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ne

MA6351 TRANSFORMS AND PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS LTPC 3104

OBJECTIVES:
To introduce Fourier series analysis which is central to many applications in engineering apart from its
use in solving boundary value problems?
To acquaint the student with Fourier transform techniques used in wide variety of situations.
To introduce the effective mathematical tools for the solutions of partial differential equations
that model several physical processes and to develop Z transform techniques for discrete time
Systems.
UNIT I PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 9+3
Formation of partial differential equations – Singular integrals -- Solutions of standard types of first order
partial differential equations - Lagrange’s linear equation -- Linear partial differential equations of second
and higher order with constant coefficients of both homogeneous and non-homogeneous types.

ww
UNIT II FOURIER SERIES 9+3
Dirichlet’s conditions – General Fourier series – Odd and even functions – Half range sine series –Half
range cosine series – Complex form of Fourier series – Parseval’s identity – Harmonic analysis.

w.E
UNIT III APPLICATIONS OF PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL
Classification of PDE – Method of separation of variables - Solutions of one dimensional wave
equation – One dimensional equation of heat conduction – Steady state solution of two dimensional
9+3

asy
equation of heat conduction (excluding insulated edges).
UNIT IV FOURIER TRANSFORMS
Statement of Fourier integral theorem – Fourier transform pair – Fourier sine and
9+3

identity.
E
cosine transforms – Properties – Transforms of simple functions – Convolution theorem – Parseval’s

UNIT V Z - TRANSFORMS AND DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS

ngi 9+3
Z- transforms - Elementary properties – Inverse Z - transform (using partial fraction and residues) –

nee
Convolution theorem - Formation of difference equations – Solution of difference equations using Z -
transform.

TOTAL (L:45+T:15): 60 PERIODS.

rin
TEXT BOOKS:
g.n
1. Veerarajan. T., "Transforms and Partial Differential Equations", Tata McGraw Hill Education Pvt.

e
Ltd., New Delhi, Second reprint, 2012.
2. Grewal. B.S., "Higher Engineering Mathematics", 42nd Edition, Khanna Publishers, Delhi, 2012.
3. Narayanan.S., Manicavachagom Pillay.T.K and Ramanaiah.G "Advanced Mathematics for
Engineering Students" Vol. II & III, S.Viswanathan Publishers Pvt. Ltd.1998.

REFERENCES:
1. Bali.N.P and Manish Goyal, "A Textbook of Engineering Mathematics", 7th Edition, Laxmi
Publications Pvt Ltd, 2007.
2. Ramana.B.V., "Higher Engineering Mathematics", Tata Mc Graw Hill Publishing Company Limited,
NewDelhi, 2008.
3. Glyn James, "Advanced Modern Engineering Mathematics", 3rd Edition, Pearson Education, 2007.
4. Erwin Kreyszig, "Advanced Engineering Mathematics", 8th Edition, Wiley India, 2007.
5. Ray Wylie. C and Barrett.L.C, "Advanced Engineering Mathematics" Tata Mc Graw Hill Education
Pvt Ltd, Sixth Edition, New Delhi, 2012.
6. Datta.K.B., "Mathematical Methods of Science and Engineering", Cengage Learning India Pvt Ltd,
Delhi, 2013.

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CONTENTS

S.NO TOPICS PAGE NO

UNIT-I PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 FORMATION OF PARTIAL DIFFERNTIAL EQUATIONS 1
1.3 SOLUTIONS OF PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 7
1.4 LAGRANGE’S LINEAR EQUATIONS 23
1.5 PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF HIGHER ORDER WITH CONSTANT 29
CO-EFFECIENTS
1.6 NON-HOMOGENOUS LINEAR EQUATIONS 36

ww
2.1
2.2
INTRODUCTION
PERIODIC FUNCTIONS
UNIT-II FOURIER SERIES
42
42
2.3
2.4 w.E
EVEN AND ODD FUNCTIONS
HALF RANGE SERIES
54
61

asy
2.5 PARSEVAL’S THEOREM 68
2.6 CHANGE OF INTERVAL 69
2.7 HARMONIC ANALYSIS 76
2.8
2.9 SUMMARY
E
COMPLEX FORM OF FOURIER SERIES

ngi
UNIT-III APPLICATIONS OF PARTIAL DIFFERENTILA EQUATIONS
80
83

3.1
3.2
3.3
INTRODUCTION
SOLUTION OF WAVE EQUATION
SOLUTION OF THE HEAT EQUATION nee 87
87
105
3.4 SOLUTION OF LAPLACE EQUATIONS
UNIT-IV FOURIER TRANSFORMS rin 120

4.1
4.2
INTRODUCTION
INTEGRAL TRANSFORMS g.n 133
133
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
FOURIER INTEGRAL THEOREM
FOURIER TRANSFORMS AND ITS PROPERTIES
CONVOLUTION THEOREM AND PARSEVAL’S THEOREM
FOURIER SINE AND COSINE TRANSFORMS
e 134
137
149
154
UNIT-V Z-TRANSFORMS AND DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS
5.1 INTRODUCTION 166
5.2 LINEAR DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS 167
5.3 Z-TRANSFORMS AND ITS PROPERTIES 168
5.4 INVERSE Z-TRANSFORMS 183
5.5 CONVOLUTION THEOREM 191
5.6 APPLICATIONS OF Z-TRANSFORMS TO DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS 193
5.7 FORMATION OF DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS 199
BIBLIOGRAPHY 200

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UNIT– I

PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

This unit covers topics that explain the formation of partial differential equations
and the solutions of special types of partial differential equations.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

A partial differential equation is one which involves one or more partial

derivatives. The order of the highest derivative is called the order of the equation. A
partial differential equation contains more than one independent variable. But, here we
shall consider partial differential equations involving one dependent variable „z‟ and only

ww
two independent variables x and y so that z = f(x,y). We shall denote

z z 2z 2z 2z

w.E
------- = p,
x
----------- = q, ---------- = r, ---------- = s, ---------- = t.
y x2 xy y2

asy
A partial differential equation is linear if it is of the first degree in the dependent
variable and its partial derivatives. If each term of such an equation contains either the

E
dependent variable or one of its derivatives, the equation is said to be homogeneous,
otherwise it is non homogeneous.

1.2 Formation of Partial Differential Equations ngi

nee
Partial differential equations can be obtained by the elimination of arbitrary constants or
by the elimination of arbitrary functions.
rin
By the elimination of arbitrary constants
Let us consider the function
g.n
 ( x, y, z, a, b ) = 0 -------------(1)

where a & b are arbitrary constants

e
Differentiating equation (1) partially w.r.t x & y, we get

∂ ∂
+ p = 0 _________________ (2)
∂x ∂z
∂ ∂
+ q = 0 _________________ (3)
∂y ∂z

Eliminating a and b from equations (1), (2) and (3), we get a partial differential
equation of the first order of the form f (x,y,z, p, q) = 0

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Example 1

Eliminate the arbitrary constants a & b from z = ax + by + ab

Consider z = ax + by + ab ____________ (1)

Differentiating (1) partially w.r.t x & y, we get

∂z
= a i.e, p= a __________ (2)
∂x
∂z
= b i.e, q = b ________ (3)
∂y

ww
Using (2) & (3) in (1), we get

w.E
z = px +qy+ pq

which is the required partial differential equation.

Example 2 asy
E ngi
Form the partial differential equation by eliminating the arbitrary constants a and b
from
z = ( x2 +a2 ) ( y2 + b2)

Given z = ( x2 +a2 ) ( y2 + b2) nee

__________ (1)

Differentiating (1) partially w.r.t x & y , we get

rin
p = 2x (y2 + b2 )
g.n
q = 2y (x + a ) e
Substituting the values of p and q in (1), we get

4xyz = pq

which is the required partial differential equation.

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Example 3

Find the partial differential equation of the family of spheres of radius one whose centre
lie in the xy - plane.

The equation of the sphere is given by

( x – a )2 + ( y- b) 2 + z2 =1 _____________ (1)

Differentiating (1) partially w.r.t x & y , we get

2 (x-a ) + 2 zp = 0

ww 2 ( y-b ) + 2 zq =

From these equations we obtain

0

w.E
x-a = -zp _________ (2)
y -b = -zq _________ (3)

asy
Using (2) and (3) in (1), we get

E
z2p2 + z2q2 + z2 = 1
or z2 ( p2 + q2 + 1) = 1
ngi
nee
Example 4
rin
Eliminate the arbitrary constants a, b & c from
g.n
x2

a2
+
y2

b 2
+
z2
2
c
= 1 and form the partial differential equation. e
The given equation is

x2 y2 z2
+ + =1 _____________________________ (1)
2 2 2
a b c

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Differentiating (1) partially w.r.t x & y, we get

2x 2zp
+ = 0
a2 c2

2y 2zq
+ = 0
b2 c2
Therefore we get

ww x

a2
+
zp

c2
= 0 _________________ (2)

y
2
+ w.E
zq
2
= 0 ____________________ (3)
b

asy
c

Again differentiating (2) partially w.r.t „x‟, we set

E
(1/a2 ) + (1/ c2 ) ( zr + p2 ) = 0
ngi
_______________ (4)

Multiplying ( 4) by x, we get

x xz r p2x nee
a2
+
c2
+
c2
=0
rin
From (2) , we have
g.n
zp

c2
+
xzr

c2
+
c2
p2x
=0 e
or -zp + xzr + p2x = 0

By the elimination of arbitrary functions

Let u and v be any two functions of x, y, z and Φ(u, v ) = 0, where Φ is an

arbitrary function. This relation can be expressed as

u = f(v) ______________ (1)

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Differentiating (1) partially w.r.t x & y and eliminating the arbitrary

functions from these relations, we get a partial differential equation of the first order
of the form
f(x, y, z, p, q ) = 0.

Example 5
Obtain the partial differential equation by eliminating „f „ from z = ( x+y ) f ( x2 - y2 )

Let us now consider the equation

z = (x+y ) f(x2- y2) _____________ (1)

Differentiating (1) partially w.r.t x & y , we get

ww p = ( x + y ) f ' ( x2 - y2 ) . 2x + f ( x2 - y2 )
q = ( x + y ) f ' ( x2 - y2 ) . (-2y) + f ( x2 - y2 )

w.E
These equations can be written as

asy
p - f ( x2 - y2 ) = ( x + y ) f '( x2 - y2 ) . 2x ____________ (2)
q - f ( x2 - y2 ) = ( x + y ) f '( x2 - y2 ) .(-2y) ____________ (3)
Hence, we get
E
p - f ( x2 - y2 )
ngi x

q - f ( x2 - y2 )
= -
y
nee
i.e, 2 2
py - yf( x - y ) = -qx +xf ( x - y ) 2 2

rin
i.e, py +qx = ( x+y ) f ( x2 - y2 )
g.n
Therefore, we have by(1),

Example 6
py +qx = z

e
Form the partial differential equation by eliminating the arbitrary function f
from
z = ey f (x + y)

Consider z = ey f ( x +y ) ___________ ( 1)

Differentiating (1) partially w .r. t x & y, we get

p = ey f ' (x + y)
q = ey f '(x + y) + f(x + y). ey
Hence, we have

q=p+z

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Example 7

Form the PDE by eliminating f & Φ from z = f (x +ay ) + Φ ( x – ay)

Consider z = f (x +ay ) + Φ ( x – ay) _______________ (1)

Differentiating (1) partially w.r.t x &y , we get

p = f '(x +ay ) + Φ' (x – ay) ___________________ (2)

q = f ' (x +ay ) .a + Φ' (x – ay) ( -a) _______________ (3)

ww
Differentiating (2) & (3) again partially w.r.t x & y, we get

w.E
r = f "( x+ay) + Φ "( x – ay)
t = f "( x+ay) .a2 + Φ"( x – ay) (-a)2

i.e,
asy
t = a2 { f"( x + ay) + Φ"( x – ay)}

or t = a2r

Exercises:
E ngi
1.
„b‟ nee
Form the partial differential equation by eliminating the arbitrary constants „a‟ &
from the following equations.
(i)
(ii)
z = ax + by
x2 + y2 z2
rin
a2
+
b2
=1

(iii) z = ax + by + a2 + b2
g.n
(iv)
(v)
ax2 + by2 + cz2 = 1
z = a2x + b2y + ab e
2. Find the PDE of the family of spheres of radius 1 having their centres lie on the
xy plane{Hint: (x – a)2 + (y – b)2 + z2 = 1}

3. Find the PDE of all spheres whose centre lie on the (i) z axis (ii) x-axis

4. Form the partial differential equations by eliminating the arbitrary functions in the
following cases.
(i) z = f (x + y)
(ii) z = f (x2 – y2)
(iii) z = f (x2 + y2 + z2)
(iv)  (xyz, x + y + z) = 0

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(v) z = x + y + f(xy)
(vi) z = xy + f (x2 + y2)
(vii) z = f xy
z
(viii) F (xy + z2, x + y + z) = 0
(ix) z = f (x + iy) +f (x – iy)
(x) z = f(x3 + 2y) +g(x3 – 2y)

1.3 SOLUTIONS OF A PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

ww A solution or integral of a partial differential equation is a relation connecting the

dependent and the independent variables which satisfies the given differential equation. A
partial differential equation can result both from elimination of arbitrary constants and

w.E
from elimination of arbitrary functions as explained in section 1.2. But, there is a basic
difference in the two forms of solutions. A solution containing as many arbitrary
constants as there are independent variables is called a complete integral. Here, the partial

asy
differential equations contain only two independent variables so that the complete
integral will include two constants.A solution obtained by giving particular values to the

Singular Integral
E
arbitrary constants in a complete integral is called a particular integral.

ngi
Let f (x,y,z,p,q) = 0 ---------- (1) nee
rin
be the partial differential equation whose complete integral is

 (x,y,z,a,b) = 0 ----------- (2) g.n

where „a‟ and „b‟ are arbitrary constants.

Differentiating (2) partially w.r.t. a and b, we obtain

e

-------- = 0 ----------- (3)
a

and --------- = 0 ----------- (4)
b

The eliminant of „a‟ and „b‟ from the equations (2), (3) and (4), when it exists, is
called the singular integral of (1).

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General Integral

In the complete integral (2), put b = F(a), we get

 (x,y,z,a, F(a) ) = 0 ---------- (5)

Differentiating (2), partially w.r.t.a, we get

 
------- + -------- F'(a) = 0 -------- (6)

ww a b

w.E
The eliminant of „a‟ between (5) and (6), if it exists, is called the general integral of (1).

asy
SOLUTION OF STANDARD TYPES OF FIRST ORDER PARTIAL
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

E ngi
The first order partial differential equation can be written as

f(x,y,z, p,q) = 0,

nee
where p = z/x and q = z / y. In this section, we shall solve some standard forms
of equations by special methods.

rin
Standard I : f (p,q) = 0. i.e, equations containing p and q only.

g.n
Suppose that z = ax + by +c is a solution of the equation f(p,q) = 0, where f (a,b)
= 0.

Solving this for b, we get b = F (a).

e
Hence the complete integral is z = ax + F(a) y +c ------------ (1)

Now, the singular integral is obtained by eliminating a & c between

z = ax + y F(a) + c
0 = x + y F'(a)
0 = 1.

The last equation being absurd, the singular integral does not exist in this case.

To obtain the general integral, let us take c =  (a).

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Then, z = ax + F(a) y +  (a) -------------- (2)

Differentiating (2) partially w.r.t. a, we get

0 = x + F'(a). y + '(a) --------------- (3)

Eliminating „a‟ between (2) and (3), we get the general integral

Example 8

ww Solve pq = 2

w.E
The given equation is of the form f (p,q) = 0

The solution is z = ax + by +c, where ab = 2.

Solving,
asy 2
b = ------.
a

E
The complete integral is
ngi
2
Z = ax + ------ y + c
a nee
---------- (1)

Differentiating (1) partially w.r.t „c‟, we get rin

0 = 1, g.n
which is absurd. Hence, there is no singular integral.

To find the general integral, put c =  (a) in (1), we get

e
2
Z = ax + ------ y +  (a)
a

Differentiating partially w.r.t „a‟, we get

2
0 = x – ------ y + (a)
a2

Eliminating „a‟ between these equations gives the general integral.

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Example 9

Solve pq + p +q = 0

The given equation is of the form f (p,q) = 0.

The solution is z = ax + by +c, where ab + a + b = 0.

Solving, we get
a
b= – --------

ww 1+a
a
Hence the complete Integral is z = ax – -------

w.E
y+c ------ (1)
1+a

Differentiating (1) partially w.r.t. „c‟, we get

asy 0 = 1.

E
The above equation being absurd, there is no singular integral for the given partial
differential equation.
ngi
To find the general integral, put c =  (a) in (1), we have

a
z = ax – --------- y +  (a) nee ------(2)
1 +a
rin
Differentiating (2) partially w.r.t a, we get
g.n
1
0 = x – -------- y + (a)
(1 + a)2
1
e
----- (3)

Eliminating „a‟ between (2) and (3) gives the general integral.

Example 10

Solve p2 + q2 = npq

The solution of this equation is z = ax + by + c, where a2 + b2 = nab.

Solving, we get
n + (n2 – 4)
b= a ------------------

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2
Hence the complete integral is

n + n2 – 4
z =ax +a ------------------ y+c -----------(1)
2

Differentiating (1) partially w.r.t c, we get 0 = 1, which is absurd. Therefore, there is no

singular integral for the given equation.

To find the general Integral, put C =  (a), we get

n + n2 – 4

ww z = ax + a ------------------- y +  (a)
2

w.E
Differentiating partially w.r.t „a‟, we have

asy n + n2 – 4
0 = x + ------------------- y +  (a)

E
2

ngi
The eliminant of „a‟ between these equations gives the general integral

nee
Standard II : Equations of the form f (x,p,q) = 0, f (y,p,q) = 0 and f (z,p,q) = 0.
i.e, one of the variables x,y,z occurs explicitly.

(i) Let us consider the equation f (x,p,q) = 0.

rin
Since z is a function of x and y, we have
g.n
z z
dz = ------- dx + -------- dy
x y
e
or dz = pdx + qdy

Assume that q = a.

Then the given equation takes the form f (x, p,a ) = 0

Solving, we get p = (x,a).

Therefore, dz = (x,a) dx + a dy.

Integrating, z =  (x,a) dx + ay + b which is a complete Integral.

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(ii) Let us consider the equation f(y,p,q) = 0.

Assume that p = a.

Then the equation becomes f (y,a, q) = 0

Solving, we get q =  (y,a).

Therefore, dz = adx + (y,a) dy.

Integrating, z = ax + (y,a) dy + b, which is a complete Integral.

ww
(iii) Let us consider the equation f(z, p, q) = 0.

w.E
Assume that q = ap.

Then the equation becomes f (z, p, ap) = 0

asy
Solving, we get p = (z,a). Hence dz = (z,a) dx + a (z, a) dy.

E dz
ie, ----------- = dx + ady.
 (z,a) ngi
Integrating,
dz
nee
 ----------- = x + ay + b, which is a complete Integral.
 (z,a)
rin
Example 11
Solve q = xp + p2 g.n
Given q = xp + p2 -------------(1)

This is of the form f (x,p,q) = 0.

e
Put q = a in (1), we get

a = xp + p2

i.e, p2 + xp – a = 0.

-x +(x2 + 4a)
Therefore, p = --------------------
2

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– x ± x2 + 4a
Integrating , z =  -------------------- dx + ay + b
2

x2 x x
Thus, z = – ------ ± ------ (4a + x2)+ a sin h–1 ----- + ay + b
4 4 2a
Example 12

ww Solve q = yp2

w.E
This is of the form f (y,p,q) = 0

Then, put p = a.

asy
Therfore, the given equation becomes q = a2y.

E
Since dz = pdx + qdy, we have

dz = adx + a2y dy ngi

a2y2
Integrating, we get z = ax + ------- + b
2 nee
Example 13
rin
Solve 9 (p2z + q2) = 4
g.n
This is of the form f (z,p,q) = 0

Then, putting q = ap, the given equation becomes e

9 (p2z + a2p2) = 4

2
Therefore, p = ± ----------
3 (z + a2)

2a
and q = ± ----------
3 (z + a2)

Since dz = pdx + qdy,

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2 1 2 1
dz = ± ------ ---------- dx ± -------- a ---------- dy
3 z + a2 3 z + a2

Multiplying both sides by z + a2, we get

2 2
z + a dz = ------ dx + ------ a dy , which on integration gives,
2

3 3

(z+a2)3/2 2 2
------------- = ------ x + ------ ay + b.

ww 3/2 3 3

or
w.E (z + a2)3/2 = x + ay + b.

are
asy
Standard III : f1(x,p) = f2 (y,q). ie, equations in which ‘z’ is absent and the variables

separable.

