius Balbus
 No military power
 Wore toga praetexta
o Quinquennales
 Duumvir
 Elected every 5 years
 Revised citizenship roles
o Town Council
 Equivalent of Senate in Rome
 Made local laws
 Presided in curia
 Minimum age  25
 Members for life unless dismissed by Quinquennales

Evidence for everyday life

Leisure activities
 Archaeological evidence of Baths
 Graffiti: visiting actors: “Actius, master of stage performers” near amphitheatre
 Prostitution: inscriptions, archaeological evidence at Pompeii
 Gladiatorial games
o Combats between gladiators and between men and animals
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC ANCIENT HISTORY

o Trained at palaestra
o Evidence: archaeological find of helmets, greaves and weapons in gladiatorial
barracks
 inscription “Auctus of the Julian school has won 50 times”
 remains of amphitheatre
 Cock fighting
o Evidence: mosaic depicting roosters fighting each other
 Pantomimes: mime and music in theatre

Food
 Seafood: Mosaic, House of Faun Pompeii
 Carbonised dates, figs, and olives
 List of foods
o Bread, wine, sausages, leeks
 Garum: small terracotta jars
o Thick, salty fish sauce
 Thermopolia
 Varied diet
o Evidence:
 Carbonised eggs, figs, loaves of bread and nuts
 Animals bones  sheep, cattle, pigs  meat
 Fish bones, sea urchins  seafood
 Jashemski: many houses had room for crops (figs, olives, cherries,
vegetables)
 Mosaics and frescoes  fruit, fish, poultry
Dining
 Frescoes  people eating and drinking
 Triclinium  specific dining room for banqueting (wealthy houses)
o Outdoor Triclinium  House of the Moralist
 Three stone couches and marble topped table
 Fast food – Thermopolia  serving of ready-cooked food
o Penelope Allison
 Villa Murecine
o Inn
o Contained 5 triclinia
o Large kitchen area  large bench for food preparation

Clothing
 Limited archaeological evidence  mostly from artistic representations of wealthy
 Statue of Marcus Nonius Balbus: men wore toga, knee-length tunic  unlikely worn all
the time
o Purple stripe on toga  Equestrian class
 Women: Statues at Villa of Papyri, stola and palla
o Statue of Eumachia
 Stola, sleeveless tunic  marital status
 Palla  worn outdoors
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC ANCIENT HISTORY

 Toga praetexta  Magistrates

 Frescoes of women and men

Health
 Surgical Instruments  Penelope Allison
o People performed high-level first aid
 Archaeological investigation of Estelle Lazer
o Studied 300 skulls  people well nourished
o Decay of teeth  caused by grindstones in flour
o HFI  post-menopausal women
 Archaeological remains of baths and toilet
 Butterworth & Laurence: Tuberculosis and malaria  common diseases

Baths
 Archaeological evidence of baths
 Social and leisure activity
 Hot baths  thermae
 Julia Felix  had own baths for “elegant and respectable people”
 Trepidarium = Warm room
 Caladarium = Steam room
 Fridgedarium = Cool room
 Public complexes
 Wealthy homes didn’t have baths
 Warm room  steam room  cold room
 Pompeii  Forum Baths, the Stabian Baths, the Central Baths and the Amphitheatre
Baths
 Stabian Baths
o Largest baths in Pompeii
o Hypocaust: furnaces  heated boilers  sent hot water into pipes  baths
o Floors and rooms heated by hot air circulated by pipes and flues
 Herculaneum  Forum Baths and Suburban Baths
 Forum Baths
o Skeletons found in men’s dressing room  safety from eruption
 Suburban baths
o Inscription  baths donated by Marcus Nonius Balbus
o Plunge pool in Trepidarium

Water supply
 Remains of Aqueducts
o Water entered water tower and flowed to different pipes  by gravity
o Pompeii  Ran to 42 Public fountains
o Herculaneum  3 Public Fountains
o Ran to some wealthy houses
o Pipes made from lead
o Drainage  better in Herculaneum because of steep slope
 Fountains

Sanitation
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC ANCIENT HISTORY

 Healthy place
 Public latrines (toilets) in forum, baths and palaestra
 One or two toilets in house
 No toilet paper  sponge or stick for cleaning