E
Let us assume as a trivial solution that
ngi
f(x,p) = g(y,q) = a (say).

Solving for p and q, we get p = F(x,a) and q = G(y,a). nee

z z rin
But dz = -------- dx + ------- dy
x y g.n
Hence dz = pdx + qdy = F(x,a) dx + G(y,a) dy
e
Therefore, z = F(x,a) dx +  G(y,a) dy + b , which is the complete integral of the given
equation containing two constants a and b. The singular and general integrals are found in
the usual way.

Example 14

Solve pq = xy

The given equation can be written as

p y
----- = ------ = a (say)
x q

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p
Therefore, ----- = a implies p = ax
x
y y
and ------ = a implies q = -----
q a

Since dz = pdx + qdy, we have

y
dz = axdx + ------ dy, which on integration gives.

ww ax2
a

y2

w.E
z = ------- + ------- + b
2 2a

Example 15 asy
E
Solve p2 + q2 = x2 + y2
ngi
The given equation can be written as

p2 – x2 = y2 – q2 = a2 (say) nee
p2 – x2 = a2 implies p = (a2 + x2) rin
and y2 – q2 = a2 implies q = (y2 – a2) g.n
But dz = pdx + qdy

ie, dz =  a2 + x2 dx + y2 – a2 dy
e
Integrating, we get

x a2 x y a2 y
2 2 –1 2 2 -1
z = ----x + a + ----- sinh ----- + ----y – a – ----- cosh ----- + b
2 2 a 2 2 a

Standard IV (Clairaut’s form)

Equation of the type z = px + qy + f (p,q) ------(1) is known as Clairaut‟s form.

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Differentiating (1) partially w.r.t x and y, we get

p = a and q = b.

Therefore, the complete integral is given by

z = ax + by + f (a,b).

Example 16

ww Solve z = px + qy +pq

The given equation is in Clairaut‟s form.

w.E
Putting p = a and q = b, we have

asy
z = ax + by + ab -------- (1)

E
which is the complete integral.

ngi
To find the singular integral, differentiating (1) partially w.r.t a and b, we get

0=x+b
0=y+a nee
Therefore we have, a = -y and b= -x.
rin
Substituting the values of a & b in (1), we get
g.n
or
z = -xy – xy + xy

z + xy = 0, which is the singular integral.

e
To get the general integral, put b = (a) in (1).

Then z = ax + (a)y + a (a) ---------- (2)

Differentiating (2) partially w.r.t a, we have

0 = x + '(a) y + a'(a) + (a) ---------- (3)

Eliminating „a‟ between (2) and (3), we get the general integral.

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

Example 17

Find the complete and singular solutions of z = px + qy +  1+ p2 + q2

The complete integral is given by

z = ax + by +  1+ a2 + b2 -------- (1)

To obtain the singular integral, differentiating (1) partially w.r.t a & b. Then,

a
0 = x + ---------------------

ww 1 + a2 + b2
b

w.E0 = y + ---------------------
1 + a2 + b2

Therefore,
asy –a
x = ----------------- -----------(2)

and
E (1 + a2 + b2)
–b
y = --------------- ngi
---------- (3)
(1 + a + b )

Squaring (2) & (3) and adding, we get

2 2

nee
a2 + b2 rin
x2 + y2 = ------------------
1 + a2 + b2 g.n
Now, 2 2
1
1 – x – y = -----------------
1 + a2 + b2
e
1
i.e, 1 +a2 + b2 = ----------------
1 – x2 – y2

Therefore,
1
(1 +a2 + b2) = ---------------- -----------(4)
1 – x2 – y2
Using (4) in (2) & (3), we get

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

x = – a 1 – x2 – y2

and y = – b 1 – x2 – y2

-x -y
Hence, a = ------------- and b = ----------------
1–x2–y2 1–x2–y2

Substituting the values of a & b in (1) , we get

- x2 y2 1
z = ------------- – -------------- + ---------------

ww 1–x2–y2 1–x2–y2 1–x2–y2

w.E
which on simplification gives

z = 1 – x2 – y2

or
asy
x2 + y2 + z2 = 1, which is the singular integral.

Exercises
E
Solve the following Equations ngi
1. pq = k
2. p + q = pq
3. p +q = x
nee
4. p = y2q2
5. z = p2 + q2 rin
6. p + q = x + y
7. p2z2 + q2 = 1 g.n
8. z = px + qy - 2pq
9. {z – (px + qy)}2 = c2 + p2 + q2
10. z = px + qy + p2q2
e
EQUATIONS REDUCIBLE TO THE STANDARD FORMS

Sometimes, it is possible to have non – linear partial differential equations of the

first order which do not belong to any of the four standard forms discussed earlier. By
changing the variables suitably, we will reduce them into any one of the four standard
forms.

Type (i) : Equations of the form F(xm p, ynq) = 0 (or) F (z, xmp, ynq) = 0.

Case(i) : If m  1 and n  1, then put x1-m = X and y1-n = Y.

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

z z X z
Now, p = ----- = ------ . ------- = ------ (1-m) x -m
x X x X

z z
m
Therefore, x p = ------ (1-m) = (1 – m) P, where P = -------
X X
z
Similarly, ynq = (1-n)Q, where Q = ------
Y
Hence, the given equation takes the form F(P,Q) = 0 (or) F(z,P,Q) = 0.
Case(ii) : If m = 1 and n = 1, then put log x = X and log y = Y.

ww z z X z 1
Now, p = ----- = ------- . ------- = ------- ------
x
w.E z
X x X x

asy
Therefore, xp = ------ = P.
X

Similarly, yq =Q.

Example 18
E ngi
Solve x4p2 + y2zq = 2z2 nee
The given equation can be expressed as
rin
(x2p)2 + (y2q)z = 2z2
g.n
Here m = 2, n = 2

Put X = x1-m = x -1 and Y = y 1-n = y -1.

e
We have xmp = (1-m) P and ynq = (1-n)Q
i.e, x2p = -P and y2q = -Q.

Hence the given equation becomes

P2 – Qz = 2z2 ----------(1)

This equation is of the form f (z,P,Q) = 0.

Let us take Q = aP.

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

Then equation (1) reduces to

P2 – aPz =2z2

a  (a2 + 8)
Hence, P = ----------------- z
2

a  (a2 + 8)
and Q = a ---------------- z
2
Since dz = PdX + QdY, we have

ww a  (a2 + 8) a  (a2 + 8)
dz = ---------------- z dX + a --------------- z dY

dz w.E 2

a  (a2 + 8)
2

i.e,
asy
------ = ---------------- (dX + a dY)
z 2

Integrating, we get
E
a   a2 + 8 ngi
log z = ---------------- (X + aY) +b
2
nee
Therefore,
a  (a2 + 8)
log z = ----------------
1 a
rin
---- + ----- + b which is the complete solution.
2 x y
g.n
Example 19
e
Solve x2p2 + y2q2 = z2

The given equation can be written as

(xp)2 + (yq)2 = z2

Here m = 1, n = 1.

Put X = log x and Y = log y.

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

Then xp = P and yq = Q.

Hence the given equation becomes

P2 + Q2 = z2 -------------(1)

This equation is of the form F(z,P,Q) = 0.

Therefore, let us assume that Q = aP.

Now, equation (1) becomes,

P2 + a2 P2 = z2

ww
Hence
z
P = --------
(1+a2)

and w.E az
Q = --------
(1+a2)
asy
Since dz = PdX + QdY, we have
z
E az
dz = ----------dX + ---------- dY.
(1+a2) (1+a2) ngi
dz
i.e, (1+a ) ------ = dX + a dY.
2

z nee
Integrating, we get rin
(1+a2) log z = X + aY + b. g.n
e
Therefore, (1+a2) log z = logx + alogy + b, which is the complete solution.

Type (ii) : Equations of the form F(zkp, zkq) = 0 (or) F(x, zkp) = G(y,zkq).

Case (i) : If k  -1, put Z = zk+1,

Z Z z z
Now ------- = -------- ------- = (k+1)z . ------- = (k+1) zkp.
k

x z x x

1 Z
k
Therefore, z p = ----- -------
k+1 x

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

1 Z
k
Similarly, z q = ------- ------
k+1 y

Case (ii) : If k = -1, put Z = log z.

Z Z z 1
Now, ------- = -------- ------- = ----- p
x z x z
Z 1
Similarly, ----- = ----- q.
y

ww
Example 20
z

w.E
Solve z4q2 – z2p = 1

asy
The given equation can also be written as

(z2q)2 – (z2p) =1

E
Here k = 2. Putting Z = z k+1 = z3, we get
ngi
k
1 Z
Z p = ------ ------
k+1 x
and k
1 Z
Z q = ------ ------
k+1 y
nee
Z Z rin
g.n
1 1
2 2
i.e, Z p = ------ ------ and Z q = ------ ------
3 x 3 y

Hence the given equation reduces to

Q 2 P
e
------  ------ = 1
3 3

i.e, Q2 – 3P – 9 = 0,

which is of the form F(P,Q) = 0.

Hence its solution is Z = ax + by + c, where b2 – 3a – 9 = 0.

Solving for b, b = ± (3a +9)

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

Hence the complete solution is

Z = ax + (3a +9) . y + c

or z3 = ax + (3a +9) y + c

Exercises

Solve the following equations.

ww 1. x2p2 + y2p2 = z2
2. z2 (p2+q2) = x2 + y2

w.E
3. z2 (p2x2 + q2) = 1
4. 2x4p2 – yzq – 3z2 = 0
5. p2 + x2y2q2 = x2 z2

asy
6. x2p + y2q = z2
7. x2/p + y2/q = z
8. z2 (p2 – q2) = 1

E
9. z2 (p2/x2 + q2/y2) = 1
10. p2x + q2y = z.
ngi
1.4 Lagrange’s Linear Equation
nee
Equations of the form Pp + Qq = R ________ (1), where P, Q and R are

rin
functions of x, y, z, are known as Lagrange‟s equations and are linear in „p‟ and „q‟.To
solve this equation, let us consider the equations u = a and v = b, where a, b are arbitrary
constants and u, v are functions of x, y, z.
g.n
Since „u ‟ is a constant, we have du = 0 -----------(2).

But „u‟ as a function of x, y, z, e

∂u ∂u ∂u
du = dx + dy + dz
∂x ∂y ∂z
Comparing (2) and (3), we have
∂u ∂u ∂u
dx + dy + dz = 0 ___________ (3)
∂x ∂y ∂z

Similarly, ∂v ∂v ∂v
dx + dy + dz = 0 ___________ (4)
∂x ∂y ∂z

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

By cross-multiplication, we have

dx dy dz
= =
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
- - -
∂z ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y

(or)

dx dy dz
= = ______________ (5)

ww P Q R

w.E
Equations (5) represent a pair of simultaneous equations which are of the first
order and of first degree.Therefore, the two solutions of (5) are u = a and v = b. Thus,
( u, v ) = 0 is the required solution of (1).

Note :
asy
equations
dx dy
E
To solve the Lagrange‟s equation,we have to form the subsidiary or auxiliary

dz ngi
P
=
Q
=
R
nee
which can be solved either by the method of grouping or by the method of
multipliers. rin
Example 21
g.n
Find the general solution of px + qy = z.
e
Here, the subsidiary equations are

dx dy dz
= =
x y z

Taking the first two ratios , dx dy

=
x y

Integrating, log x = log y + log c1

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

or x = c1 y

i.e, c1 = x / y

From the last two ratios, dy dz

=
y z

Integrating, log y = log z + log c2

or y = c2 z

i.e, c2 = y / z

ww
Hence the required general solution is

Φ( x/y, y/z) = 0, where Φ is arbitrary

Example 22 w.E
asy
Solve p tan x + q tan y = tan z

dx
E
The subsidiary equations are

dy dz
ngi
tanx
=
tany
=
tanz
nee
Taking the first two ratios , dx
tanx
=
dy
tany
rin
ie, cotx dx = coty dy
g.n
Integrating, log sinx = log siny + log c1

ie, sinx = c1 siny

e
Therefore, c1 = sinx / siny

Similarly, from the last two ratios, we get

siny = c2 sinz

i.e, c2 = siny / sinz

Hence the general solution is

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

sinx siny
Φ , = 0, where Φ is arbitrary.
siny sinz

Example 23

Solve (y-z) p + (z-x) q = x-y

Here the subsidiary equations are

dx dy dz

ww y-z
=
z- x
=
x –y

w.E
Using multipliers 1,1,1,
dx + dy + dz
each ratio =

asy0

E
Therefore, dx + dy + dz =0.

Integrating, x + y + z = c1 ____________ (1)

ngi
Again using multipliers x, y and z,
nee
each ratio =
xdx + ydy + zdz
rin
0
g.n
Therefore,

Integrating,
xdx + ydy + zdz = 0.

x2/2 + y2/2 +z2/2 = constant e

or x2 + y2 + z2 = c2 __________ (2)

Hence from (1) and (2), the general solution is

Φ ( x + y + z, x2 + y2 + z2) = 0

Example 24

Find the general solution of (mz - ny) p + (nx- lz)q = ly - mx.

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

Here the subsidiary equations are

dx dy dz
= =
mz- ny nx - lz ly - mx

Using the multipliers x, y and z, we get

xdx + ydy + zdz

each fraction =
0

ww
`  xdx + ydy + zdz = 0, which on integration gives

x2/2 + y2/2 +z2/2 = constant

or w.E
x2 + y2 + z2 = c1 __________ (1)

asy
Again using the multipliers l, m and n, we have

E
each fraction =
0
ldx + mdy + ndz

ngi
`  ldx + mdy + ndz = 0, which on integration gives

lx + my + nz = c2 __________ (2) nee

Hence, the required general solution is rin
Φ(x2 + y2 + z2 , lx + my + nz ) = 0 g.n
Example 25

Solve (x2 - y2 - z2 ) p + 2xy q = 2xz.

e
The subsidiary equations are

dx dy dz
= =
x2-y2-z2 2xy 2xz

Taking the last two ratios,

dx dz
=
2xy 2xz

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

2xy 2xz

ie, dy dz
=
y z

Integrating, we get log y = log z + log c1

or y = c1z

i.e, c1 = y/z __________ (1)

ww
Using multipliers x, y and z, we get

w.E
each fraction =
xdx + y dy + zdz

x (x2-y2-z2 )+2xy2+2xz2
=
xdx + y dy + zdz

x ( x2+ y2 + z2 )

asy
Comparing with the last ratio, we get

E
xdx + y dy + zdz

x ( x2+ y2 + z2 )
=
dz

2xz
ngi
i.e,
2xdx + 2ydy + 2zdz
=
dz
nee
2
x +y +z 2 2
z
rin
Integrating, log ( x2+ y2 + z2 ) = log z + log c2

x2+ y2 + z2
g.n
or

i.e, c2 =
x2+ y2 + z2
= c2 z

___________ (2)
e
z

From (1) and (2), the general solution is Φ(c1 , c2) = 0.

x2+ y2 + z2
i.e, Φ (y/z) , = 0
z

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

Exercises

ww
Solve the following equations
1. px2 + qy2 = z2

w.E
2. pyz + qzx = xy
3. xp – yq = y2 – x2
4. y2zp + x2zq = y2x
5. z (x – y) = px2 – qy2

asy
6. (a – x) p + (b – y) q = c – z
7. (y2z p) /x + xzq = y2

E
8. (y2 + z2) p – xyq + xz = 0
9. x2p + y2q = (x + y) z
10. p – q = log (x+y)
11. (xz + yz)p + (xz – yz)q = x2 + y2
ngi
12. (y – z)p – (2x + y)q = 2x + z
nee
1.5 PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF HIGHER ORDER WITH rin
CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS.
g.n
Homogeneous Linear Equations with constant Coefficients.
e
A homogeneous linear partial differential equation of the nth order is of the form

nz nz nz

c0 ------ + c1 ----------- + . . . . . . + cn -------- = F (x,y) --------- (1)
xn xn-1y yn

where c0, c1,---------, cn are constants and F is a function of „x‟ and „y‟. It is
homogeneous because all its terms contain derivatives of the same order.

Equation (1) can be expressed as

(c0Dn + c1Dn-1 D' + ….. + cn D'n ) z = F (x,y)

or f (D,D') z = F (x,y) ---------(2),

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

 
where, -----  D and -----  D' .
x y
As in the case of ordinary linear equations with constant coefficients the complete
solution of (1) consists of two parts, namely, the complementary function and the
particular integral.
The complementary function is the complete solution of f (D,D') z = 0-------(3),
which must contain n arbitrary functions as the degree of the polynomial f(D,D'). The
particular integral is the particular solution of equation (2).
Finding the complementary function

Let us now consider the equation f(D,D') z = F (x,y)

ww
The auxiliary equation of (3) is obtained by replacing D by m and D' by 1.

w.E
i.e, c0 mn + c1 mn-1 + ….. + cn = 0 ---------(4)

asy
Solving equation (4) for „m‟, we get „n‟ roots. Depending upon the nature of the roots,
the Complementary function is written as given below:

equation
m1,m2,m3 ……. ,mn
E
Roots of the auxiliary Nature of the
roots
distinct roots ngi
Complementary function(C.F)

f1 (y+m1x)+f2(y+m2x) + …….+fn(y+mnx).
m1 = m2 = m, m3 ,m4,….,mn two equal roots

m1 = m2 = …….= mn = m all equal roots

fn(y+mnx).
nee
f1(y+m1x)+xf2(y+m1x) + f3(y+m3x) + ….+

f1(y+mx)+xf2(y+mx) + x2f3(y+mx)+…..

rin
+ …+xn-1 fn (y+mx)

Finding the particular Integral

g.n
Consider the equation f(D,D') z = F (x,y).
1
Now, the P.I is given by --------- F (x,y)
f(D,D')
e
Case (i) : When F(x,y) = eax +by

1
P.I = ----------- eax+by
f (D,D')

Replacing D by „a‟ and D' by „b‟, we have

1
P.I = ----------- eax+by, where f (a,b) ≠ 0.

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

f (a,b)

Case (ii) : When F(x,y) = sin(ax + by) (or) cos (ax +by)

1
P.I = ----------------- sin (ax+by) or cos (ax+by)
f(D2,DD',D'2)

Replacing D2 = -a2, DD' 2 = -ab and D' = -b2, we get

1
P.I = ----------------- sin (ax+by) or cos (ax+by) , where f(-a2, - ab, -b2) ≠ 0.

ww f(-a2, - ab, -b2)

Case (iii) : When F(x,y) = xm yn,

w.E
1
P.I = ---------- xm yn = [f (D, D')]-1 xm yn

asy
f(D,D')

E
Expand [f (D,D')]-1 in ascending powers of D or D' and operate on xm yn term by term.

ngi
Case (iv) : When F(x,y) is any function of x and y.

1
P.I = ---------- F (x,y). nee
f (D,D')
rin
1
g.n
Resolve----------- into partial fractions considering f (D,D') as a function of D alone.
f (D,D')

Then operate each partial fraction on F(x,y) in such a way that e

1
--------- F (x,y) =  F(x,c-mx) dx ,
D–mD'

where c is replaced by y+mx after integration

Example 26

Solve(D3 – 3D2D' + 4D'3) z = ex+2y

The auxillary equation is m=m3 – 3m2 + 4 = 0

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

The roots are m = -1,2,2

Therefore the C.F is f1(y-x) + f2 (y+ 2x) + xf3 (y+2x).

ex+2y
P.I.= ---------------------- (Replace D by 1 and D' by 2)
D3–3D2D'+4D'3

ex+2y
= -------------------
1-3 (1)(2) + 4(2)3

ww ex+2y

w.E
= ---------
27

ie, asy
Hence, the solution is z = C.F. + P.I
ex+2y
z = f1 (y-x) + f2(y+2x) + x f3(y+2x) + ----------

Example 27 E 27

ngi
Solve (D2 – 4DD' +4 D' 2) z = cos (x – 2y)

The auxiliary equation is m2 – 4m + 4 = 0 nee

Solving, we get m = 2,2.
rin
Therefore the C.F is f1(y+2x) + xf2(y+2x).
g.n
1
 P.I = ---------------------2 cos (x-2y)
D2 – 4DD' + 4D'
e
Replacing D2 by – 1, DD' by 2 and D' 2 by –4, we have

1
P.I = ----------------------- cos (x-2y)
(-1) – 4 (2) + 4(-4)

cos (x-2y)
= – --------------
25

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

 Solution is z = f1(y+2x) + xf2(y+2x) – --------------- .

25

Example 28

Solve (D2 – 2DD') z = x3y + e5x

The auxiliary equation is m2 – 2m = 0.

Solving, we get m = 0,2.