Public buildings:
Basilicas
o law courts
o government and legal proceedings
o raised platform when duumvir acted as judges
o Contract signings
Temples
o Temple of Isis
 Greek fluted columns
 Lararium
 Only building completely restored after earthquake in AD62
o Temple of Venus
 Corinthian temple
 overlooks sea
o Temple of Apollo
 Constructed 2nd century BC
 Hellenistic and Italian (staircase) styles

Fora
o Herculaneum  yet to be excavated  buried underneath Resina
o Two forums in Pompeii  centre for trade
 Civic Forum
 40m wide and 150m long
 40 statues of powerful families
 Within or adjoining forum  Temple of Jupiter, Temple of Apollo, Basillica

Map: Civic Forum

Stephanie Azzopardi HSC ANCIENT HISTORY

Source: https://www.studyblue.com/notes/note/n/final-images/deck/900786

 Triangular Forum
 95 Doric columns surrounded three sides
 Included Samnite temple = Eldest temple

Theatres
o Pompeii (2nd century BC)  5000 people
o Herculaneum (1ST century AD)  2000 people
o Small theatre Odeon  1300 people
 Music recitals and meetings
o Sectional seating
 Lower rows  magistrates and rich
 Middle rows  middle class & average citizens
 Top rows  women
o Entertainment free but required tokens
o Fires and other special effects

Palaestra
o Soldiers and gladiators exercised
o Greek influence
o Provided shade and open space for athletes
o Two in Pompeii
o One in Herculaneum  pool and fountain

Amphitheatres
o Only Pompeii
o Approx. 20000 people
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC ANCIENT HISTORY

o Stalls set up outside

o Games  beast hunts, gladiatorial contests, athletic displays (painted notices)
o Awning provided shade
o Water sprinkled to keep audience cool

Private buildings:
Villas
o Otium
 Built for leisure
 Multi-storey buildings
 Subterranean portico
 Expansive gardens, water displays, thermal baths, larger swimming pools
 Villa of the Papyri (Herculaneum)
 1800 papyrus rolls  Philodemus (poet/philosopher)
 245 x 137 metres (MASSIVE)
 Peristyle  36 columns
 Baths
 Grand gardens
 87 statues  animals, gods, athletes
o Villa Rusticae
 Villa built on land  agricultural production
 Partially excavated
 Villa Regina (Pompeii)
 Courtyard surrounded by porticoes
 Large kitchen in centre

Houses
o Incorporated both residential and commercial facilities e.g. House of Stephanus 
fullery
o Atrium-peristyle house  wealthy
o Natural light illuminated rooms in wealthy
o Atrium: large central room, foyer of the house
o Impluvium: small pool to catch rainwater
o Tablinium: branched off atrium, reception room, where master would receive
clients
o Compluvium
o Peristyle: outdoor garden
o Triclinium: dining room
o Tabernae: shop attached to house
o Lararium: household shrine
o Kitchens, Bedrooms
 House of the Faun (Pompeii)
 Named after bronze statue of dancing faun
 Alexander the Great mosaic
 Fresco found  flora and fauna along Nile River
 Cover entire insulae
 House of the Tragic Poet (Pompeii)
 Named after mosaic in Tablinium  actors performing Greek drama
 Atrium  image of Zeus and Hera
 Peristyle  imaginary garden scene on wall
 Peristyle  fresco of sacrifice of Iphigenia
 House of the Vettii (Pompeii)
 Named after Vettii brothers
 Peristyle with fluted Doric columns
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC ANCIENT HISTORY

 Atrium  fresco of fertility God Priapus

 Well-preserved lararium

Shops (tabernae)
o Fullery of Stephanus  e.g. of shop with house
o Asselina’s Inn (Pompeii)
o Bakery of Popidius Priscus (Pompeii)

Influence of Greek and Egyptian cultures:

Art
o Influenced by Greek, Etruscan, Italian and Egyptian works
o Greek  Mosaic battle of Alexander and Darius (House of the Faun)
o Egyptian  Fresco of Nile River flora and fauna (House of the Faun)
o Poetry and philosophy  Papyrus scrolls (Villa of the Papyri)
o Poetry found with lines from Homer

Architecture
o Columns:
 Doric: House of the Tragic Poet
 Ionic: Temple of Apollo
 Corinthian: Peristyle courtyards in homes & Temple of Fortuna Augusta
o Triangular Forum in shape of Greek Acropolis
o Samnite House at Herculaneum

Religion
o Egyptian goddess Isis worshipped
 Temple dedicated to her with frescoes asking for guidance
 Fresco of Isis at Ceremony of Water  worshipped at Herculaneum
o Greek god Dionysus worshipped
 Bacchic scene in House of Dioscuri (Pompeii)
 Frescoes found in Herculaneum

Religion
o Polytheistic
o O’Connor  official religious practices more public and those who seeked religious
life were attracted to cults
o Worship of Capitoline Triad  Jupiter, Juno and Minerva (Temples in the Forum)
o Unity within community
o Jupiter: protector of the state
o Juno: protector of women
o Minerva: patroness of craftsmen }Capitoline Triad (J, J & M)

o Apollo: God of oracles and light

o Venus: god of love  patron goddess of Pompeii

Temples
o Temple of Isis
 Greek fluted columns
 Lararium
 Only building completely restored after earthquake in AD62
o Temple of Venus
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC ANCIENT HISTORY

 Corinthian temple
 overlooks sea
o Temple of Apollo
 Constructed 2nd century BC
 Hellenistic and Italian (staircase) styles

Household Gods
o Protect household
o Lararium: household shrine where Lares were worshipped
 Niche dug out to place statues of household Gods
 House of the Vettii  well-preserved Lararium
o Sometimes frescoes substitutes for statues of Gods
o Statues dressed in country style  original protectors of farms
o Penates: protectors of stores and food
o Offerings: wheat, fruit, eggs
o Rituals conducted by pater familias

Foreign Cults
o Bacchus/Dionysius
 Greek God of wine and fertility
 Offered communication with God and promise of blessed life after death
 House of Vettii and Villa of the Mysteries  Dionysius rescuing Adriane
 Very popular – Livy  spread “like a contagious disease”
 Government did not approve

o Isis
 Egyptian influence
 Zamarti: introduced through foreign prostitutes
 Worship  shrine in Julia Felix’s garden
 Appealed to women  role as mother and wife
 Annual festivals  navigation of Isis and Isra

Tombs
o Illegal to bury dead within town
o Large number of tombs along roads leading to Herculaneum, Nucerian and Nolan
Gates
o No tombs uncovered at Pompeii
o Bodies normally cremated  some buried
o Ashes collected in terracotta/glass urns and buried
o Pater familias: ensured deceased received proper burial rites
o Failure to be buried properly – spend eternity as evil person
o Funeral Rites
 Conclamatio: relatives gathered and call out name of deceased
 Women prepared body for burial/cremation  wash and rub with oils
 Body placed in atrium  non-relatives to pay respect
o Funeral processions: musicians and professional mourners

o Tomb of the Istacidii Family

 Owners of Villa of the Mysteries
 Large funerary chamber
 Statues of prominent family members
o Tomb of Mamia
 Priestess of Venus
 Semi-circular tomb
 Funded by town council
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC ANCIENT HISTORY

3. Investigating, reconstructing and preserving the past

Changing methods and contributions of nineteenth and twentieth century archaeologists to
our understanding of Pompeii and Herculaneum

Changing Methods:

Then Now
 “Haphazard”: - lack organisation  Moratorium “stop” of excavation
 Few records – inaccurate  Conservation
 Findings taken out of context  Reconstruction
 Stopped digging at AD 79  Systematic
 Maiuri: produced living museum and  Advanced multidisciplinary
‘told a good story’ teams/experts
 1950/1960’s – Pompeii neglected - architects
 Individual archaeologist – not working - chemists
in teams - osteologists
- volcanologists
- conservators
 Focus on Pre-Roman and before
AD79
 Emphasis on documenting
 Resource management
 Implementation of new technologies
e.g. iPads
 Have to prove why they want to
excavate

Contributions of nineteenth and twentieth century archaeologists

Year Archaeologist Contribution

1860 – 1875 Giuseppe Fiorelli  Uniform numbering and naming system
19TH CENTURY - excavated buildings/houses
- divided Pompeii into 9 insulae
 Plaster casts of victims
- revealed impressions of humans, animals and
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC ANCIENT HISTORY

furniture
 Top down excavation
- less damage to walls and evidence
 Systematic and careful excavation
- according to plan
- did one insulae at a time

1873 – 1909 August Mau  Classified frescos into four decorative styles
19TH CENTURY  Date range for buildings by dating the fresco

1910 – 1923 Vittorio Spinazzola  Excavated Via dell’ Abbondanza

- revealed shops, taverns
 Reconstructed balconies and upper stories
 Used photography to record findings
 Discovered Fullery of Stephanus