Hence the C.F is f1 (y) + f2 (y+2x).

x3y

ww
P.I1 = ---------------
D2 – 2DD'

w.E
1
= ---------------
2D'
(x3y)
2

asy
D 1– -------
D

1 E
2D'
= ------- 1– -------
D2
–1

(x3y) ngi
1 2D'
D

4D'
2
nee
= ----- 1 + ------- + ---------- + . . . . . (x3y)
D2 D D2 rin
1
3
2
' 3
4 2
= ------ (x y) + ----- D (x y) + ------ D' (x3y) + . . . . .
g.n
D2

1
3
D

2
3
4
D2
e
= ------- (x y) + ----- (x ) + ------ (0) + . . . . .
D2 D D2

1 2
P.I1 = ------- (x3y) + ------ (x3)
D2 D3

x5y x6
P.I1 = ------- + ------
20 60

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

e5x
P.I2 = -------------- (Replace D by 5 and D' by 0)
D2 – 2DD'

e5x
= ------
25
x5y x6 e5x
Solution is Z = f1(y) + f2 (y+2x) + ------- + ------ + ------
20 60 25
Example 29
2
Solve (D2 + DD' – 6 D‟) z = y cosx.

ww
The auxiliary equation is m2 + m – 6 = 0.
Therefore, m = –3, 2.

w.E
Hence the C.F is f1(y-3x) + f2(y + 2x).

asy y cosx
P.I = ------------------------
D2 + DD' – 6D'
2

E y cosx
= ---------------------------
(D + 3D') (D – 2D')
ngi
1 1 nee
= -------------
(D+3D')
--------------- y cosx
(D – 2D') rin
1
g.n
= -------------
(D+3D')

1
 (c – 2x) cosx dx, where y = c – 2x
e
= -------------  (c – 2x) d (sinx)
(D+3D')
1
= ------------- [(c – 2x) (sinx) – (-2) ( - cosx)]
(D+3D')

1
= ------------- [ y sin x – 2 cos x)]
(D+3D')

=  [(c + 3x) sinx – 2 cosx] dx , where y = c + 3x

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=  (c + 3x) d(– cosx) – 2 cosx dx

= (c + 3x) (– cosx) – (3) ( - sinx) – 2 sinx

= – y cosx + sinx

Hence the complete solution is

z = f1(y – 3x) + f2(y + 2x) – y cosx + sinx

Example 30

Solve r – 4s + 4t = e 2x +y

ww 2z 2z 2z

w.E
Given equation is -------- – 4 ---------- + 4 ----------- = e2x + y
x2 xy y2

i.e,
asy(D2 – 4DD' + 4D' 2 ) z = e2x + y

Therefore,
E
The auxiliary equation is m2 – 4m + 4 = 0.

m = 2,2 ngi
Hence the C.F is f1(y + 2x) + x f2(y + 2x).
nee
e 2x+y

P.I. = ------------------------- rin

D2 – 4DD'+4D'
2

g.n
e2x+y
P.I. = ---------------------------
e
Since D2 – 4DD'+4D'2 = 0 for D = 2 and D' = 1, we have to apply the general rule.

(D – 2D') (D – 2D')

1 1
= ------------- -------------- e2x+y
(D – 2D') (D – 2D')

1
= -------------  e2x+c – 2x dx , where y = c – 2x.
(D – 2D')

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1
= -------------  ec dx

(D – 2D')

1
= ------------- ec .x
(D – 2D')

1
= ------------- xe y+2x
D – 2D'

=  xec-2x + 2x dx , where y = c – 2x.

ww =  xec dx

w.E
= ec. x2/2
x2ey+2x
= -------------
2
asy
Hence the complete solution is
1

E
z = f1(y+2x) + f2(y+2x) + ----- x2e2x+y
2

1.6 Non – Homogeneous Linear Equations

ngi
Let us consider the partial differential equation nee
f (D,D') z = F (x,y) ------- (1)
rin
g.n
If f (D,D') is not homogeneous, then (1) is a non–homogeneous linear partial differential
equation. Here also, the complete solution = C.F + P.I.
e
The methods for finding the Particular Integrals are the same as those for
homogeneous linear equations.

But for finding the C.F, we have to factorize f (D,D') into factors of the form D – mD' – c.

Consider now the equation

(D – mD' – c) z = 0 -----------(2).

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

This equation can be expressed as

p – mq = cz ---------(3),

which is in Lagrangian form.

The subsidiary equations are

dx dy dz
--------- = --------- = ----------- -----------(4)

ww 1 –m cz

w.E
The solutions of (4) are y + mx = a and z = becx.

asy
Taking b = f (a), we get z = ecx f (y+mx) as the solution of (2).
Note:

E
1. If (D-m1D' – C1) (D – m2D'-C2) …… (D – mnD'-Cn) z = 0 is the partial

ngi
differential equation, then its complete solution is

nee
z = ec1x f1(y +m1x) + ec2x f2(y+m2x) + . . . . . + ecnx fn(y+mnx)

2. In the case of repeated factors, the equation (D-mD' – C)nz = 0 has a complete

rin
solution z = ecx f1(y +mx) + x ecx f2(y+mx) + . . . . . +x n-1 ecx fn(y+mx).

g.n
Example 31

Solve (D-D'-1) (D-D' – 2)z = e 2x – y

e
Here m1 = 1, m2 = 1, c1 = 1, c2 = 2.

Therefore, the C.F is ex f1 (y+x) + e2x f2 (y+x).

e2x-y
P.I. = ------------------------------ Put D = 2, D' = – 1.
(D – D' – 1) (D-D' – 2)

e2x-y
= -------------------------------------
(2 – ( – 1) – 1) (2 – ( – 1) – 2)

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e2x-y
= --------------
2
e 2x-y
Hence the solution is z = ex f1 (y+x) + e2x f2 (y+x) + ----------.
2

Example 32

Solve (D2 – DD' + D' – 1) z = cos (x + 2y)

ww
The given equation can be rewritten as

w.E
(D-D'+1) (D-1) z = cos (x + 2y)

asy
Here m1 = 1, m2 = 0, c1 = -1, c2 = 1.

Therefore, the C.F = e–x f1(y+x) + ex f2 (y)

E 1
ngi 2 ' '
2
P.I = --------------------------- cos (x+2y) [Put D = – 1,DD = - 2 ,D = – 4]
(D2 – DD' + D' – 1)
nee
1
= --------------------------- cos (x+2y)
rin
– 1 – (– 2) + D' – 1
g.n
1
= ------- cos (x+2y)
D' e
sin (x+2y)
= ----------------
2
sin(x+2y)
-x x
Hence the solution is z = e f1(y+x) e f2(y) + ---------------- .
2

Example 33
Solve [(D + D'– 1) (D + 2D' – 3)] z = ex+2y + 4 + 3x +6y

Here m1 = – 1, m2 = – 2 , c1 = 1, c2 = 3.

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Hence the C.F is z = ex f1(y – x) + e3x f2(y – 2x).

ex+2y
P.I1 = ---------------------------------- [Put D = 1, D'= 2]
(D+D' – 1) (D + 2D' – 3)

ex+2y
= --------------------------

ww (1+2 – 1) (1+4 – 3)
ex+2y

w.E
= ------------
4

asy 1
P.I2 = -------------------------------- (4 + 3x + 6y)

E
(D+D' – 1) (D + 2D' – 3)

ngi
1
nee
= --------------------------------------- (4 + 3x + 6y)
D + 2D'
rin
3 [1 – (D+D')] 1 – ------------
3 g.n
1

3
' -1
D + 2D' -1

= ------ [1 – (D + D )] 1 – -------------- (4 +3x+6y)

3
e
1 D + 2D' 1
= ----[1 + (D + D )+ (D+D ) + . . .] 1+ ------------- + ----- (D+2D')2 + ….. .]
' ' 2

3 3 9

. (4 + 3x +6y)

1 4 5
= ---- 1 + ----- D + ------D' + . . . . . (4 + 3x + 6y)
3 3 3

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1 4 5
= ---- 4 +3x + 6y + ----- (3) + -----(6)
3 3 3

= x + 2y + 6

Hence the complete solution is

ex+2y
z = exf1 (y-x) + e3x f2 (y – 2x) + ------- + x + 2y + 6.

ww
Exercises
4

w.E
(a) Solve the following homogeneous Equations.

2z 2z 2z

1.
asy
---------- + --------- – 6 --------- = cos (2x + y)
x2 xy y2

2.
2zE 2z
ngi
---------- – 2 --------- = sin x.cos 2y
x2 xy

3. (D2 + 3DD' + 2D'2) z = x + y

nee
4. (D2 – DD'+ 2D' 2) z = xy + ex. coshy rin
ey + e–y ex+y + e x-y g.n
e
x x
Hint: e . coshy = e . ------------- = ------------------
2 2
3 '2 '3 2x+y
5. (D – 7DD – 6D ) z = sin (x+2y) + e

6. (D2 + 4DD' – 5D'2) z = 3e2x-y + sin (x – 2y)

7. (D2 – DD' – 30D'2) z = xy + e6x+y

8. (D2 – 4D' 2) z = cos2x. cos3y

9. (D2 – DD' – 2D'2) z = (y – 1)ex

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10. 4r + 12s + 9t = e3x – 2y

(b) Solve the following non – homogeneous equations.

1. (2DD' + D' 2 – 3D') z = 3 cos(3x – 2y)

2. (D2 + DD' + D' – 1) z = e-x

3. r – s + p = x2 + y2

4. (D2 – 2DD' + D'2 – 3D + 3D' + 2)z = (e3x + 2e-2y)2

5. (D2 – D'2 – 3D + 3D') z = xy + 7.

ww
w.E
asy
E ngi
nee
rin
g.n
e

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

UNIT–II

FOURIER SERIES
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The concept of Fourier series was first introduced by Jacques Fourier (1768–
1830), French Physicist and Mathematician. These series became a most important tool
in Mathematical physics and had deep influence on the further development of
mathematics it self.Fourier series are series of cosines and sines and arise in representing
general periodic functions that occurs in many Science and Engineering problems. Since
the periodic functions are often complicated, it is necessary to express these in terms of
the simple periodic functions of sine and cosine. They play an important role in solving
ordinary and partial differential equations.

ww
2.2 PERIODIC FUNCTIONS

w.E
A function f (x) is called periodic if it is defined for all real „x‟ and if there is
some positive number „p‟ such that
f (x + p ) = f (x) for all x.

asy
This number „p‟ is called a period of f(x).
If a periodic function f (x) has a smallest period p (>0), this is often called the
fundamental period of f(x). For example, the functions cosx and sinx have fundamental
period 2.
E
DIRICHLET CONDITIONS ngi
nee
Any function f(x), defined in the interval c  x  c + 2, can be developed as
a0 

rin
a Fourier series of the form ------- +  (an cosnx + bn sinnx) provided the following

g.n
n=1
2
conditions are satisfied.

f (x) is periodic, single– valued and finite in [ c, c + 2 ].

f (x) has a finite number of discontinuities in [ c, c + 2]. e
f (x) has at the most a finite number of maxima and minima in [ c,c+ 2].

These conditions are known as Dirichlet conditions. When these conditions are satisfied,
the Fourier series converges to f(x) at every point of continuity. At a point of
discontinuity x = c, the sum of the series is given by

f(x) = (1/2) [ f (c-0) + f (c+0)] ,

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where f (c-0) is the limit on the left and f (c+0) is the limit on the right.

EULER’S FORMULAE

The Fourier series for the function f(x) in the interval c < x < c + 2 is given by
a0 
f (x) = ------- +  (an cosnx + bn sinnx), where
n=1
2
1 C + 2
a0 = -----  f (x) dx.
 C

ww 1 C + 2
an = -----  f(x) cosnx dx.
 C

w.E 1 C + 2
bn = -----  f (x) sinnx dx.
 C
asy
These values of a0, an, bn are known as Euler‟s formulae. The coefficients a0, an, bn are

Example 1
E
also termed as Fourier coefficients.

ngi
Expand f(x) = x as Fourier Series (Fs) in the interval [ -π, π]
nee
Let f(x) =
ao
---- + ∑
∞
rin
[ an cos nx + bn sin nx ] ----------(1)

Here ao =
π1
∫ f (x) dx
2 n=1
g.n
=
π -π
1 π
∫ x dx
e
π -π
π
2
= 1 x
π 2
-π

1 π2 π2
= - = 0
π 2 2

ao = 0

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1 π
an = --- ∫ f(x) cosnx dx
π -π

1 π sin nx
= ∫ x d --------
π -π n
π
= 1 (x) sin nx - (1) -cos nx

π n n2 -π

ww = 1
π
cos nπ
n2
cos nπ
n2

= 0
w.E π
bn =
asy
1

π -π
∫ f(x) sin nx dx

=
1

π
E π

-π
∫ x d
-cos nx
n
ngi
1 -cosnx -sin nx nee
π
=
π
(x)
n
- (1)
n2
rin
- πcos nπ πcosnπ
-π
g.n
e
= 1
π n n

= -2π cosnπ
nπ
bn = 2 (-1)n+1 [ cos nπ = (-1)n]
n

Substituting the values of ao, an & bn in equation (1), we get


f(x) =  2(-1)n+1 sin nx
n=1 n

x = 2 sinx - 1 sin2x + 1 sin 3x -……

1 2 3

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Example 2

Expand f(x) = x2 as a Fourier Series in the interval ( -  x   ) and hence deduce

that

1. 1 - 1 + 1 - 1 + ………… = 2

12 22 32 42 12

2. 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + ………… = 2

ww 12 22 32 42 6

3.
w.E
1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + ………… = 2
12 32 52 72

8

asy
Let f(x) = a0 +  [ an cosnx + bn sinnx ]


2 n=1
Here
a0 = 1
 - E
 f(x) dx

ngi
= 1

 x2 dx nee
 -
rin
= 1

x3

g.n
e
3 -

= 1 3 3
 3 + 3

ao = 22
3

an = 1  f(x) cosnx dx
 -


= 1  x2 cosnx dx
 -

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
= 1  x2 d sinnx
 - n

= 1 (x2) sinnx – (2x)-cosnx + (2) – sinnx
 n n2 n3 -
1
= 2 cosn + 2 cosn
 n2 n2

ww an =


n2
(-1)n

w.E
bn = 1 
 -
f(x) sinnx dx

= asy 
1  x2 d -cosnx

= 1

E
 -

(x2) –cosnx
n

ngi
– (2x) -sinnx + (2) cosnx
n2 n3


nee
n -

= 1 -2 cosn 2 cosn 2 cosn rin

2cosn

 n
+
n
+
n3
-
g.n
n3

bn = 0

Substituting the values of a0, an & bn in equation (1) we get

e

f(x) = 22 +  4 (-1)n cosnx
6 n= 1 n2


i.e, x2 = 2 +  4 (-1)n cosnx
3 n=1 n2


i.e, 2
x =  +4 
2
(-1)n cosnx

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3 n=1 n2

= 2 + 4 -cosx + cos2x – cos3x + …..

3 12 22 32

x2 = 2 - 4 cosx + cos2x + cos3x - ….. -----------(2)

3 12 22 32
Put x = 0 in equation (2) we get

0 = 2 - 4 1 – 1 + 1 – 1 + …..
3 12 22 32 42

1 – 1 + 1 - …… = 2

ww
i.e, -------------(3)
12 22 32 12

w.E
Put x =  in equation (2) we get

2 = 2 - 4 -1 - 1 - 1 - ………
3
asy
2 - 2 = 4
12 22

1 + 1 + 1 + ………
32

i.e,

i.e,
3
E
1 + 1 + 1 + ……
12 22 32

= 2 ngi
-------------(4)
12 22 32 6
nee
rin
Adding equations (3) & (4) we get

1 - 1 + 1 - ….. + 1 + 1 + 1 +…. = 2 + 2
12 22 32 12 22 32 12 6
g.n
i.e,

i.e,
2 12 + 12 + 12 + .......
1 3 5

1 + 1 + 1 + 1 …..
= 32
12

= 2
e
12 32 52 72 8

Example 3

Obtain the Fourier Series of periodicity 2π for f(x) = ex in [-π, π]

a0 ∞
Let f(x) = ---- + ∑( an cosnx + bn sinnx) -------------(1)
2 n=1

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π
a0 = 1 ∫ f(x) dx
π -π

π
= 1 ∫ ex dx
π -π

π
x
= 1 [e ]
π -π

= 2 {eπ – eπ}

ww 2π

a0 = 2 sin hπ

w.E
π

asy
an = 1 ∫ f(x) cos nx dx
π-π

π E
= 1 ∫ ex cos nx dx
π -π
ngi
=1 e x
[cosnx + n sin nx]
π
nee
π (1+n2) -π
rin
=1 e π (-1)n 
π 1+n2
e π (-1)n
1+n2 g.n
= (-1)n
(1+n2) π
( e π - eπ )
e
an = 2 ( -1)n sin hπ
π(1+n2)

1 π
bn = ----- ∫ f(x) sin nx dx
π -π

π
= 1 ∫ ex sin nx dx
π -π

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

π
x
=1 e (sinnx – n cosnx)
π (1+n2) -π
π n  - π
=1 e {-n(-1) } e {-n(-1)n}
π 1+n2 1+n2

= n(-1)n+1 ( e π - e π )
π(1+n2)

bn = 2n(-1)n+1 sin hπ
π(1+n2)

ww 
f(x) = 1 sin hπ +  2(-1)n sinhπ cosnx + 2(-n)(-1)n sinhπ sinnx
π
w.E
n=1


π(1+n2) π(1+n2)

ex =
π
asy
1 sin hπ + 2sin hπ  (-1)n2
π n=1 1+n
(cos nx – n sin nx)

ie, ex=
π
E 
sin hπ 1 + 2  (-1)n
n=1 1+n2 ngi
(cos nx – n sin nx)

Example 4
nee
Let f (x) =
x in (O, )
rin
(2 - x) in (, 2)
g.n
1  2
Find the FS for f (x) and hence deduce that  ---------- = -------
n=1
(2n-1)2 8
e
a0 
Let f (x) = ------- +  an cosnx + bn sin nx --------- (1)
n=1
2

1  2
Here a0 = ------  f(x) dx +  f (x) dx

 o

1  2
= ------  x dx+  (2 - x) dx

 o

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

1 x2  – (2 - x)2 2
= ----- ------- + --------------
 2 0 2 
1 2 2
= ------ ------ + ------ =
 2 2
i.e, ao = 
1  2
an = -----  x cos nx dx +  (2 - x) cos nx dx

 o

ww 1

 0
 sin nx

n
2 sin nx
= ----  x d --------- +  (2 - x) d ---------

n

w.E
1 sin nx -cos nx 
sin nx – cosnx


asy
= ---- (x) --------- – (1) ----------
n n2 o
+ (2-x) --------- – (–1) ----------
n n2

1
Ecos n

n2
1

n2
cos2n

n2 ngi
cosn
= ---- ----------- – ------- – ------------ + ----------
 n2

1 2cos n 2
= ---- ------------ – -------
nee
 n2 n2
rin
an
2
= -------- [( –1)n -1] g.n
1
n2

 2
bn = -----  f(x) sin nx dx +  f(x) sin nx dx
e

 o

1  –cos nx 2 –cos nx
= ----  x d --------- +  (2 - x) d ---------

 o
n n

 2
1 –cos nx –sinnx –cos nx – sinnx
= ---- (x) --------- – (1) ---------- + (2-x) --------- – (–1) ----------

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

 n n2 o n n2 

1 –  cos n  cosn
= ---- -------------- + --------------- =0
 n n
i.e, bn = 0.

  2
f (x) = ----- +  ------- [ (– 1)n – 1] cos nx
2 n=1
n2

 4 cosx cos3x cos5x

ww = ----- – ------ -------------- +----------- +------------ + . . . . .

2  12 32 52
-----(2)

4
w.E
Putting x = 0 in equation(2), we get

 1 1 1

2 asy
0 = ------- – ------- ------ + ------ + ------ + . . . . .
 12 32 52

1 1
E 1
i.e, ------ + ------ + ------ + . . . . . =
12 32 52
2

ngi
-------
8

 1 2 nee
i.e,  ------------- = -------
n=1
(2n – 1)2 8
rin
Example 5
g.n
deduce that  (1/ n2) = 2 /6.
n=1
e
Find the Fourier series for f (x) = (x + x2) in (- < x < ) of percodicity 2 and hence


a0 
Let f(x) = ------- +  ( an cosnx + bn sinnx)
n=1
2

1 
Here, a0 = ------  (x + x2) dx
 –

1 x2 x3 
= ----- ----- +-----
2 2 3 0

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

1 2 3 2 3
= ------ ------ + ------ – -------- + -------
 2 3 2 3

22
ao = --------
3

1 

an = -----  f (x) cos nx dx

 –
ww 1  sin nx

w.E
= -----  (x + x ) d ----------
 –
2

1 asy sin nx – cosnx – sinnx 

= -----

E
(x + x2) ---------- – (1+2x) ----------
n
ngi
n2
+ (2) ----------
n3 –

1 (– 1) n
(– 1)n
= ------- (1+ 2) --------- – (1 – 2)----------nee
 n2 n2
rin
4 (– 1)n
g.n
e
an = -------------
n2

1 
bn = -----  f (x) sin nx dx
 –
1  – cos nx
= -----  (x + x ) d ----------
2

 – n

1 – cosnx –sinnx cosnx 

2
= ----- (x + x ) ---------- – (1+2x) ---------- + (2) ----------
 n n2 n3 –

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

1 – 2(– 1)n  (–1)n  (– 1)n 2 (–1)n

= ------- ---------------- – ------------- – ----------- + ------------
 n n n n2

2 (– 1)n+1
bn = -------------
n
2  4 (– 1)n 2(– 1)n+1
f(x) = ------ +  ----------- cos nx + -------------- sinnx
3 n=1 n2 n

ww 2 cosx cos2x cos3x sin2x

.
w.E
= -----  4 ----------  ---------- + ----------  …..

3 12 22 32
+ 2 sin x  ---------+ . . .

asy
Here x = - and x =  are the end points of the range.  The value of FS at x =  is the

E
average of the values of f(x) at x =  and x = -.

f ( - ) + f () ngi
 f(x) = --------------------
2 nee
-  + 2 +  + 2
rin
= ------------------------
2
g.n
= 2
e
Putting x = , we get

2 1 1 1
2 = ------ + 4 ------ + ------ + ------- + . . . .
3 12 22 32

2 1 1 1
i.e, ------ = ------ + ------ + ------ +. . . . . . . .
6 12 22 32

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

1 2
Hence,  ----- = -------.
n=1
n2 6

Exercises:

Determine the Fourier expressions of the following functions in the given interval

1.f(x) = ( - x)2, 0 < x < 2

2.f(x) = 0 in - < x < 0
=  in 0 < x < 

ww
3.f(x) = x – x2 in [-,]

w.E
4.f(x) = x(2-x) in (0,2)
5.f(x) = sinh ax in [-, ]

asy
6.f(x) = cosh ax in [-, ]
7.f(x) = 1 in 0 < x < 

E
= 2 in  < x < 2
8.f(x) = -/4 when - < x < 0 ngi
= /4 when 0 < x < 
nee
9.f(x) = cosx, in - < x < , where „‟ is not an integer
rin
10.Obtain a fourier series to represent e-ax from x = - to x = . Hence derive the series
for  / sinh
g.n
2.3 Even and Odd functions e
A function f(x) is said to be even if f (-x) = f (x). For example x2, cosx, x sinx, secx are
even functions. A function f (x) is said to be odd if f (-x) = - f (x). For example, x3, sin x,
x cos x,. are odd functions.

(1) The Euler‟s formula for even function is

a0 
f (x) = ------ +  an consnx
n=1
2
2  2 
where ao = ----  f(x) dx ; an = -----  f (x) cosnx dx
 0  0

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

(2) The Euler‟s formula for odd function is


f (x) =  bn sin nx
n=1

2 
where bn = -------  f(x) sin nx dx
 0
Example 6

Find the Fourier Series for f (x) = x in ( - , )

Here, f(x) = x is an odd function.

ww 
 f(x) =  bn sin nx
n=1
------- (1)

2 
w.E
bn = -----  f (x) sin nx dx
 0
2 
asy
- cos nx
= -----  x d --------------
 0

2
n
E–cos nx – sin nx
ngi


nee
= ----- (x) ----------- - (1) ------------
 n n2 0

2 –  cos n rin
= -----

--------------
n g.n
2 (– 1) n+1
bn = -----------------
n
e
2 ( – 1)n+1

f (x)=  --------------- sin nx
n=1
n

2 ( – 1)n+1

i.e, x =  ------------- sin nx
n=1
n

Example 7

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Expand f (x) = |x| in (-, ) as FS and hence deduce that

1 1 1 2
------ + ----- + ------ . . . . . =. --------
12 32 52 8
Solution

Here f(x) = |x| is an even function.

ao 
 f (x) = -------- +  an cos nx ------- (1)
n=1
2
2 
ao = -----  f(x) dx

ww  0
2 

w.E
= -----  x dx
 0

2 x2
= ----- -----asy 

=

2 
2
E0

an = -----  f (x) cos nx dx

 0
ngi
2  sin nx
nee
= -----  x d ----------
 0 rin
g.n
n

2 sin nx – cos nx 
= -----

(x) ---------- – (1) -----------
n n2 0 e
2 cos n 1
= ----- ---------- – ------
 n2 n2

2
an = ----- [(– 1) n – 1]
n2
  2
f (x)= -------+  ------- [(–1)n – 1] cos nx
2 n=1
n2
 4 cos x cos3x cos5x

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i.e, |x| = ----- – ------ ----------- + ---------- + --------- + . . . . . . ----------(2)

2  12 32 52

Putting x = 0 in equation (2), we get

 4 1 1 1
0 = ------ – ------- ------ + ------ + ------- + . . . . . . .
2  12 32 52

1 1 1 2
Hence, ------ + ------ + ------+ ….

ww
= -------
12 32 52 8

Example 8
w.E 2x

asy
If f (x) = 1 + ----- in ( - , 0)


E
2x
= 1 – ----- in ( 0,  )

ngi 
Then find the FS for f(x) and hence show that  (2n-1)-2 = 2/8
n=1
nee
Here f (-x) in (-,0) = f (x) in (0,)
rin
f (-x) in (0,) = f (x) in (-,0)

 f(x) is a even function g.n

ao 
Let f (x) = -------- +  an cos nx
2 n=1
e
------- (1).

2  2x
ao = -----  1 – ------- dx
 0 

2 2x2 
= ----- x – -------
 2 0

a0 = 0

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

2  2x
an = -----  1 – ------- cos nx dx
 0 
2  2x sin nx
= -----  1 – -------- d -----------
 0  n


2 2x sin nx –2 – cosnx
= ----- 1 – ------ --------- – ------- ----------
  n  n2 0

ww 4
an = ------- [(1– (– 1)n]
2n2

4 w.E
f (x)=  -------- [1– (– 1)n]cos nx
n=1
2n2
asy
4 2cos x
E 2cos3x 2cos5x

ngi
= ----- ----------- + ---------- + ------------ + . . . . . .
2 12 32 52
-----------(2)

Put x = 0 in equation (2) we get

nee

rin
2
1 1 1
------- = 2 ------ + ------- + --------+ . . . . . . .
4 12

2
32 52
g.n
e
1 1 1
==> ------ + ------ + ------ + … = -------
12 32 52 8

 1 2
or  ----------- = --------
n=1
(2n–1)2 8

Example 9

Obtain the FS expansion of f(x) = x sinx in (- < x<) and hence deduce that

1 1 1 -2
------ – ------- + ------- – . . . . . = ---------
1.3 3.5 5.7 4.

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

Here f (x) = xsinx is an even function.

ao 
Let f (x) = -------- +  an cos nx ------------- (1)
n=1
2

2 
Now, ao = -----  xsin x dx
 0
2 
= -----  x d ( - cosx)
 0

ww 2
= ----- (x) (- cosx) – (1) (- sin x)


a0 = 2

w.E 0

2  asy
 0
E
an = -----  f (x) cos nx dx

ngi
nee
2 
= -----  x sin x cosnx dx
 0

1  rin
= -----  x [ sin (1+n)x + sin (1 – n)x] dx
 0 g.n
1  – cos (1+n)x cos (1 – n) x
= ------  x d --------------- – -------------------
 0 1+n 1–n
e

1 – cos (1+n)x cos (1 – n) x – sin (1+n)x sin (1 – n) x
= ------ (x) --------------- – --------------- – (1) --------------- – -----------------
 1+n 1–n (1 + n)2 (1 – n)2
0

1 – cos (1+n)  cos (1 – n) 

= ------ ------------------- – -------------------
 1+n 1–n

- [cos cosn - sin  sinn] [cos cosn - sin  sin n ]

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= ---------------------------------- – ----------------------------------
1+n 1–n

(1+n) ( – 1) n + (1 – n ) ( – 1)n
= -------------------------------------
1 – n2

2(–1)n
an = --------- , Provided n  1
1 – n2
When n = 1

2 

ww
a1 = -----  x sinx cos x dx
 0

1 
w.E
= -----  x sin2x dx
 0
asy
1 

E
- cos2x
= -----  x d ----------
 0 2
ngi
1 – cos 2x -sin 2x
= ------ (x) ----------- – (1) ------------

nee
 2 4 0
rin
Therefore, a1 = -1/2

a0 g.n
e

f (x)= -------+ a1 cosx +  ancos nx
n=2
2

1  2( -1)n
= 1 – ------ cosx +  ----------- cosnx
n=2
2 1-n2

1 cos2x cos3x cos4x

ie, x sinx = 1 – ------ cos x – 2 ----------- - ------------ + ----------- - . . . .
2 3 8 15

Putting x = /2 in the above equation, we get

 1 1 1

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----- – 1 = 2 ------ – ------- + -------- – . . . . . . .

2 1.3 3.5 5.7

1 1 1 -2
Hence, ------ – ------ + ------- – . . . . . . = ----------
1.3 1.5 5.7 4
Exercises:

Determine Fourier expressions of the following functions in the given interval:

i. f(x) = /2 + x, - < x < 0

/2 - x, 0 < x < 

ww
ii. f(x) = -x+1 for + - < x < 0
x+1 for 0 < x < 

w.E
iii. f(x) = |sinx|, - < x < 

asy
iv. f(x) =x3 in - < x < 

E
v. f(x) = xcosx, - < x < 

vi. f(x) = |cosx|, - < x < 

ngi
2sin a sin x 2sin 2x
nee 3sin3x
vii. Show that for - < x < , sin ax = --------- -------- - ------ + -------- - …….
 12 - 2 22 - 2
rin
32 - 2

g.n
2.4 HALF RANGE SERIES
e
It is often necessary to obtain a Fourier expansion of a function for the range
(0, ) which is half the period of the Fourier series, the Fourier expansion of such a
function consists a cosine or sine terms only.

(i) Half Range Cosine Series

The Fourier cosine series for f(x) in the interval (0,) is given by

a0 
f(x) = ---- +  an cosn x
2 n=1

2 

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

where a0 = -------  f(x) dx and

 0

2 
an = -------  f(x) cosnx dx
 0
(ii) Half Range Sine Series

The Fourier sine series for f(x) in the interval (0,) is given by

f(x) =  bn sinnx
n=1

ww 2
where bn = -------



0
 f(x) sinnx dx

Example 10
w.E
If c is the constant in ( 0 < x <  ) then show that

asy
c = (4c / ) { sinx + (sin3x /3) + sin5x / 5) + ... ... ... }

Given E
f(x) = c in (0,).

Let f(x) =  bn sinnx  (1)
ngi
n=1

2 
nee
bn = -------

 f(x) sin nx dx
0
rin
g.n
2
= -------


 c sin nx dx
0 e

2c - cosnx
= ------- -------------
 n 0

2c -(-1)n 1
= ---- ------ + ----
 n n

bn = (2c/n) [ 1 – (-1)n ]


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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

 f(x) =  (2c / n) (1-(-1)n ) sinnx

n=1

4c sin3x sin5x
i.e, c = --- sinx + --------- + ---------- + … … …
 3 5

Example 11

Find the Fourier Half Range Sine Series and Cosine Series for f(x) = x in the interval
(0,).

Sine Series

ww
Let

f(x) =  bn sinnx -------(1)

Here
w.E
n=1
2
bn = -------
 2 
 f(x) sinnxdx = ------  x d ( -cosnx / n)

asy  0


 0

=
2
----
 E - cosnx - sinnx

ngi
(x) ----------- - (1) --------------
n n2 0

2 -  (-1) n nee
= -----

--------------
n
rin
2(-1) n+1 g.n
bn = ----------
n e
 2
 f(x) =  ---- (-1)n+1 sin nx
n=1
n
Cosine Series
a0 
Let f(x) = ---- +  an cosnx ---------(2)
2 n=1
2 
Here a0 = ------  f(x)dx
 0

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

2 
= -------  xdx
 0

2 x2
= ------- --- =
 2 0

2 
an = -------  f(x) cosnx dx
 0

ww 2
an = -------


 x d (sinnx / n )
0

=
w.E 2
----
sinnx - cosnx
(x) ----------- - (1) --------------


asy
 n n2 0

an =
2 E
------ (-1)n -1
n2
ngi
  2 nee
f(x) = --- +  ----- [ (-1)n - 1] cosnx
2 n=1 n2 rin
 4 cosx cos3x cos5x g.n
=> x

Example 12
= --- + ---
2 
---------- + ----------
12 32
+ --------- …… …
52
e
Find the sine and cosine half-range series for the function function .
f(x) = x , 0 < x  π/2

= π-x, π/2x< 

Sine series

Let f (x) =  bn sin nx.
n=1

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π
bn= (2/ )  f (x) sin nx dx
0

/2 
=(2/ )  x sin nx dx +  (-x) sin nx dx
0 /2

/2 -cos nx  -cos nx

= (2/ )  x .d +  (-x) d
0 n /2 n

ww -cos nx -sin nx
/2

w.E
= (2/ ) x
n
-(1)
n2
0

asy cos nx sin nx



E
+ (-x) - -
n
-(-1) -

ngi
n2 /2

-(/2)cos n(/2) sin n(/2) nee

-(/2)cosn(/2) sin (/2 )
= (2/)
n
+
n2

rin n

n2

g.n
e
2sinn(/2)
= (2/)
n2

4
= sin (n/2)
n
2

 sin(n/2)
Therefore , f(x)= ( 4/ )  sin nx
n=1 n2

sin3x sin5x
ie, f (x)= ( 4/ ) sinx  +  --------

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32 52

Cosine series

.Let f(x) = (ao /2) + an cosnx., where
n=1

ao = (2/)  f(x) dx
0
/2 
=(2/)  x dx+  (-x) dx
0 /2

ww /2 

w.E
=(2/) (x2/2) + (x –x2/2)
0 /2
= /2

asy 
an = (2/)  f(x) cosnx dx
0
E /2 
=(2/ )  x cosnx dx +  (-x) cosnx dx ngi
0 /2
nee
/2 sinnx  sinnx
rin
=(2/ )  x d
0 n
+  (-x) d
/2 n g.n
sinnx -cosnx
/2 e
= (2/ ) x -(1)
n n2
0

sinnx cosnx
+ (-x) -(-1) -
n n2 /2

( /2) sinn(/2) cos n(/2) 1

= (2/) + 

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

n n2 n2

cosnx ( /2) sinn(/2) cos n(/2)

+   +
n2 n n2

2cosn ( /2) - {1+(-1)n}

=(2/)
n2

 2 cos n( /2)- {1+(-1)n }

Therefore, f(x)= ( /4)+(2/) 

ww n=1 n 2
cosnx .

w.E= ( /4)-(2/) cos2x+

cos6x

32
+-------------

Exercises
asy
1.Obtain cosine and sine series for f(x) = x in the interval 0< x < . Hence show that 1/12

E
+ 1/32 + 1/52 + … = 2/8.

ngi
2.Find the half range cosine and sine series for f(x) = x2 in the range 0 < x < 

nee
3.Obtain the half-range cosine series for the function f(x) = xsinx in (0,)..

4.Obtain cosine and sine series for f(x) = x (-x) in 0< x < 
rin
5.Find the half-range cosine series for the function
g.n
6.f(x) = (x) / 4 , 0<x< (/2)

= (/4)(-x), /2 < x < .

e
7.Find half range sine series and cosine series for

f(x) = x in 0<x< (/2)

= 0 in /2 < x < .

8.Find half range sine series and cosine series for the function f(x) ==  - x in the interval
0 < x < .
9.Find the half range sine series of f(x) = x cosx in (0,)

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

10.Obtain cosine series for

f(x) = cos x , 0<x< (/2)

= 0, /2 < x < .

2.5 Parseval’s Theorem

Root Mean square value of the function f(x) over an interval (a, b) is defined as

b
∫ [f(x)]2 dx

ww [f (x)] r m s = a
b–a

w.E
The use of r.m.s value of a periodic function is frequently made in the
theory of mechanical vibrations and in electric circuit theory. The r.m.s value is

asy
also known as the effective value of the function.

Parseval’s Theorem

E ngi
If f(x) defined in the interval (c, c+2π ), then the Parseval‟s Identity is given by

c+2π

c
∫ [f (x)]2 dx = (Range) ao2
+
1
nee
∑ ( an2 + bn2 )
4 or2
rin
= ( 2π) ao2

4
+
1

2 g.n
∑ ( an2 + bn2 )

Example 13 e
Obtain the Fourier series for f(x) = x2 in – π < x < π

Hence show that 1 + 1 + 1 +. . .= π4

14 24 34 90

2π2 4 (-1)n
we have ao = 3 , an = n2 , bn = 0, for all n (Refer Example 2).

By Parseval‟s Theorem, we have

π ao2 ∞

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∫ [ f(x)]2 dx = 2π + ½ ∑ (an2 + bn2)

n=1
-π 4

π 4π4 ∞ 16(-1) 2n
i.e, ∫ x4 dx = 2π + 1/2 ∑
n=1
-π 36 n4

π π4 ∞ 1
i.e, x5 = 2π +8 ∑
n=1
5 -π 9 n4
π4 π4 ∞ 1
= +8 ∑
n=1
5 9 n4

ww
=>
∞
∑
1
=
π4

w.E n=1
n 4
90

Hence
asy 1 + 1
14 24
+ 1 + . . .=
34
π4
90

2.6 CHANGE OF INTERVAL E ngi

In most of the Engineering applications, we require an expansion of a given
function over an interval 2l other than 2.
nee
Suppose f(x) is a function defined in the interval c< x < c+2l. The Fourier
expansion for f(x) in the interval c<x<c+2l is given by rin
a0  nx nx g.n
f(x) =

1
----- + 
2 n=1

c+2 l
an cos ---- + bn sin ----
l l e
where a0 = -----  f(x)dx
l c

1 c+2 l
an = -----  f(x) cos (nx / l ) dx &
l c

1 c+2 l
bn = -----  f(x) sin (nx / l ) dx
l c

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Even and Odd Function

If f(x) is an even function and is defined in the interval ( c, c+2 l ), then

a0  nx
f(x) = ----- +  an cos ----
2 n=1 l

2 l
where a0 = -----  f(x)dx
l 0

ww 2
an = -----
l
 f(x) cos (nx / l ) dx

w.El 0

If f(x) is an odd function and is defined in the interval ( c, c+2 l ), then

asy
 nx
f(x)

where
= 
n=1
E bn sin ----
l
ngi
2
bn = -----
l
 f(x) sin (nx / l ) dx nee
l 0
rin
Half Range Series
Sine Series g.n
f(x) =


n=1
nx
bn sin ----
l
e
where
2 l
bn = -----  f(x) sin (nx / l ) dx
l 0

Cosine series

a0  nx
f(x) = ----- +  an cos ----
2 n=1 l

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2 l
where a0 = -----  f(x)dx
l 0

2 l
an = -----  f(x) cos (nx / l ) dx
l 0
Example 14
Find the Fourier series expansion for the function

f(x) = (c/ℓ)x in 0<x<ℓ

= (c/ℓ)(2ℓ- x) in ℓ<x<2ℓ

ww a0  nx nx
Let
w.E
f (x) = ------ +  an cos ------ + bn sin ------
2 n=1
ℓ ℓ

1
asy
Now, a0 = -----
2l
 f(x)dx
l

E1

ℓ
0

o
ℓ

ℓ
2ℓ

ngi
= ------ (c/ℓ)  x dx + (c/ℓ)  (2ℓ - x) dx

1
2
ℓ
2
= ----- (c/ℓ) (x / 2) + (c/ℓ) (2ℓx - x /2)
2ℓ nee
ℓ 0 ℓ

rin
g.n
c
= ---- ℓ2 = c
ℓ2

1
an = -----
ℓ 0
2ℓ
 f(x) cos (nx / ℓ ) dx
e
1 ℓ nx 2ℓ nx
=  (c/ℓ)x cos dx +  (c/ℓ)(2ℓ- x) cos dx
ℓ 0 ℓ ℓ ℓ

c ℓ sin(nx /ℓ) 2ℓ sin(nx /ℓ)

=  x d +  (2ℓ- x) d
ℓ2 0 n /ℓ ℓ n /ℓ

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ℓ
nx nx
sin -cos
c ℓ ℓ
= (x)  (1)
ℓ2 n n22
ℓ ℓ2 0

nx nx 2ℓ
sin -cos
ℓ ℓ

ww + (2ℓ- x)
n
(-1)
n22

w.E ℓ ℓ2
ℓ

asy
=
c ℓ2 cosn

n

n
ℓ2
+ 
ℓ2 cos2n

n
+
ℓ2 cosn

n22
E
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
ℓ

=
c ℓ2
ngi
{ 2 cosn 2 }
ℓ 2
n
2 2

nee
=
2c
{ (-1)n 1}
rin
n22

1 2ℓ nx g.n
bn =
ℓ
 f(x) . sin
0 ℓ
dx
e
1 ℓ nx 2ℓ nx
=  (c/ℓ)x sin dx +  (c/ℓ)(2ℓ- x) sin dx
ℓ 0 ℓ ℓ ℓ

c ℓ cos(nx /ℓ) 2ℓ cos(nx /ℓ)

=  x d - +  (2ℓ- x) d -
ℓ2 0 n /ℓ ℓ n /ℓ

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ℓ
nx nx
cos sin
c ℓ ℓ
= (x)  (1) 
ℓ 2
n n22
ℓ ℓ2
0

nx nx 2ℓ
cos sin
ℓ ℓ
+ (2ℓ- x)   (-1) 

ww n
ℓ
n22
ℓ2

w.E ℓ

asy =
c

ℓ2 cosn
+
ℓ2 cosn

E
2
ℓ n n

= 0.
ngi
Therefore, f(x) =
c 2c
--- + ----


{ (-1)n 1}
------------- cos (nx /ℓ) nee
2
rin
n=1
2 n2

Example 15
Find the Fourier series of periodicity 3 for f(x) = 2x – x2 , in 0  x  3. g.n
Here 2ℓ = 3.
 ℓ = 3 / 2.
e
a0  2nx 2nx
Let f (x) = ------ +  an cos ------ + bn sin ------
n=1
2 3 3

3
where ao = (2 / 3)  (2x - x2) dx
0

3
= (2 / 3) 2 (x2/2) – (x3/3) dx
0

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= 0.