1924 - 1961 Amedeo Maiuri  Excavation of Pompeii and attempts at

restoration at Herculaneum
 Recreated atmosphere of interior houses
- put utensils in place
- restored walls and ceilings
 Believed necessary to dig below Roman levels
 Creation of guidebooks
 Excavated Villa of the Mysteries

1990’s Penelope M. Allison  Dr Penelope Allison: “I am interested in

revealing the utilitarian side of life rather than
its glamorous side."
 Recorded and analysed wall paintings of the
House of Ancient Hunt
 Study of room contents of 30 houses in
Pompeii

(i.d) Steven Ellis  Conducted on site survey of Pompeii

 Located 158 properties of food and drink
outlets

1980’s Estelle Lazer  Research on skeletal remains Pompeii

 Challenged assumption that majority of volcano
victims were women, children, elderly and
disabled
Jaye Pont  Focused on red slip pottery
 Used scientific and analytical techniques to
identify where clay from, used in vessels
- findings suggest, majority from Bay of Naples
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC ANCIENT HISTORY

Changing interpretations: impact of new research and technologies

Stephanie Azzopardi HSC ANCIENT HISTORY

Changing interpretations

Impact of New Research

Project Dates Who Aims Action Impact
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC ANCIENT HISTORY

The Pompeii Began in Lead by Produce more Produce Maps used to

Forum Project 1988 Professor of accurate plans more stimulate
Roman art and and elevations accurate discussions
archaeology at of the plans and about
University of surveying elevations of Pompeian
Virginia remains the surveying urbanism
remains among
To recover scholars
architectural
and decorative
remains that
were
deteriorating

Herculaneum 2000 - Packard Halt serious Restored Prevent further

Conservation funding Humanities decay, ancient damage to
Project 2001 - start Institute - maintain on a sewerage - Pompeii and
excavation America sustainable drained to Herculaneum
and basis sea
construction Getty
Conservation Sewerage Consolidation
Institute of structures
Help fund
Wallace Hadrill Italian Employ
government falconers to
address
pigeon issue
(refer to
conservation
issues)

Via dell 2004-2007 Jennifer and Accurately Created Create record

Abbondanza Arthur Stevens record findings photo for future
Project mosaics of archaeologists
Safely the total
excavate the 900m
Via del
Abbondanza Compare to
originals from
1910 - 1923

2005-2006
complete the
surveying
and half the
photos

2007 - all
photo
mosaics
finished

Anglo- 2000-2012 Rick Jones Record and Documented Conservation

Stephanie Azzopardi HSC ANCIENT HISTORY

American Damian preserve what the history of education

Project Robertson was in the archaeologic model -
region six al remains increase
insula 1 understanding
Educated of public
public

Worked on
the House of
the Surgeon,
workshops
and bars

Identified the
earliest
houses

Insula of Began 1978 British: led by Redress Three-stage We now have

Menander Roger Ling deficiencies in analysis and a better
Project earlier records documentatio understanding
made by n of whole of the Insula of
Amedeo insula Menander as a
Maiuri Stage 1: representation
examine of ancient
architecture Roman life.
and interior
decoration
Stage 2:
study interior
decoration
Stage 3:
examine
loose finds
The UCLA Reconstruct Texts Allows us to
Philodemus University of Philodemus’ published appreciate
Project California, Los works on with Philodemus’
Angeles poetry, translations works
rhetoric and
music

Found in Villa
of the Papyri
at
Herculaneum

Impact of New Technologies

Stephanie Azzopardi HSC ANCIENT HISTORY

issues of conservation and reconstruction: Italian and international contributions

and 
 responsibilities; impact of tourism
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC ANCIENT HISTORY

Issues of Conservations and reconstruction

o Poor restoration work
 Reconstruction work done lacks specialised knowledge
e.g. Timber room at the House of Meleager (Pompeii) poorly designed and
collapsed
 Spinazzola covered frescoes and mosaics with glass which creates moist
climate  deteriorates works
o Damage from vegetation
 Weeds invaded & create cracks in artefacts
o Environmental factors
 Sunlight and rain cause frescoes to fade  Roofs reconstructed
 1980 Earthquake and frequent Earth tremors cause damage to ruins
 Pigeon droppings acidic and continually peck at beams & doors
 bird catchers (falconers) employed
o Poor site protection/management
 Pompeii & Herculaneum subject to looting  frescoes from House of the
Chaste Lovers (Pompeii) elsewhere in Italy
 Bags not checked when entering and leaving  promotes theft
 Insufficient number of guards
o Other issues
 Stray dogs roaming area  most removed
 People allowed to eat within houses and buildings  rubbish