3 2nx
an = (2 / 3)  (2x - x ) cos ------ dx
2
0
3
3 sin(2nx /3)
= (2 / 3)  (2x - x2) d
0
(2n/3)

3
sin(2nx /3) cos(2nx /3) sin(2nx/3)
= (2 / 3) (2x - x2) – (2 -2x) - + (-2) -
(4n22/9) (8n33/27)
ww (2n/3)
0

w.E
= (2 / 3) - ( 9 / n22) – ( 9 / 2n22)

2nx
= - 9 / n22

asy
3
bn = (2 / 3)  (2x - x ) sin ------ dx
2
0
3

E 0
3
= (2 / 3)  (2x - x2) d –
ngi
cos(2nx /3)

(2n/3)

nee 3

= (2 / 3) (2x - x2) –
cos(2nx /3)
– (2 -2x) -
sin(2nx /3)
rin
+ (-2)
cos(2nx/3)
(2n/3) (4n22/9)
g.n (8n33/27)
0

= (2 / 3) ( 9 /2n) – ( 27/ 4n33) + ( 27/ 4n33)

= 3 / n
e
 2nx 2nx
Therefore, f (x) =  - ( 9 / n22) cos ------ + (3 / n) sin ------
n=1
3 3

Exercises

1.Obtain the Fourier series for f(x) = x in 0 < x < 2.

2.Find the Fourier series to represent x2 in the interval (-l, l ).
3.Find a Fourier series in (-2, 2), if
f(x) = 0, -2 < x < 0

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= 1, 0 < x < 2.
4.Obtain the Fourier series for
f(x) = 1-x in 0 < x < l
= 0 in l < x < 2 l. Hence deduce that
1- (1/3 ) +(1/5) – (1/7) + … = /4 &
(1/12) + (1/32) + (1/52) + … = (2/8)

5.If f(x) = x, 0<x<1

= (2-x), 1 < x < 2,

Show that in the interval (0,2),

ww cos x cos3x cos 5x

w.E
f(x) = (/2) – (4/) --------- + -------- + ------ + …….
12 32 52

asy
6.Obtain the Fourier series for

E
f(x) = x in 0 < x < 1
= 0 in 1 < x < 2

7.Obtain the Fourier series for ngi

f(x) = (cx /l ) in 0 < x < l nee
= (c/l ) (2 l - x ) in l < x < 2 l .

rin
8.Obtain the Fourier series for

f(x) = (l + x ), - l < x < 0. g.n

= (l - x ), 0 < x < l.

 1 2
e
Deduce that  -------- = ------
1 (2n – 1)2 8

9.Obtain half-range sine series for the function

f(x) = cx in 0 < x < ( l /2)

= c (l – x) in (l/2) < x < l

10.Express f(x) = x as a half – range sine series in 0 < x < 2

11.Obtain the half-range sine series for ex in 0 < x < 1.

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12.Find the half –range cosine series for the function f(x) = (x-2)2 in the interval
0 < x < 2.

 1 2
Deduce that  -------- = -----
1 (2n – 1)2 8

2.7 Harmonic Analysis

The process of finding the Fourier series for a function given by numerical values
is known as harmonic analysis.
a0 

ww f (x) = ------- +  (an cosnx + bn sinnx), where

2 n=1

w.E
ie, f(x) = (a0/2) + (a1 cosx + b1 sinx) + (a2 cos2x + b2 sin2x) +
(a3cos3x + b3sin3x)+… -------------(1)

asy 2 ∑ f(x)
Here a0 = 2 [mean values of f(x)] = -----------

E n

ngi
2 ∑ f(x) cosnx

nee
an = 2 [mean values of f(x) cosnx] = ---------------------
n

&
2 ∑ f(x) sinnx
bn = 2 [mean values of f(x) sinnx] = -------------------rin
n
g.n
In (1), the term (a1cosx + b1 sinx) is called the fundamental or first harmonic,
the term (a2cos2x + b2sin2x) is called the second harmonic and so on.

Example 16 e
Compute the first three harmonics of the Fourier series of f(x) given by the
following table.
x: 0 π/3 2π/3 π 4π/3 5π/3 2π
f(x): 1.0 1.4 1.9 1.7 1.5 1.2 1.0

We exclude the last point x = 2π.

Let f(x) = (a0/2) + (a1 cosx + b1 sinx) + (a2 cos2x + b2 sin2x) + …………

To evaluate the coefficients, we form the following table.

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x f(x) cosx sinx cos2x sin2x cos3x sin3x

0 1.0 1 0 1 0 1 0
π/3 1.4 0.5 0.866 -0.5 0.866 -1 0
2π/3 1.9 -0.5 0.866 -0.5 -0.866 1 0
π 1.7 -1 0 1 0 -1 0
4π/3 1.5 -0.5 -0.866 -0.5 0.866 1 0
5π/3 1.2 0.5 -0.866 -0.5 -0.866 -1 0

2 ∑f(x) 2 (1.0 + 1.4 + 1.9 + 1.7 + 1.5 + 1.2)

Now, a0 = = = 2.9
6 6
2 ∑f(x) cosx

ww a1 = ---------------- = -0.37
6

w.E2 ∑f(x) cos2x

a2 = -------------------- = -0.1
6

asy
2 ∑f(x) cos3x
a3 = -------------------- = 0.033
6

E
2 ∑f(x) sinx
b1 = ---------------- = 0.17
6 ngi
2 ∑f(x) sin2x
b2 = -------------------- = -0.06
6
nee
2 ∑f(x) sin3x
b3 = -------------------- = 0 rin
6
g.n
 f(x) = 1.45 – 0.37cosx + 0.17 sinx – 0.1cos2x – 0.06 sin2x + 0.033 cos3x+…

Example 17 e
Obtain the first three coefficients in the Fourier cosine series for y, where y is
given in the following table:
x: 0 1 2 3 4 5
y: 4 8 15 7 6 2
Taking the interval as 60o, we have
: 0o 60o 120o 180o 240o 300o
x: 0 1 2 3 4 5
y: 4 8 15 7 6 2

 Fourier cosine series in the interval (0, 2π) is

y = (a0 /2) + a1cos + a2cos2 + a3cos3 + …..

To evaluate the coefficients, we form the following table.

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o cos cos2 cos3 y y cos y cos2 y cos3

0o 1 1 1 4 4 4 4
60o 0.5 -0.5 -1 8 4 -4 -8
120o -0.5 -0.5 1 15 -7.5 -7.5 15
180o -1 1 -1 7 -7 7 -7
240o -0.5 -0.5 1 6 -3 -3 6
300o 0.5 -0.5 -1 2 1 -1 -2
Total 42 -8.5 -4.5 8
Now, a0 = 2 (42/6) = 14

a1 = 2 ( -8.5/6) = - 2.8

ww a2 = 2 (-4.5/6) = - 1.5

a3 = 2 (8/6) = 2.7

w.E
y = 7 – 2.8 cos - 1.5 cos2 + 2.7 cos3 + …..

Example 18
asy
E
The values of x and the corresponding values of f(x) over a period T are given
below. Show that f(x) = 0.75 + 0.37 cos + 1.004 sin,where  = (2πx )/T

x: 0 T/6 T/3 ngi T/2 2T/3 5T/6 T

y: 1.98 1.30 1.05 1.30
nee
-0.88 -0.25 1.98

We omit the last value since f(x) at x = 0 is known.

Here  = 2πx
rin
T

g.n
When x varies from 0 to T,  varies from 0 to 2π with an increase of 2π /6.

Let f(x) = F( ) = (a0/2) + a1 cos + b1 sin.

e
To evaluate the coefficients, we form the following table.
 y cos sin y cos y sin
0 1.98 1.0 0 1.98 0
π/3 1.30 0.5 0.866 0.65 1.1258
2π/3 1.05 -0.5 0.866 -0.525 0.9093
Π 1.30 -1 0 -1.3 0
4π/3 -0.88 -0.5 -0.866 0.44 0.762
5π/3 -0.25 0.5 -0.866 -0.125 0.2165
4.6 1.12 3.013

Now, a0 = 2 ( ∑ f(x) / 6)= 1.5

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a1 = 2 (1.12 /6) = 0.37

a2 = 2 (3.013/6) = 1.004

Therefore, f(x) = 0.75 + 0.37 cos + 1.004 sin

ww
w.E
asy
E ngi
nee
rin
g.n
e

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

Exercises

1.The following table gives the variations of periodic current over a period.

t (seconds) : 0 T/6 T/3 T/2 2T/3 5T/6 T

A (amplitude): 1.98 1.30 1.05 1.30 -0.88 -0.25 1.98
Show that there is a direct current part of 0.75 amp in the variable current and obtain the
amplitude of the first harmonic.

2.The turning moment T is given for a series of values of the crank angle  = 75

 : 0 30 60 90 120 150 180

ww
T : 0 5224 8097 7850 5499 2626 0
Obtain the first four terms in a series of sines to represent T and calculate
T for  = 75

w.E
3. Obtain the constant term and the co-efficient of the first sine and cosine terms in the
Fourier expansion of „y‟ as given in the following table.
X
Y
:
: asy
0
9
1
18
2
24
3
28
4
26
5
20

E
4. Find the first three harmonics of Fourier series of y = f(x) from the following data.

254 155 ngi

X : 0  30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330
Y : 298 356 373 337 80 51 60 93 147 221

2.8 Complex Form of Fourier Series

nee
rin
The series for f(x) defined in the interval (c, c+2π) and satisfying
∞
g.n
Dirichlet‟s conditions can be given in the form of f(x) = ∑ cn e-inx ,

where ,
cn =
c+2π
1 ∫ f(x) e – i nx dx
n = -∞
e
2π c
In the interval (c, c+2ℓ), the complex form of Fourier series is given by

∞ inπx
f(x) = ∑ cn e ℓ
n=-∞
1 c+2ℓ -inπx
where, cn = ------- ∫ f(x) e ℓ dx
c
2ℓ

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

Example 19

Find the complex form of the Fourier series f(x) = e –x in -1 ≤ x ≤ 1.

∞ inπx
We have f(x) = ∑ cn e
n=-∞
l -inπx
where cn = 1 ∫ e –x e dx
-1
2

1 - (1+ i n π) x
cn = 1 ∫ e dx

ww 2 -1

e - (1+i nπ) x 1

w.E
= 1
2 - (1+inπ) -1

asy
= 1 .
-2 ( 1+inπ ) e - (1 + i n π) x -e (1+ i nπ)

=
E (1-inπ) [ e-1 ( cos nπ – isin nπ) - e (cos nπ + i sin nπ) ]
-2 ( 1+n2π2)

= (1-inπ) cos nπ ( e-1 - e )

ngi
-2 ( 1+n2π2)
nee
(1-inπ)
Cn = ----------- (-1)n sinh1
rin
(1+n2π2)
g.n
∞
 f(x) = ∑
(1-inπ)
----------- (-1)n sinh1 e
n= - ∞ (1+n2π2)
inπx

e
Example 20

Find the complex form of the Fourier series f(x) = ex in - π < x < π.

∞
We have f(x) = ∑ Cn e i nx
n=-∞
1 π
where Cn = ------ ∫ f(x) e – i nx dx
2π - π

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1 π
= ------ ∫ ex e –i nx dx
2π - π
1 π
= ------- ∫ e (1-i n) x dx
2π - π

π
(1-in)x
1 e
= 2π ( 1-in)
-π

ww = 1
2π(1-in)
[ e(1-in)π -e - (1-i n) π]

w.E
(1+in)
= ----------- [ eπ ( cos nπ – i sin nπ ) –e -π ( cosn π + i sin nπ)]
2π(1+n)2

asy (1+in) (-1)n . e π – e-π

= ------------- -----------

E( 1+n2)

(-1)n(1+in) sin h π
2π

ngi
= --------------------------
( 1+n2) π
nee
 f(x) =
n
∞ (-1) (1+in) sin h π
∑ ----------------------- e i nx rin
n= - ∞ ( 1+n2) π
g.n
Exercises

Find the complex form of the Fourier series of the following functions.
e
1.f(x) = eax, -l < x < l.

2.f(x) = cosax, - < x < .

3.f(x) = sinx, 0 < x < .

4.f(x) = e-x, -1 < x < 1.

5.f(x) = sinax, a is not an integer in (-,  ).

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2.9 SUMMARY(FOURIER SERIES)

A Fourier series of a periodic function consists of a sum of sine and cosine terms.
Sines and cosines are the most fundamental periodic functions.The Fourier series is
named after the French Mathematician and Physicist Jacques Fourier (1768 – 1830).
Fourier series has its application in problems pertaining to Heat conduction, acoustics,
etc. The subject matter may be divided into the following sub topics.

FOURIER SERIES

ww
Series with
w.E
arbitrary period
Half-range series Complex series Harmonic Analysis

asy
E
FORMULA FOR FOURIER SERIES

ngi
Consider a real-valued function f(x) which obeys the following conditions called
Dirichlet‟s conditions :

nee
1. f(x) is defined in an interval (a,a+2l), and f(x+2l) = f(x) so that f(x) is a periodic
function of period 2l.
rin
2. f(x) is continuous or has only a finite number of discontinuities in the interval
(a,a+2l).
g.n
3. f(x) has no or only a finite number of maxima or minima in the interval (a,a+2l).

Also, let

1
a  2l
e
a0 
l  f ( x)dx
a
(1)

a  2l
1  n 
an 
l 
a
f ( x) cos
 l 
 xdx, n  1,2,3,..... (2)

a  2l
1  n 
bn 
l 
a
f ( x) sin
 l 
 xdx, n  1,2,3,...... (3)

a0   n   n 
Then, the infinite series   an cos  x  bn sin x (4)
2 n 1  l   l 

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is called the Fourier series of f(x) in the interval (a,a+2l). Also, the real numbers a0, a1,
a2, ….an, and b1, b2 , ….bn are called the Fourier coefficients of f(x). The formulae (1),
(2) and (3) are called Euler‟s formulae.

It can be proved that the sum of the series (4) is f(x) if f(x) is continuous at x. Thus we
have
a 
 n   n 
f(x) = 0   an cos  x  bn sin  x ……. (5)
2 n 1  l   l 
Suppose f(x) is discontinuous at x, then the sum of the series (4) would be
1
2

f ( x )  f ( x ) 
where f(x+) and f(x-) are the values of f(x) immediately to the right and to the left of f(x)

ww
respectively.

Particular Cases
Case (i)
w.E
Suppose a=0. Then f(x) is defined over the interval (0,2l). Formulae (1), (2), (3) reduce
to

asy 1
2l
a0   f ( x)dx
l0

E 1
2l
 n 
an   f ( x) cos
l0  l  ngi
 xdx, n  1,2,...... (6)

1
2l
 n 
bn   f ( x) sin 
l0  l 
 xdx,
nee
rin
Then the right-hand side of (5) is the Fourier expansion of f(x) over the interval (0,2l).

g.n
If we set l=, then f(x) is defined over the interval (0,2). Formulae (6) reduce to

a0 =
1

2

2
 f ( x)dx
0
e
1
an 
  f ( x) cos nxdx ,
0
n=1,2,…..  (7)

2
1
bn 
  f ( x) sin nxdx
0
n=1,2,….. 

Also, in this case, (5) becomes

a0 
f(x) =   an cos nx  bn sin nx (8)
2 n 1

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

Case (ii)

Suppose a=-l. Then f(x) is defined over the interval (-l , l). Formulae (1), (2) (3) reduce
to

1
l
n =1,2,……  (9)
l l
a0  f ( x)dx

 n 
l
 n 
l
1

1 bn 
an   f ( x)cos  xdx f ( x)sin  xdx,
l l  l  l l  l 

ww
Then the right-hand side of (5) is the Fourier expansion of f(x) over the interval (-l , l).

If we set l = , then f(x) is defined over the interval (-, ). Formulae (9) reduce to

w.E a0 =
1


 f (x)dx
asy an 

1



 f (x)cos nxdx ,
E 

1


 ngi
n=1,2,…..  (10)

bn 
 

f (x)sin nxdx
nee n=1,2,….. 

Putting l =  in (5), we get

a0  rin
f(x) =   an cos nx  bn sin nx
2 n 1
g.n
Some useful results :
e
1. The following rule called Bernoulli‟s generalized rule of integration by parts is useful
in evaluating the Fourier coefficients.
 uvdx  uv1  u v2  u v3  .......
' ''

Here u , u  ,….. are the successive derivatives of u and

v1   vdx,v2   v1dx,......
We illustrate the rule, through the following examples :
2   cos nx    sin nx   cos nx 
        2 3 
2
x sin nxdx x 2 x
 n   n   n 
2

3 e  2 e   e2 x   e2 x 
2x 2x

           6 
3 2x
x e dx x  2  3 x  4  6 x
     8   16 

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

2. The following integrals are also useful :

e ax
 e cos bxdx  a 2  b2 a cos bx  b sin bx
ax

e ax
 e ax
sin bxdx  a sin bx  b cos bx
a 2  b2

3. If „n‟ is integer, then

sin n = 0 , cosn = (-1)n , sin2n = 0, cos2n=1

ww ASSIGNMENT
1. The displacement y of a part of a mechanism is tabulated with corresponding angular
movement x0 of the crank. Express y as a Fourier series upto the third harmonic.

x0 0 w.E 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330

y 1.80
asy
1.10 0.30 0.16 1.50 1.30 2.16

2. Obtain the Fourier series of y upto the second harmonic using the following table :
1.25 1.30 1.52 1.76 2.00

x0 45
E 90 135 180
ngi 225 270 315 360

y 4.0 3.8 2.4 2.0 -1.5 nee 0 2.8 3.4

3. Obtain the constant term and the coefficients of the first sine and cosine terms in the
Fourier expansion of y as given in the following table : rin
x 0 1 2 3 g.n 4 5

y 9 18 24

4. Find the Fourier series of y upto the second harmonic from the following table :
28 e26 20

x 0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Y 9.0 18.2 24.4 27.8 27.5 22.0 9.0

5. Obtain the first 3 coefficients in the Fourier cosine series for y, where y is given below

x 0 1 2 3 4 5
y 4 8 15 7 6 2

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

UNIT – III

APPLICATIONS OF PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS

3.1 INTRODUCTION
In Science and Engineering problems, we always seek a solution of the
differential equation which satisfies some specified conditions known as the boundary
conditions. The differential equation together with the boundary conditions constitutes a
boundary value problem. In the case of ordinary differential equations, we may first find
the general solution and then determine the arbitrary constants from the initial values. But
the same method is not applicable to partial differential equations because the general
solution contains arbitrary constants or arbitrary functions. Hence it is difficult to adjust

ww these constants and functions so as to satisfy the given boundary conditions. Fortunately,
most of the boundary value problems involving linear partial differential equations can be

w.E
solved by a simple method known as the method of separation of variables which
furnishes particular solutions of the given differential equation directly and then these
solutions can be suitably combined to give the solution of the physical problems.

asy
3.2Solution of the wave equation

E
The wave equation is
2y
= a 2 ngi
2y
-----------(1) .
t 2
x2

nee
Let y = X(x) . T(t) be the solution of (1), where „X‟ is a function of „x‟ only and „T‟ is a
function of „t‟ only.
2y 2y rin
Then
t 2
= X T′′ and
x 2
= X′′ T.
g.n
Substituting these in (1), we get e
X T′′ = a2 X′′ T.

X′′ T′′
i.e, = ---------------(2).
X a2T

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Now the left side of (2) is a function of „x‟ only and the right side is a function of „t‟ only.
Since „x‟ and „t‟ are independent variables, (2) can hold good only if each side is equal to
a constant.
X′′ T′′
Therefore, = = k (say).
2
X aT
Hence, we get X′′  kX = 0 and T′′  a2 kT = 0. --------------(3).

Solving equations (3), we get

(i) when „k‟ is positive and k = 2, say

X = c1 ex + c2 e - x

ww T = c3 eat + c4 e - at

(ii) when „k‟ is negative and k = 2, say

w.E
X = c5 cosx + c6 sin x

asy
T = c7 cosat + c8 sin at

(iii) when „k‟ is zero.

E
X = c9 x + c10
T = c11 t + c12 ngi
Thus the various possible solutions of the wave equation are
nee
x - x at
y = (c1 e + c2 e ) (c3 e + c4 e ) - at

rin ------------(4)
y = (c5 cosx + c6 sin x) (c7 cosat + c8 sin at) -----------(5)
y = (c9 x + c10) (c11 t + c12)
g.n
------------(6)

e
Of these three solutions, we have to select that particular solution which suits the
physical nature of the problem and the given boundary conditions. Since we are dealing
with problems on vibrations of strings, „y‟ must be a periodic function of „x‟ and „t‟.

Hence the solution must involve trigonometric terms.

Therefore, the solution given by (5),

i.e, y = (c5 cosx + c6 sin x) (c7 cosat + c8 sin at)

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is the only suitable solution of the wave equation.

llustrative Examples.

Example 1

If a string of length ℓ is initially at rest in equilibrium position and each of its points is
given

ww the velocity
y

t t=0
= vo sin
x

ℓ
, 0  x  ℓ. Determine the displacement y(x,t).

w.E
Solution

asy
The displacement y(x,t) is given by the equation

2y E= a2
2 y
-----------(1) ngi
nee
2 2
t x

The boundary conditions are

i. y(0,t) = 0, for t  0. rin
ii. y(ℓ,t) = 0, for t  0.
iii. y(x,0) = 0, for 0 x  ℓ. g.n
y x
e
iv. = vo sin , for 0 x  ℓ.
t t=0 ℓ

Since the vibration of a string is periodic, therefore, the solution of (1) is of the form

y(x,t) = (Acosx + Bsinx)(Ccosat + Dsinat) ------------(2)

Using (i) in (2) , we get

0 = A(Ccosat + Dsinat) , for all t  0.

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Therefore, A=0

Hence equation (2) becomes

y(x,t) = B sinx(Ccosat + Dsinat) ------------(3)

Using (ii) in (3), we get

0 = Bsinℓ (Ccosat + Dsinat), for all t  0, which gives ℓ = n.

n

ww
Hence, =
ℓ
, n being an integer.

w.E
Thus , y(x,t) = Bsin
nx
Ccos
nat
+ Dsin
nat
------------------(4)

asy
Using (iii) in (4), we get
ℓ ℓ ℓ

E
0 = Bsin
nx
.C ngi
which implies C = 0.
ℓ
nee
 y(x,t) = Bsin
nx
. Dsin
nat
rin
ℓ ℓ
g.n
= B1sin
nx

ℓ
. sin
nat

ℓ
, where B1= BD.
e
The most general solution is
 nx nat
y(x,t) =  Bn sin sin ----------------(5)
n=1 ℓ ℓ

Differentiating (5) partially w.r.t t, we get

y  nx nat na

=  Bn sin .cos .
t n=1 ℓ ℓ ℓ

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Using condition (iv) in the above equation, we get

x  na nx
vo sin =  Bn . . sin
ℓ n=1 ℓ ℓ

x a x 2a 2x
i.e, vo sin = B1 . . sin + B2 . . sin + · ·

ww
· · · · ·
ℓ ℓ ℓ ℓ ℓ

a
w.E
Equating like coefficients on both sides, we get

2a 3a
B1
ℓ
asy
= vo , B2 .
ℓ
= 0, B3
ℓ
= 0, · · · · · · · ·

i.e, B1 =
voℓ

a
E , B2 = B3 = B4 = B5 = · · · · · · · · = 0.
ngi
Substituting these values in (5), we get the required solution.
nee
i.e, y(x,t) =
voℓ
sin
x
. sin
at
rin
a ℓ ℓ
g.n
Example 2
A tightly stretched string with fixed end points x = 0 & x = ℓ is initially at
rest in its equilibrium position . If it is set vibrating by giving to each of its points a
velocity
e
y/t = kx(ℓ-x) at t = 0. Find the displacement y(x,t).

Solution

The displacement y(x,t) is given by the equation

2y 2 y
2
=a -----------(1)
t2 x2

The boundary conditions are

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i. y(0,t) = 0, for t  0.
ii. y(ℓ,t) = 0, for t  0.
iii. y(x,0) = 0, for 0 x  ℓ.
y
iv. = kx(ℓ – x), for 0 x  ℓ.
t t = 0

Since the vibration of a string is periodic, therefore, the solution of (1) is of the form
y(x,t) = (Acosx + Bsinx)(Ccosat + Dsinat) ------------(2)

Using (i) in (2) , we get

ww 0 = A(Ccosat + Dsinat) , for all t  0.

which gives
w.EA = 0.

Hence equation (2) becomes

asy
y(x,t) = B sinx(Ccosat + Dsinat) ------------(3)

E
Using (ii) in (3), we get

ngi
0 = Bsinℓ(Ccosat + Dsinat), for all t  0.

which implies ℓ = n. nee

Hence, =
n
, n being an integer.
rin
ℓ
nx nat nat
g.n
Thus , y(x,t) = Bsin

Using (iii) in (4), we get

ℓ

nx
Ccos
ℓ
+ Dsin
ℓ
e
------------------(4)

0 = Bsin .C
ℓ
Therefore, C = 0 .
nx nat
Hence, y(x,t) = Bsin . Dsin
ℓ ℓ

nx nat
= B1sin . sin , where B1= BD.
ℓ ℓ

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The most general solution is

 nx nat
y(x,t) =  Bn sin sin ----------------(5)
n=1 ℓ ℓ

Differentiating (5) partially w.r.t t, we get

y  nx nat na
=  Bn sin .cos .
t n=1 ℓ ℓ ℓ
Using (iv), we get

 na nx
kx(ℓ-x) =  Bn.
ww n=0 ℓ
. sin
ℓ

i.e, Bn . w.E
na

ℓ
=
2

ℓ
ℓ
 f(x). sin
0
nx

ℓ
dx

asy2 ℓ
 f(x). sin
nx
i.e, Bn =
E
na 0

2 ℓ
ℓ

nx
dx

ngi
=
na 0
 kx(ℓ – x) sin
ℓ
dx
nee
ℓ – cos
nx
rin
=
2k 
 (ℓx – x ) d
2
ℓ
g.n
na 0 nx
ℓ

nx
e nx
-cos -sin
2k ℓ ℓ
= (ℓx- x2) d - (ℓ-2x)
na n n22
ℓ ℓ2

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2k -2cosn 2
= +
na n33 n33

ℓ3 ℓ3

2k 2ℓ3
= . {1 - cosn}
na n
3 3

ww
i.e, Bn =
4 kℓ3
{1 – (-1)n}

w.E n a4 4

8kℓ3
or Bn =
asy n a4 4
, if n is odd

E
Substituting in (4), we get
0, if n is even

ngi
y(x,t) = 
 8kℓ3 nat nx nee
.
n=1,3,5,…… n44 a
sin
ℓ
sin
ℓ
rin
Therefore the solution is

y(x,t) =
8kℓ3 

l
sin
(2n-1)at
sin
(2n-1)x
g.n
Example 3
4 a n=1 (2n-1)4 ℓ ℓ
e
A tightly stretched string with fixed end points x = 0 & x = ℓ is initially in a
position given by y(x,0) = y0sin3(x/ℓ). If it is released from rest from this position, find
the displacement y at any time and at any distance from the end x = 0 .
Solution

The displacement y(x,t) is given by the equation

2y 2 y
2
=a -----------(1)
t 2
x 2

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

The boundary conditions are

(i) y(0,t) = 0,  t  0.
(ii) y(ℓ,t) = 0,  t  0.
(iii) y
= 0, for 0 < x < ℓ.
t t = 0

(iv) y(x,0) = y0 sin3((x/ℓ), for 0 < x < ℓ.

The suitable solution of (1) is given by

y(x,t) = (Acosx + Bsinx)(Ccosat + Dsinat) ------------(2)

ww
Using (i) and (ii) in (2) , we get
n

w.E A=0 & =

nx nat
ℓ
nat

asy
 y(x,t) = B sin
ℓ
(Ccos
ℓ
+ Dsin
ℓ
) -----------(3)

Now,
y

t
E = B sin
nx

ℓ
- Csin
nat

ngi
ℓ
.
na

ℓ
+ Dcos
nat

ℓ
.
na

nee
rin
Using (iii) in the above equation , we get

0 = B sin
nx
D
na
g.n
ℓ

Here, B can not be zero . Therefore D = 0.

ℓ
e
Hence equation (3) becomes
nx nat
y(x,t) = B sin . Ccos
ℓ ℓ

nx nat
= B1sin . cos , where B1 = BC
ℓ ℓ
The most general solution is
 nx nat

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y(x,t) =  Bn sin cos ---------------- (4)

n=1 ℓ ℓ
Using (iv), we get
n  nx
y0 sin3 =  Bnsin
ℓ n=1 ℓ

 nx 3 x 1 3x
i.e,  Bnsin = y0 sin  sin
n=1 ℓ 4 ℓ 4 ℓ

x 2x 3x
+B3 sin + ….

ww i.e, B1sin
ℓ
+ B2 sin
ℓ ℓ

w.E =
3y0

4
sin
x

ℓ
-
y0

4
sin
3x

asy
Equating the like coefficients on both sides, we get

E B1 =
3y0

4
, B3 =
-y0

4 ngi
, B2 = B4 = … = 0 .

Substituting in (4), we get nee

y(x,t) =
3y0
sin
x
. cos
at
- rin y0
sin
3x
. cos
3at

Example 4
4 ℓ ℓ
g.n 4 ℓ ℓ

Motion is
A string is stretched & fastened to two points x = 0 and x = ℓ apart. e
started by displacing the string into the form y(x,0) = k(ℓx-x2) from which it is
released at
time t = 0. Find the displacement y(x,t).
Solution

The displacement y(x,t) is given by the equation

2y 2 y
2
=a -----------(1)
t2 x2

The boundary conditions are

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(i) y(0,t) = 0,  t  0.
(ii) y(ℓ,t) = 0,  t  0.

(iii) y
= 0, for 0 < x < ℓ.
t t=0

(iv) y(x,0) = k(ℓx – x2), for 0 < x < ℓ.

The suitable solution of (1) is given by

y(x,t) = (Acosx + Bsinx)(Ccosat + Dsinat) ------------(2)

ww Using (i) and (ii) in (2) , we get

n

w.E A=0 & =

nx nat
ℓ
.

nat

asy
 y(x,t) = B sin
ℓ
(Ccos
ℓ
+ Dsin
ℓ
) -----------(3)

Now,
y

t
E = B sin
nx

ℓ
- Csin
ngi
nat

ℓ
.
na

ℓ
+ Dcos
nat

ℓ
.
na

nee
Using (iii) in the above equation , we get

rin
0 = B sin
nx

ℓ
D
na

ℓ g.n
Here, B can not be zero
D=0
Hence equation (3) becomes
e
nx nat
y(x,t) = B sin . Ccos
ℓ ℓ
nx nat
= B1sin . cos , where B1 = BC
ℓ ℓ
The most general solution is
 nx nat
y(x,t) =  Bnsin cos ---------------- (4)

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n=1ℓ ℓ
 nx
Using (iv), we get kx(ℓx – x2) =  Bnsin ---------------- (5)
n=1 ℓ
The RHS of (5) is the half range Fourier sine series of the LHS function .

2
ℓ nx
 Bn =  f(x) . sin dx
ℓ  ℓ
0
nx
ℓ -cos
2k  (ℓx- x2) d
ww =
ℓ 0

ℓ
n

w.E ℓ

nx nx

asy 2k
-cos
ℓ
-sin
ℓ

E
2
= (ℓx- x ) d - (ℓ-2x)
ℓ
ngin
ℓ
n22
ℓ2

nee
cos
nx

ℓ rin
ℓ

+ (-2)
n33 g.n
2k -2cos n 2
ℓ3 0
e
= +
ℓ n33 n33
ℓ3 ℓ3

2k 2ℓ3
= . {1- cos n}
ℓ n33

4kℓ2
i.e, Bn = {1- (-1)n }
n33

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8kℓ2
or Bn = n33 , if n is odd

0, if n is even

 8kℓ2 nat nx

y(x,t) =  cos .sin
n=odd n33 ℓ ℓ

8k  1 (2n-1)at (2n-1)x
or y(x,t) =  cos .sin
 n=1 (2n-1)
ww
3 3
ℓ ℓ

Example 5
w.E A uniform elastic string of length 2ℓ is fastened at both ends. The

asy
midpoint of the string is taken to the height „b‟ and then released from rest in
that position . Find the displacement of the string.

Solution
E ngi
The displacement y(x,t) is given by the equation

2y
= a2
2 y nee
rin
-----------(1)
t2 x2

The suitable solution of (1) is given by

y(x,t) = (Acosx + Bsinx)(Ccosat + Dsinat) ------------(2) g.n
The boundary conditions are
(i) y(0,t) = 0,  t  0.
e
(ii) y(ℓ,t) = 0,  t  0.

(iii) y
= 0, for 0 < x < 2ℓ.
t t=0

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O(0,0) ℓ B(2ℓ,0) x

(b/ℓ)x , 0<x<ℓ

ww (iv) y(x,0) =
-(b/ℓ)(x-2ℓ), ℓ<x<2ℓ

w.E
[Since, equation of OA is y = (b/ℓ)x and equation of AB is (y-b)/(o-b) = (x-ℓ)/(2ℓ-ℓ)]

asy
Using conditions (i) and (ii) in (2), we get

n

E A=0 & =

nx nat
2ℓ
ngi nat
 y(x,t) = B sin
2ℓ
(Ccos
2ℓ
+ Dsin
2ℓ nee
) -----------(3)

y rin
g.n
nx nat na nat na
Now, = B sin - Csin . + Dcos .
t 2ℓ 2ℓ 2ℓ 2ℓ 2ℓ

Using (iii) in the above equation , we get

e
nx na
0 = B sin D
2ℓ 2ℓ

Here B can not be zero, therefore D = 0.

Hence equation (3) becomes

nx nat
y(x,t) = B sin . Ccos
2ℓ 2ℓ
nx nat

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= B1sin . cos , where B1 = BC

2ℓ 2ℓ
The most general solution is
 nx nat
y(x,t) =  Bnsin cos ---------------- (4)
n=1 2ℓ 2ℓ

Using (iv), We get

 nx
y(x,0) =  Bn .sin ---------------- (5)
n=1 2ℓ
The RHS of equation (5) is the half range Fourier sine series of the LHS function .
2 2ℓ nx

ww  Bn =
2ℓ 
 f(x) . sin
2ℓ
dx

w.E 0

1 ℓ nx 2ℓ nx

asy =
ℓ 
 f(x) . sin
2ℓ
dx +  f(x) . sin
 2ℓ
dx

E 1
0

ℓ b

ngi
nx
dx + 
ℓ

2ℓ -b
(x-2ℓ) sin
nx
dx

nee
= x sin
ℓ  ℓ 2ℓ  ℓ 2ℓ
0 ℓ

ℓ -cos
nx
2ℓ
rin -cos
nx

=
1 b 
 xd
2ℓ
-
b  (x-2ℓ) d

g.n ℓ

ℓ ℓ 0 n
2ℓ
ℓ ℓ

en
2ℓ

ℓ
nx nx
cos sin
1 b 2ℓ 2ℓ
= (x)  (1) 
ℓ ℓ n n
2 2

2ℓ 4ℓ2
0

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n n n n
-ℓcos sin ℓcos sin
b 2 2 2 2
= + + +
ℓ2 n n22 n n22
2ℓ 4ℓ2 2ℓ 4ℓ2
8b sin (n/2)

ww =
n22

w.E
Therefore the solution is

asy 
y(x,t) =  8bsin(n/2) cos
n22
nat

2ℓ
sin
nx

2ℓ

E
n=1

Example 6 ngi
nee
A tightly stretched string with fixed end points x = 0 & x = ℓ is
initially in

rin
the position y(x,0) = f(x). It is set vibrating by giving to each of its points a

g.n
velocity
y
= g(x) at t = 0 . Find the displacement y(x,t) in the form of Fourier series.
t
Solution

The displacement y(x,t) is given by the equation

e
2y 2 y
= a2 -----------(1)
t 2
x 2

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The boundary conditions are

(i) y(0,t) = 0,  t  0.
(ii) y(ℓ,t) = 0,  t  0.
(iii) y(x,0) = f(x) , for 0  x  ℓ.

(iv)  u

ww t
= g(x), for 0  x  ℓ.
t=0

w.E
asy
The solution of equation .(1) is given by

y(x,t) = (Acosx + Bsinx)(Ccosat + Dsinat) ------------(2)

E
where A, B, C, D are constants.
ngi
Applying conditions (i) and (ii) in (2), we have
n nee
A = 0 and  =
ℓ
.
rin
Substituting in (2), we get
g.n
y(x,t) = B sin
nx

ℓ
(Ccos
nat

ℓ
+ Dsin
nat

ℓ
)
e
nx nat nat
y(x,t) = sin (B1cos + D1 sin ) where B1 = BC and D1 = BD.
ℓ ℓ ℓ

The most general solution. is

 nat nat nx

y(x,t) =  Bn cos + Dn .sin .sin --------------(3)
n=1 ℓ ℓ ℓ

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Using (iii), we get

 nx
f(x) =  Bn .sin ---------------- (4)
n=1 ℓ

The RHS of equation (4) is the Fourier sine series of the LHS function.

2 ℓ nx
 Bn =  f(x) . sin dx
ℓ  ℓ
0
Differentiating (3) partially w.r.t „t‟, we get

ww y  nat na nat na nx

w.E t
=  -Bn sin
n=1 ℓ ℓ
+ Dn .cos
ℓ ℓ
.sin
ℓ

asy
Using condition (iv) , we get

E 
g(x) =  Dn
n=1
na

ℓ ngi
. sin
nx

ℓ
-----------------(5)

nee
The RHS of equation (5) is the Fourier sine series of the LHS function.

 Dn .
na 2 ℓ
 g(x) . sin
nx
rin
ℓ
=
ℓ 
0
ℓ
dx
g.n
 Dn =
2

na 
ℓ
 g(x) . sin
nx

ℓ
dx e
0
Substituting the values of Bn and Dn in (3), we get the required solution of the
given equation.

Exercises
(1) Find the solution of the equation of a vibrating string of length „ℓ‟, satisfying the
conditions
y(0,t) = y(ℓ,t) = 0 and y = f(x), y/ t = 0 at t = 0.

(2) A taut string of length 20 cms. fastened at both ends is displaced from its position of
equilibrium, by imparting to each of its points an initial velocity given by

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

v=x in 0  x  10
= 20  x in 10  x  20,
„x‟ being the distance from one end. Determine the displacement at any subsequent time.

(3) Find the solution of the wave equation

2u 2u
2
=c ,
t2 x2
corresponding to the triangular initial deflection f(x ) = (2k/ ℓ) x when 0 x ℓ/ 2
= (2k/ ℓ) (ℓ – x) when ℓ/ 2 x ℓ,
and initial velocity zero.

ww
(4) A tightly stretched string with fixed end points x = 0 and x = ℓ is initially at rest in its
equilibrium position. If it is set vibrating by giving to each of its points a velocity y/ t
= f(x)
w.E
at t = 0. Find the displacement y(x,t).

asy
(5) Solve the following boundary value problem of vibration of string

i.
ii.

iii.
y E
y(0,t) = 0
y(ℓ,t) = 0

(x,0) = x (x – ℓ), 0 x ℓ. ngi

iv.
t
y(x,0) = x in 0 x ℓ/ 2 nee
= ℓ – x in ℓ/ 2 x ℓ.
rin
g.n
(6) A tightly stretched string with fixed end points x = 0 and x = ℓ is initially in a
position given by y(x,0) = k( sin(x/ ℓ) – sin( 2x/ ℓ)). If it is released from rest, find the
displacement of „y‟ at any distance „x‟ from one end at any time „t‟.