Italian and international contributions and responsibilities

o Italian Contributions
 1997: policy, all tourist income put back into site
 4 July 2008: declared Pompeii at ‘State of Emergency’, and allowed
commissioner to oversee Pompeii and Herculaneum preservation and
management
 Venice Charter: outlines main ways in which sites should be conserved and
restored
o International Contributions
 Anglo-American Project
– (refer to table)
 Herculaneum Conservation Project
– (refer to table)
 UNESCO
– Expert advise to Italian government on ways to improve conservation
– Continually makes reports on sites
– 1997: declared World Heritage
– visited area in 2012
– ensures preservation work being completed

Impact of tourism
o Negative impacts
 flash photography  damaging mosaics and frescoes
 2.5 million tourists a year  not big enough to hold that many people
 2008: prompted superintendant Guzzo to declare ‘State of Emergency’
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC ANCIENT HISTORY

 Theft: Fresco in House of Chaste Lovers found elsewhere in Italy

 Touching of artefacts lead to deterioration  House of Vettii (Pompeii)
closed off, House of the Gladiators (Pompeii) not open to public (now
collapsed)
 Allowed to eat  food acid deteriorates artworks
o Positive impacts
 Increased global awareness of ‘State of Emergency’
 Famous people e.g. Charles Dickens visited site and published findings and
emphasised devastating situation
 Development of International projects e.g. Anglo American Project
 Makes money for conservation and restoration work

Ethical issues: study and display of human remains

o Vermillion and Tamaki Makaurau Accords (Codes of Ethics)
 Show respect and compassion whilst trying to continue scientific research
 Can gain insights into diets, life expectancy and predict future population
trends
o No warning for visitors about to witness remains, which can cause sensitivities to
certain cultures
o Controversial: display of bones
o Display of Herculaneum skeletons in Naples Museum more confronting than
plaster casts in situ in Pompeii
o International Council of Museums: remains should be presented with skill and
respect for human dignity
o Question of cultural property caused conflict between archaeologists, museums,
art collectors and auction houses

Reference List

Images
 Bacchus and Mount Vesuvius, Fresco, Pompeii, House of the Centenary, AD 68-79.
[Image] (2014) Retrieved June 25, 2015, from
Stephanie Azzopardi HSC ANCIENT HISTORY

http://www.electrummagazine.com/2013/11/volcano-lovers-exhibition-review-hypo-
kunsthalle-munich-november-2013-23-march-2014/
 Girl with Stylus and Tablets – Sappho from Pompeii. [Image] (n.d.) Retrieved June 25,
2015, from https://www.awesomestories.com/asset/view/Girl-with-Stylus-and-Tablets-
Sappho-from-Pompeii
 Statue équestre de Marcus Nonius Balbus. [Image] (2007) Retrieved June 26, 2015, from
https://www.flickr.com/photos/magika2000/4419088977
 House of the Faun. [Image] (2007) Retrieved June 26, 2015, from
http://gallery4share.com/a/alexander-mosaic-house-of-the-faun.html
 Marble relief sign of coppersmith’s shop, from Pompeii. [Image] (n.d.) Retrieved June 26,
2015, from http://www.gettyimages.com.au/detail/photo/marble-relief-sign-of-
coppersmiths-shop-high-res-stock-photography/98952931
 Pompeii bakery. [Image] (n.d.) Retrieved June 26, 2015, from
http://factsanddetails.com/world/cat56/sub369/item2073.html
 Marble and bronze herm of Lucius Caecilius Lucundus, from Pompeii. [Image] (2014)
Retrieved June 26, 2015, from https://vcessclassicalstudies.wordpress.com/
 Statue of Eumachia in the Building of Eumachia. [Image] (2012) Retrieved June 26,
2015, from
http://journals.worldnomads.com/macedonboy/photo/34839/890406/Italy/Statue-of-
Eumachia-in-the-Building-of-Eumachia
 Pompeii Forum Plan. [Image] (2011) Retrieved June 26, 2015, from
https://www.studyblue.com/notes/note/n/final-images/deck/900786