3.3 Solution of the heat equation

e
The heat equation is
u 2u
= 2 ----------------(1).
t x 2

Let u = X(x) . T(t) be the solution of (1), where „X‟ is a function of „x‟ alone and „T‟ is a
function of „t‟ alone.

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Substituting these in (1), we get

X T′ = 2 X′′ T.

X′′ T′
i.e, = ---------------(2).
X T 2

Now the left side of (2) is a function of „x‟ alone and the right side is a function of „t‟
alone. Since „x‟ and „t‟ are independent variables, (2) can be true only if each side is
equal to a constant.

ww
Therefore,
X′′
=
T′
= k (say).

w.E X 2T

Hence, we get X′′  kX = 0 and T′  2 kT = 0. --------------(3).

asy
Solving equations (3), we get

E
(i) when „k‟ is positive and k = 2, say
X = c1 ex + c2 e - x ngi
T = c3 e 
2 2
 t
nee
(ii) when „k‟ is negative and k = 2, say
rin
X = c4 cosx + c5 sin x
g.n
e
2 2
T = c6 e    t

(iii) when „k‟ is zero.

X = c7 x + c8
T = c9

Thus the various possible solutions of the heat equation (1) are
2 2
u = (c1 ex + c2 e - x) c3 e   t
-----------(4)
2 2
  t
u = (c4 cosx + c5 sin x) c6 e ----------(5)

u = (c7 x + c8) c9 ------------(6)

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Of these three solutions, we have to choose that solution which suits the physical
nature of the problem and the given boundary conditions. As we are dealing with
problems on heat flow, u(x,t) must be a transient solution such that „u‟ is to decrease with
the increase of time „t‟.

Therefore, the solution given by (5),

2 2
  t
u = (c4 cosx + c5 sin x) c6 e

is the only suitable solution of the heat equation.

ww
Illustrative Examples

Example 7
w.E
asy
A rod „ℓ‟ cm with insulated lateral surface is initially at temperature f(x) at an
inner point of distance x cm from one end. If both the ends are kept at zero temperature,

E
find the temperature at any point of the rod at any subsequent time.

ngi
nee
rin
g.n
Let the equation for the conduction of heat be
u 2u
--------- = 2 ----------
e------------- (1)
t x2
The boundary conditions are
(i) u (0,t) = 0,  t≥0
(ii) u (ℓ,t) = 0, t>0
(iii) u (x,0) = f (x), 0 < x < ℓ

The solution of equation (1) is given by

2 2
 t
u (x,t) = (A cosx + B sinx) e – --------------- (2)

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Applying condition (i) in (2), we have

2 2
0 = A.e -  t
which gives A = 0
2  2t
 u (x,t) = B sinx e – -------------- (3)
2 2
Applying condition (ii) in the above equation, we get 0 = Bsinℓ e -  t
n
i.e, ℓ = n or  = --------- (n is an integer)
ℓ
-n222
nx ------------- t

ww
 u (x,t) = B sin ---------
ℓ
e

Thus the most general solution is

ℓ2

w.E
 nx
u (x,t) =  Bn sin --------- e
-n222
------------- t
ℓ2 ------------- (4)

asy
n=1
ℓ


E
By condition (iii),

nx
u (x,0) =  Bn sin ----------- = f (x). ngi
n=1
ℓ
nee
rin
The LHS series is the half range Fourier sine series of the RHS function.

g.n
e
2 ℓ nx
 Bn = ------  f (x) sin -------- dx
0
ℓ ℓ
Substituting in (4), we get the temperature function
-n222
 2 ℓ nx nx ------------ t
u (x,t) =  ------  f (x) sin -------- dx sin --------- e ℓ2
n=1
ℓ 0 ℓ ℓ
Example 8
u 2u
The equation for the conduction of heat along a bar of length ℓ is ------ = 2 -------
--,
t x2

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neglecting radiation. Find an expression for u, if the ends of the bar are maintained at
zero temperature and if, initially, the temperature is T at the centre of the bar and falls
uniformly to
zero at its ends.
x P

A B

Let u be the temperature at P, at a distance x from the end A at time t.

u 2u

ww
The temperature function u (x,t) is given by the equation ------ = 2 ---------, ----------(1)
t x2

(i)
w.E
The boundary conditions are
u (0,t) = 0,  t > 0.
(ii)
asy
u (ℓ,t) = 0,  t > 0.

Eu(x,0) A(ℓ/2,T)

ngi
nee
T

B(ℓ,0)rin
O(0,0) L ℓ Xg.n
2Tx ℓ
u(x,0) = ----------, for 0 < x < -----
ℓ 2
e
2T ℓ
= ----------(ℓ - x), for ----- < x < ℓ
ℓ 2

The solution of (1) is of the form

2 2
 t
u (x,t) = (A cosx + B sinx) e - ----------(2)

Applying conditions (i) and (ii) in (2), we get

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n
A = 0 &  = -------
ℓ

-n222
nx ------------- t
 u (x,t) = B sin --------- e ℓ2
ℓ

Thus the most general solution is

-n222
 nx ------------- t
 u (x,t) =  Bn sin ---------
ww n=1
ℓ
e ℓ2 ------------- (3)

w.E
Using condition (iii) in (3), we have

 nx

asy
u (x,0) =  Bn sin --------
n=1
ℓ
--------------- (4)

E
We now expand u (x,0) given by (iii) in a half – range sine series in (0,ℓ)

2 ℓ nx
Here Bn = ------  u (x,0) sin -------- dx ngi
ℓ 0 ℓ
nee
2
ie, Bn = ------
ℓ/2 2Tx nx ℓ 2T
rin nx
 --------- sin -------- dx +  -------- (ℓ-x) sin -------- dx
ℓ/2

g.n
0
ℓ ℓ ℓ ℓ ℓ

e
nx nx
- cos --------- - cos -----------
4T ℓ/2 ℓ ℓ ℓ
= ------  x d ---------------- + (ℓ-x) d -------------------------

ℓ2 0
n/ℓ ℓ/2 n/ℓ

nx nx
- cos --------- - sin ----------- ℓ/2
4T ℓ ℓ
= ------ (x) ------------------ – (1) ------------------------ +

ℓ2 n/ℓ n22/ℓ2
o

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- cos --------- - sin ---------- ℓ

ℓ ℓ
(ℓ - x) ------------------ – (-1) ----------------------
n/ℓ n22/ℓ2
ℓ/2

4T - ℓ2 n ℓ2 n ℓ2 n ℓ2 n
= -------- --------- cos ------- + ---------- sin ------- + ------- cos ----- +-------- sin ------
ℓ2 2n 2 n22 2 2n 2 n22 2

4T 2ℓ2 n
= ------- -------- sin -------
ℓ2 n22

ww 8T n
2

w.E
Bn = --------- sin-------
n22 2

 8T asy
Hence the solution is

n nx
-n222
------------- t
n=1
n2 2
E
u (x,t) =  ---------- sin -------- sin --------- e
2 ℓ
ngi
ℓ2

or

u (x,t) = 
 8T n nx
-n222
nee
------------- t
---------- sin -------- sin --------- e ℓ2

or
n=1,3,5…
n22 2 ℓ
rin
-2 (2n-1)22
g.n
----------------- t
8T  (-1) n+1 (2n-1)x
u (x,t) = ---------  -------------- sin --------------- e
2 n=1 (2n-1)2 ℓ
ℓ2
e
Steady - state conditions and zero boundary conditions
Example 9
A rod of length „ℓ‟ has its ends A and B kept at 0C and 100C until steady state
conditions prevails. If the temperature at B is reduced suddenly to 0C and kept so while
that of A is maintained, find the temperature u(x,t) at a distance x from A and at time „t‟.
The heat-equation is given by

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u 2u
--------- =  --------
2
------------- (1)
t x2
Prior to the temperature change at the end B, when t = 0, the heat flow was
independent of time (steady state condition).

When the temperature u depends only on x, equation(1) reduces to

2u
-------- = 0
x2

Its general solution is u = ax + b ------------- (2)

ww 100
Since u = 0 for x = 0 & u = 100 for x = ℓ, therefore (2) gives b = 0 & a = ---------

w.E ℓ

asy 100
u (x,0) = ------- x, for 0 < x < ℓ
ℓ

E
Hence the boundary conditions are
ngi
(i) u (0,t)
(ii) u (ℓ,t)
= 0,
= 0,
 t0
 t0 nee
rin
100x
(iii) u (x,0) = ----------- , for 0 < x < ℓ
ℓ

The solution of (1) is of the form g.n

u (x,t) = (A cos x + B sin x) e -

Using, conditions (i) and (ii) in (3), we get

22 t
e
--------------- (3)

n
A = 0 &  = --------
ℓ
-n222
nx ------------- t
 u (x,t) = B sin --------- e ℓ2
ℓ
Thus the most general solution is
-n222

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 nx ------------- t
 u (x,t) =  Bn sin --------- e ℓ2 ------------- (4)
n=1
ℓ
Applying (iii) in (4), we get

 nx
u (x,0) =  Bn sin ---------
n=1
ℓ
100x  nx
ie, ------- =  Bn sin ---------
n=1
ℓ ℓ

ww ==> Bn
2 ℓ 100x

ℓ 0 ℓ
nx
= -----  -------- sin ------- dx
ℓ

w.E
asy nx
- cos --------

E 200 ℓ
= --------  x
ℓ2 0
ngi
ℓ
d -------------------
n
--------
ℓ
nee
nx
rin nx ℓ

200
= --------
- cos ----------
ℓ
(x) ------------------- g.n
- sin ----------
ℓ
– (1) ----------------------
ℓ2 n
--------
ℓ
e
n22
-----------
ℓ2 0

200 –ℓ2
= --------- ------- cos n
ℓ2 n

200 (-1) n+1

Bn = ------------------
n
Hence the solution is

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

 200 (-1) n+1 nx -n222 t

u (x,t) =  -------------- sin ---------- e ℓ2
n=1
n ℓ

Example 10
A rod, 30 c.m long, has its ends A and B kept at 20C and 80C respectively, until
steady state conditions prevail. The temperature at each end is then suddenly reduced to
0C and kept so. Find the resulting temperature function u (x,t) taking x = 0 at A.
The one dimensional heat flow equation is given by

ww u 2u
------- = 2 --------- ------------ (1)

w.E t x2

asy u
In steady-state, ------ = 0.

E t
2u
Now, equation (1) reduces to --------- = 0
x2
ngi
------------- (2)

Solving (2), we get u = ax + b

nee
------------- (3)

The initial conditions, in steady – state, are

rin
u = 20, when x = 0
u = 80, when x = 30 g.n
Therefore, (3) gives b = 20, a = 2.

u (x) = 2x + 20 ------------- (4)

e
Hence the boundary conditions are
(i) u (0,t) = 0,  t>0
(ii) u (30,t) = 0,  t > 0
(iii) u (x,0) = 2x + 20, for 0 < x < 30

The solution of equation (1) is given by

2 2
 t
u (x,t) = (A cos x + Bsinx) e - ----------------- (5)

Applying conditions (i) and (ii), we get

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n
A = 0,  = --------, where „n‟ is an integer
30
-2n22
nx---------- t
 u (x,t) = B sin --- e ---- 900
---------- ---- (6)
30

The most general solution is

-2n22

ww 
 u (x,t) =  Bn sin
nx ----------- t
e ----- 900 ------------- (7)

w.E n=1

Applying (iii) in (7), we get

30

asy
E  nx
u (x,0) =  Bn sin ------- = 2x +20, 0 < x < 30.
n=1
30
ngi
 Bn
2 30
= -----  (2x + 20) sin
30 0
nx
------- dx
30 nee
nx rin
1 30
- cos ----------
30 g.n
= --------  (2x+ 20) d
15 0
-------------------
n
--------
30
e
nx nx 30
- cos ---------- - sin ------
1 30 30
= ------ (2x+20) ------------------- – (2) ----------------------
15 n n22
-------- --------
30 900 0

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1 –2400 cosn 600

= ------- ----------------- + --------
15 n n

40
Bn = ------- {1 – 4 ( - 1)n }
n

Hence, the required solution is

-2n22
 40 nx----------- t
u (x,t) =  ------- {1 – 4 ( -1) } sin ---e ---- 900
n

ww n=1 n 30

w.E
Steady–state conditions and non–zero boundary conditions

Example 11 asy
E
The ends A and B of a rod 30cm. long have their temperatures kept at 20C and

ngi
80C, until steady–state conditions prevail. The temperature of the end B is suddenly
reduced to 60C and kept so while the end A is raised to 40C. Find the temperature
distribution in the rod after time t.
nee
Let the equation for the heat- flow be
rin
u 2u
------- = 2 ---------
g.n
----------- (1)
t x2
2u
In steady–state, equation (1) reduces to -------- = 0.
x2
e
Solving, we get u = ax + b -------------- (2)

The initial conditions, in steady–state, are

u = 20, when x = 0
u = 80, when x = 30

From (2), b = 20 & a = 2.

Thus the temperature function in steady–state is

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u (x) = 2x + 20 -------------- (3)

Hence the boundary conditions in the transient–state are

(i) u (0,t) = 40,  t > 0
(ii) u (30,t) = 60,  t > 0
(iii) u (x,0) = 2x + 20, for 0 < x < 30

we break up the required funciton u (x,t) into two parts and write

u (x,t) = us (x) + ut (x,t) --------------- (4)

where us (x) is a solution of (1), involving x only and satisfying the boundary
condition (i) and (ii). ut (x,t) is then a function defined by (4) satisfying (1).

ww Thus us(x) is a steady state solution of (1) and ut(x,t) may therefore be regarded
as a transient solution which decreases with increase of t.

w.E
To find us(x)

asy 2u
we have to solve the equation --------- = 0
x2

E
Solving, we get us(x) = ax + b

Here us(0) = 40, us(30) = 60.

------------- (5)

ngi
Using the above conditions, we get b = 40, a = 2/3. nee
2
us(x) = ------ x + 40 rin
To find ut(x,t)
3
-------------- (6)

g.n
ut ( x,t) = u (x,t) – us (x)
Now putting x = 0 and x = 30 in (4), we have
e
ut (0,t) = u (0,t) – us (0) = 40–40 = 0
and ut (30,t) = u (30,t) – us (30) = 60–60 = 0
Also ut (x,0) = u (x,0) – us (x)
2
= 2x + 20 – ------ x– 40
3
4
= ------- x – 20
3

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Hence the boundary conditions relative to the transient solution ut (x,t) are

ut (0,t) = 0 --------------(iv)
ut (30,t) = 0 --------------(v)
and ut (x,0) = (4/3) x – 20 -------------(vi)

We have -22t

ut(x,t) = (Acosx + e Bsinx)

--------------(7)
---
-e

ww
Using condition (iv) and (v) in (7), we get

w.E n

asy
A = 0 &  = ---------

E
30

Hence equation (7) becomes ngi

nx
-2n22
----------- t
nee
ut (x,t) = B sin ----e ---- 900
e rin
30
The most general solution of (1) is g.n
 nx

------------------ (8)
-2n22
----------- t
ut(x,t) =  Bnsin ---- e --- 900 e
n=1
30

Using condition (vi) ,

 nx
ut (x,0) =  Bn sin ------- = (4/3) x–20, 0 < x < 30.
n=1
30

2 30 nx
 Bn = -----  {(4/3) x–20} sin -------- dx
30 0 30

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nx
- cos ----------
1 30 4 30
= ------  ----- x–20 d -------------------
15 0 3 n
--------
30

nx nx

- cos ---------- - sin ----------

1 4 30 4 30

ww = ------
15
----- x–20
3
---------------
n
--------
– -----
3
-------------------
n22
--------

w.E 30 900

asy 1
= -------
–600 cosn 600
----------------- – --------

E 15

– 40
= ------- {1 + cos n }
n

ngi
n

n
– 40 { 1 + (-1)n } nee
Bn = -------------------------
n
rin
or Bn = 0 , when n is odd
g.n
-80
-------, when n is even
n -2n22
e
- ---------- t
 -80 nx 900
ut (x,t) = ------- sin -- e ----
n=2,4,6, . . . n 30

 u (x,t) = us (x) + ut (x,t)

-2n22
2 80  1 nx----------- t
ie, u (x,t) = ------x + 40 – ------  ----- sin -- e ----- 900
3 n=2,4,6,.. n 30

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Exercises

(1) Solve u/ t = 2 (2u / x2) subject to the boundary conditions u(0,t) = 0,
u(l,t) = 0, u(x,0) = x, 0 x l.

(2) Find the solution to the equation u/ t = 2 (2u / x2) that satisfies the conditions
i. u(0,t) = 0,
ii. u(l,t) = 0,  t  0,
iii. u(x,0) = x for 0 x l/ 2.
= l – x for l/ 2 x l.

ww
(3) Solve the equation u/ t = 2 (2u / x2) subject to the boundary conditions
i. u(0,t) = 0,
ii. u(l,t) = 0,  t  0,

w.E
iii. u(x,0) = kx(l – x), k  0, 0  x  l.

asy
(4) A rod of length „l‟ has its ends A and B kept at 0o C and 120o C respectively until
steady state conditions prevail. If the temperature at Bis reduced to 0o C and kept so while
that of A is maintained, find the temperature distribution in the rod.

E ngi
(5) A rod of length „l‟ has its ends A and B kept at 0o C and 120o C respectively until

nee
steady state conditions prevail. If the temperature at Bis reduced to 0o C and kept so while
10o C and at the same instant that at A is suddenly raised to 50o C. Find the temperature
distribution in the rod after time „t‟.

rin
(6) A rod of length „l‟ has its ends A and B kept at 0o C and 100o C respectively until
steady state conditions prevail. If the temperature of A is suddenly raised to 50o C and
that of B to
g.n
150o C, find the temperature distribution at the point of the rod and at any time.

e
(7) A rod of length 10 cm. has the ends A and B kept at temperatures 30o C and 100o C,
respectively until the steady state conditions prevail. After some time, the temperature at
A is lowered to 20o C and that of B to 40o C, and then these temperatures are maintained.
Find the subsequent temperature distribution.

(8) The two ends A and B of a rod of length 20 cm. have the temperature at 30o C and
80o C respectively until th steady state conditions prevail. Then the temperatures at the
ends A and B are changed to 40o C and 60o C respectively. Find u(x,t).

(9) A bar 100 cm. long, with insulated sides has its ends kept at 0o C and 100o C until
steady state condition prevail. The two ends are then suddenly insulated and kept so. Find
the temperature distribution

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(10) Solve the equation u/ t = 2 (2u / x2) subject to the conditions (i) „u‟ is not
infinite
as t  (ii) u = 0 for x = 0 and x = ,  t (iii) u = x  x2 for t = 0 in (0, ).

3.4 Solution of Laplace’s equation(Two dimentional heat equation)

The Laplace equation is

2u 2u
+ = 0
x 2
y 2

Let u = X(x) . Y(y) be the solution of (1), where „X‟ is a function of „x‟ alone and „Y‟ is

ww
a function of „y‟ alone.

Then
2u
= X′′ Y and
2u
= . X Y′′

w.E
x2 y2

asy
Substituting in (1), we have

E
X′′ Y + X Y′′ = 0

i.e,
X′′
= 
Y′′
ngi
---------------(2).
X Y
nee
rin
Now the left side of (2) is a function of „x‟ alone and the right side is a function of „t‟
alone. Since „x‟ and „t‟ are independent variables, (2) can be true only if each side is
equal to a constant.

X′′ Y′′ g.n

Therefore,
X
=
Y
= k (say).

Hence, we get X′′  kX = 0 and Y′′ + kY = 0. --------------(3).

e
Solving equations (3), we get

(i) when „k‟ is positive and k = 2, say

X = c1 ex + c2 e - x
Y = c3 cosy + c4 sin y

(ii) when „k‟ is negative and k = 2, say

X = c5 cosx + c6 sin x
Y = c7 ey + c8 e - y

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(iii) when „k‟ is zero.

X = c9 x + c10
Y = c11 x + c12

Thus the various possible solutions of (1) are

u = (c1 ex + c2 e - x) (c3 cosy + c4 sin y) ------------(4)

u = (c5 cosx + c6 sin x) (c7 ey + c8 e - y) ----------(5)
u = (c9 x + c10) (c11 x + c12) ------------(6)

Of these three solutions, we have to choose that solution which suits the physical
nature of the problem and the given boundary conditions.

ww
Example 12

w.E
An infinitely long uniform plate is bounded by two parallel edges x = 0 & x = ℓ
and an end at right angles to them. The breadth of this edge y = 0 is ℓ and this edge is

asy
maintained at a temperature f (x). All the other 3 edges are at temperature zero. Find the
steady state temperature at any interior point of the plate.
Solution

E
Let u (x,y) be the temperature at any point x,y of the plate.
2u
ngi 2u
Also u (x,y) satisfies the equation -------- + --------- = 0 ---------- (1)

Let the solution of equation (1) be

x2 y2
nee
u(x,y) = (A cos x + B sinx) (Cey + De–y)
rin ------------ (2)

Y y= g.n
x=0 x=ℓ
e
0<x<ℓ
0<y<
ℓ
0 y=0 X
f (x)
The boundary conditions are

(i) u (0, y) = 0, for 0 < y < 

(ii) u (ℓ, y) = 0, for 0 < y < 
(iii) u (x, ) = 0, for 0 < x < ℓ
(iv) u (x, 0) = f(x), for 0 < x < ℓ

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Using condition (i), we get

0 = A (Cey + De-y)

i.e, A = 0

 Equation (2) becomes,

u (x,y) = B sinx ( Cey + De -y) ------------------- (3)

Using cndition (ii), we get

n
 = ---------

ww ℓ
nx (ny/ℓ ) (-ny/ℓ)
Therefore,
w.E
u (x,y) = B sin --------- { Ce
ℓ
+ De } ----------------- (4)

asy
Using condition (iii), we get C = 0.

E
nx
u (x,y) = B sin -------- De
ℓ
(- ny/ℓ)

ngi
nx
i.e, u (x,y) = B1 sin -------- e
(- ny/ℓ)
, where B1 = BD. nee
ℓ
rin
The most general solution is


g.n
nx
u (x,y) =  Bn Sin ------- e
n =1 ℓ
(- ny/ℓ)

e
-------------- (5)

Using condition (iv), we get

 nx
f (x) =  Bn Sin ----------- --------------- (6)
n=1 ℓ
The RHS of equation (6) is a half – range Fourier sine series of the LHS function.

2 ℓ nx
Bn = --------  f (x). Sin -------- dx -------------- (7)
ℓ 0 ℓ

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Using (7) in (5), we get the required solution.

Example 13
A rectangular plate with an insulated surface is 8 cm. wide and so long compared
to its width that it may be considered as an infinite plate. If the temperature along short
edge y = 0 is u(x,0) = 100 sin (x/8), 0 < x < 8, while two long edges x = 0 & x = 8 as
well as the other short edges are kept at 0C. Find the steady state temperature at any
point of the plate.

ww
Solution
The two dimensional heat equation is given by

w.E 2u 2u

--------- + ---------- = 0 -------------- (1)

asy
x 2
y
The solution of equation (1) be
2

E
u (x,y) = (A cosx + B sinx) (Cey + De-y)

The boundary conditions are ngi ----------------- (2)

(i) u (0, y) = 0,
(ii) u (8, y) = 0,
for 0 < y < 
for 0 < y <  nee
(iii) u (x, ) = 0, for 0 < x < 8
(iv) u (x, 0) = 100 Sin (x/8,) for 0 < x < 8
rin
Using conditions (i), & (ii), we get
g.n
e
n
A = 0 ,  --------
8
nx (ny / 8) (-ny / 8)
u (x,y) = B sin -------- Ce + De
8
(ny / 8) (-ny / 8) nx
= B1e + D1e sin ----------, where B1 = BC
8 D1 = BD
The most general soln is
 (ny / 8) (-ny / 8) nx
u (x,y) =  Bne + Dne sin ---------- -------------- (3)
n=1 8

Using condition (iii), we get Bn = 0.

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 (- ny / 8) nx
Hence, u (x,y) =  Dne sin ---------- --------------- (4)
n=1 8
Using condition (iv), we get

x  nx
100 sin --------- =  Dn sin ---------
8 n=1 8

x x 2x 3x
i.e, 100 sin --------- = D1 sin ------- + D2 sin -------- + D3 sin --------- + . . . . .

ww 8 8

Comparing like coefficients on both sides, we get

8 8

w.E
D1 = 100, D2 = D3 = . . . . = 0

asy
Substituting in (4), we get
(-y / 8)

Example 14
E
u (x,y) = 100 e sin (x / 8)

ngi
nee
A rectangular plate with an insulated surface 10 c.m wide & so long compared to
its width that it may considered as an infinite plate. If the temperature at the short edge y
= 0 is given by
u (x,0) = 20 x, 0<x < 5 rin
20 (10-x), 5 < x < 10
g.n
and all the other 3 edges are kept at temperature 0C. Find the steady state temperature at
any point of the plate.

Solution
e
The temperature function u (x,y) is given by the equation
2u 2u
---------- + ---------- = 0 --------------- (1)
x 2
y 2

The solution is
u (x,y) = (A cosx + B sinx) (Cey + De-y) ---------------- (2)

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The boundary conditions are

(i) u (0, y) = 0, for 0 < y < 

(ii) u (10, y) = 0, for 0 < y < 
(iii) u (x, ) = 0, for 0 < x < 10
(iv) u (x, 0) = 20 x, if 0<x < 5

ww
20 (10-x), if 5 < x < 10
Using conditions (i), (ii), we get

w.E
A = 0 &  = ---------
n

asy
Equation (2) becomes
10

E nx
u (x,y) = B sin ------ Ce
(ny / 10)
+ De ngi
(- ny/10)

10
nee
= B1e
(ny / 10)
+ D1 e
(- ny/10) nx
sin --------- rin where B1 = BC,
D1 = BD

The most general solution is

10
g.n

u (x,y) =  Bne
(ny / 10)
+ Dn e
(- ny/10) nx
sin ---------
e ------------ (3)
n =1 10
Using condition (iii), we get Bn= 0.

 Equation (3) becomes

 (- ny/10) nx
u (x,y) =  Dne sin --------- ------------ (4)
n =1 10
Using condition (iv), we get

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 nx
u (x,0) =  Dn. sin --------- ------------ (5)
n =1 10

The RHS of equation (5) is a half range Fourier sine series of the LHS function

2 10 nx
Dn = --------  f (x) sin -------- dx
10 0 10

ww 2
nx
- cos ----------
10
nx
- sin ----------
10
5

w.E = ------
10
(20x) ------------------- – (20) ----------------------
n
--------
n22
-------

asy 10 100 0

E nx

ngi
- cos ----------
10
nx
- sin ----------
10
+ [20 (10–x)] ------------------- – (-20) ----------------------
10

n
-------- nee n22
-------
10
rin 100 5

n
800 sin --------
g.n
i.e,
2
Dn = -------------------------

Substituting in (4) we get,

n22 e
n
800 sin --------
 2 (-ny / 10) nx
u (x,y) =  ------------------------- e sin ----------
n =1
n22 10

Example 15
A rectangular plate is bounded by the lines x = 0, x = a, y = 0 & y = b.
The edge temperatures are u (0,y) = 0, u (x,b) = 0, u (a,y) = 0 &

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u (x,0) = 5 sin (5x / a) + 3 sin (3x / a). Find the steady state temperature distribution at
any point of the plate.

The temperature function u (x,y) satisfies the equation

2u 2u
---------- + ------------ = 0 ---------- (1)
x2 y2

Let the solution of equation (1) be

u (x,y) = (A cosx + Bsinx) (Cey + De - y) ------------ (2)

ww
The boundary conditions are
(i) u (0,y) = 0, for 0 < y < b

w.E
(ii) u (a,y) = 0,
(iii) u (x, b) = 0,
for 0 < y < b
for 0 < x < a
(iv) u (x,0) = 5 sin (5x / a) + 3 sin (3x / a), for 0 < x < a.

asy
x=0
E y y=b

x=a
ngi
nee
O y =0 x
rin
Using conditions (i), (ii), we get
n g.n
A = 0,  = ---------
a e
nx (ny / a) (-ny / a)
u (x,y) = B sin -------- Ce + De
a

nx (ny / a) (-ny / a)

= sin -------- B1e + D1e
a
The most general solution is

 (ny / a) (-ny / a) nx

u (x,y) =  Bne + Dn e sin ----------- -------(3)
n=1 a

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Using condition (iii) we get

 (nb / a) (-nb / a) nx

0 =  Bne + Dn e sin -----------
n=1
a

(nb / a) (-nb / a)
==> Bne + Dn e =0

e (nb / a)
 ---------------- = - Bne(2nb / a)

ww Dn = Bn
-e (-nb / a)


w.E
Substituting in (3), we get
nx
u (x,y) =  Bne (ny / a) - Bne (2nb / a) e (-ny / a) sin -------------
n=1

asy a

 Bn
E nx
=  ----------- e(ny / a) e(-nb / a)  e (2nb / a) e (-ny / a) e(-nb / a) sin -------
n=1 (-nb)/a
e
ngi a

2 Bn e(n (y-b) / a) - e(-n (y-b) / a) nx nee

=
e(-nb / a) 2
sin
a
rin
2Bn n (y–b) nx
=  --------------- sin h --------------- sin -----------
g.n
e(-nb / a)


a

n (y –b) nx
a
e
i.e, u (x,y) =  Cn sin h ---------- sin ------ ----------- (4)
n=1
a a

Using condition (iv), we get

5x 3x  n (-b) nx

5 sin -------- + 3 sin --------- =  Cn sin h ------- sin ------
n=1
a a a a

5x 3x  nb nx

ie, 5 sin -------- + 3 sin --------- =  - Cn sin h ------ sin -------
a a n=1 a a

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

5x 3x b x 2b 2x

ie, 5 sin ------ + 3 sin ------- = - C1 sinh ------ sin ------ - C2 sin h------ sin ------ - …
a a a a a a

Comparing the like coefficients on both sides, we get

3b
- C3 sinh ------------ = 3 &

ww 5b
- C5 sinh ------------ = 5, C1 = C2 = C4 = C6 = . . . = 0

w.E -3
a

-5

asy
==> C3 = ---------------- & C5 = ----------------
sinh (3b /a)
Substituting in (4), we get
sinh(5b/ a )

u (x,y) = -
E 3 3 (y-b)
ngi
------------- sin h -----------
3x
sin ----------
sinh(3b / a) a
nee a

5 5 (y-b) 5x

rin
 ------------ sin h ---------- sin -----------
sinh(5b / a) a a
g.n
i.e,
3 3 (b-y) 3x
u (x,y) = ------------- sin h ----------- sin ----------
sinh(3b / a) a a
e
5 5 (b-y) 5x
+ --------------- sin h ----------- sin ------
sinh(5b / a) a a

Exercises
2u 2u
(1) Solve the Laplace equation + = 0 , subject to the conditions
x 2
y2

i. u(0,y) = 0 for 0  y  b

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ii. u(a,y) = 0 for 0  y  b

iii. u(x,b) = 0 for 0  x  a
iv. u(x,0) = sin3(x/ a) ,0  x  a.
(2) Find the steady temperature distribution at points in a rectangular plate with insulated
faces and the edges of the plate being the lines x = 0, x = a, y = 0 and y = b. When three
of the edges are kept at temperature zero and the fourth at a fixed temperature o C.

2u 2u
(3) Solve the Laplace equation + = 0 , which satisfies the conditions
x2 y2
u(0,y) = u(l,y) = u(x,0) = 0 and u(x,a) = sin(nx/ l).

ww
(4) Solve the Laplace equation
2u

x
2
+
2u

y2
= 0 , which satisfies the conditions

w.E
u(0,y) = u(a,y) = u(x,b) = 0 and u(x,0) = x (a – x ).

(5) Solve the Laplace equation

2u
+
2u
= 0 , subject to the conditions

i. asy x 2
y 2

u(0,y) = 0, 0  y  l ii. u(l,y) = 0, 0  y  l

E
iii. u(x,0) = 0, 0  x  l iv. u(x,l) = f(x), 0  x  l

ngi
(6) A square plate is bounded by the lines x = 0, y = 0, x = 20 and y = 20. Its faces are
insulated.

nee
The temperature along the upper horizontal edge is given by u(x,0) = x (20 – x), when 0 
x 20,

rin
while other three edges are kept at 0o C. Find the steady state temperature in the plate.

g.n
(7) An infinite long plate is bounded plate by two parallel edges and an end at right
angles to them.The breadth is . This end is maintained at a constant temperature „u0‟ at

any point (x,y) of the plate.

e
all points and the other edges are at zero temperature. Find the steady state temperature at

(8) An infinitely long uniform plate is bounded by two parallel edges x = 0 and x = l, and
an end at right angles to them. The breadth of this edge y = 0 is „l‟ and is maintained at a
temperature f(x). All the other three edges are at temperature zero. Find the steady state
temperature at any interior point of the plate.

(9) A rectangular plate with insulated surface is 8 cm. wide and so long compared to its
width that it may be considered infinite in length without introducing an appreciable
error. If the temperature along one short edge y = 0 is given by u(x,0) = 100 sin(x/ 8), 0
 x  8, while the two long edges x = 0 and x = 8 as well as the other short edge are kept
at 0o C, show that the steady state temperature at any point of the plane is given by u(x,y)
= 100 e-y/ 8 sin x/ 8 .

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(10) A rectangular plate with insulated surface is 10 cm. wide and so long compared to
its width that it may be considered infinite length. If the temperature along short edge y =
0 is given
u(x,0) = 8 sin(x/ 10) when 0  x  10, while the two long edges x = 0 and x = 10 as
well as the other short edge are kept at 0o C, find the steady state temperature distribution
u(x,y).

ww
w.E
asy
E ngi
nee
rin
g.n
e

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UNIT-IV

FOURIER TRANSFORMS

4.1 Introduction
This unit starts with integral transforms and presents three well-known integral
transforms, namely, Complex Fourier transform, Fourier sine transform, Fourier cosine
transform and their inverse transforms. The concept of Fourier transforms will be
introduced after deriving the Fourier Integral Theorem. The various properties of these
transforms and many solved examples are provided in this chapter. Moreover, the
applications of Fourier Transforms in partial differential equations are many and are not
included here because it is a wide area and beyond the scope of the book.

ww
4.2 Integral Transforms

w.E ~
The integral transform f(s) of a function f(x) is defined by

asy
~ b
f(s) =  f(x) K(s,x) dx,
a

E ngi
if the integral exists and is denoted by I{f(x)}. Here, K(s,x) is called the kernel of the
transform. The kernel is a known function of „s‟ and „x‟. The function f(x) is called the
inverse transform
~
nee
rin
of f(s). By properly selecting the kernel in the definition of general integral transform,
we get various integral transforms.

The following are some of the well-known transforms:

g.n
(i) Laplace Transform
L{f(x)} =  f(x) e – sx dx
e
0
(ii) Fourier Transform

1 
F{f(x)} =  f(x) eisx dx
2 -

(iii) Mellin Transform


M{f(x)} =  f(x) x s-1 dx
0

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(iv) Hankel Transform


Hn{f(x)} =  f(x) x Jn(sx) dx,
0

where Jn(sx) is the Bessel function of the first kind and order „n‟.

4.3 FOURIER INTEGRAL THEOREM

If f(x) is defined in the interval (-ℓ,ℓ), and the following conditions

ww (i) f(x) satisfies the Dirichlet‟s conditions in every interval (-ℓ,ℓ),



w.E
(ii)   f(x)  dx converges, i.e. f(x) is absolutely integrable in (-,)
-

 

asy
are true, then f(x) = (1∕)   f(t) cos(t-x) dt d.
0 -

so that, we have
E
Consider a function f(x) which satisfies the Dirichlet‟s conditions in every interval (-ℓ,ℓ)

a0 
f(x) = ----- + 
nx
ngi
nx
an cos ---- + bn sin ---- -------(1)
2 n=1 ℓ ℓ
nee
where a0
1 ℓ
= -----  f(t) dt rin
ℓ -ℓ
g.n
1 ℓ
an = -----  f(t) cos (nt / ℓ ) dt
ℓ -ℓ e
1 ℓ
and bn = -----  f(t) sin (nt / ℓ ) dt
ℓ -ℓ
Substituting the values of a0, an and bn in (1), we get

1 ℓ 1  ℓ n(t – x)
f(x) = -----  f(t) dt + ---   f(t) cos ----------- dt -------(2)
2ℓ -ℓ ℓ n=1 -ℓ ℓ

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Since, 1 ℓ 1 ℓ
-----  f(t) dt  -----   f(t) dt ,
2ℓ -ℓ 2ℓ -ℓ
then by assumption (ii), the first term on the right side of (2) approaches zero as ℓ  .
As ℓ  , the second term on the right side of (2) becomes

1   n(t – x)
ℓim ---   f(t) cos ----------- dt
ℓ   ℓ n=1 - ℓ

1  
= ℓim ---    f(t) cos { n  (t – x) } dt ,on taking (∕ℓ) =

ww
.
0  n=1 -

w.E
By the definition of integral as the limit of sum and (n∕ℓ ) =  as ℓ   , the second
term of (2) takes the form

asy 1  
---   f(t) cos  (t – x) dt d ,
 0 -

E
Hence as ℓ  , (2) becomes
1   ngi
f(x) = ---   f(t) cos  (t – x) dt d
 0 - nee
---------(3)

which is known as the Fourier integral of f(x).

rin
Note:
g.n
When f(x) satisfies the conditions stated above, equation (3) holds good at a point

f(x-0)] as in the case of Fourier series.

Fourier sine and cosine Integrals

e
of continuity. But at a point of discontinuity, the value of the integral is (1/ 2) [f(x+0) +

The Fourier integral of f(x) is given by

1  
f(x) = ---   f(t) cos (t – x) dt d
 0 -

1  
= ---   f(t) { cost . cosx + sint . sinx } dt d
 0 -

1   1  

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= ---  cosx  f(t) cost dt d +  sinx  f(t) sint dt d ----(4)

- -
 0  0

When f(x) is an odd function, f(t) cost is odd while f(t) sint is even. Then the first
integral of (4) vanishes and, we get

2  
f(x) =  sinx  f(t) sint dt d -------(5)
-
 0

which is known as the Fourier sine integral.

ww
Similarly, when f(x) is an even function, (4) takes the form

2  

w.E
f(x) =
 0
 cosx  f(t) cost dt d
-
-------(6)

asy
which is known as the Fourier cosine integral.

E
Complex form of Fourier Integrals

The Fourier integral of f(x) is given by ngi

1   nee
f(x) = ---   f(t) cos (t – x) dt d
 0 -
rin
1   g.n
= ---
 -
 f(t)
0
 cos (t – x) d dt
e
Since cos (t – x) is an even function of , we have by the property of definite integrals

1  
f(x) = ---  f(t) (1/ 2)  cos (t – x) d dt
 - -

1  
i.e., f(x) = ---   f(t) cos (t – x) dt d ---------(7)
2 - -
Similarly, since sin (t – x) is an odd function of , we have

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 
0 = ---   f(t) sin (t – x) dt d ---------(8)
2 - -
Multiplying (8) by „i ‟ and adding to (7), we get

1  
f(x) = ---   f(t) ei(t – x) dt d ---------(9)
- -
2

which is the complex form of the Fourier integral.

4.4 Fourier Transforms and its properties

ww
Fourier Transform

w.E
We know that the complex form of Fourier integral is

asy
f(x) =
2
1
-

 
 f(t) ei(t-x) dt d.
-

E
Replacing  by s, we get

1   ngi
f(x) =
2 -
 e- isx ds  f(t) eist dt .
-
nee
It follows that if
rin
g.n
1 
F(s) =  f(t) eist dt --------------- (1)
2 -

Then, f(x) =
1 
 F(s) e-isx ds --------------- (2)
e
2 -

The function F(s), defined by (1), is called the Fourier Transform of f(x). The function
f(x), as given by (2), is called the inverse Fourier Transform of F(s). The equation (2)
is also referred to as the inversion formula.

Properties of Fourier Transforms

(1) Linearity Property

If F(s) and G(s) are Fourier Transforms of f(x) and g(x) respectively, then

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F{a f(x) + bg(x)} = a F(s) + bG(s),

where a and b are constants.

1 
We have F(s) =  eisx f(x) dx
2 - 
1 
G(s) =  eisx g(x) dx
2 - 
Therefore,
1 

ww F{a f(x) + b g(x)} =

2 - 
1 
 eisx {a f(x) + bg(x)}dx

1 

w.E = a
2 - 
 e f(x) dx + b
isx

2 - 
 eisx g(x) dx

asy = a F(s) + bG(s)

E
i.e, F{a f(x) + bg(x)} = a F(s) + bG(s)

(2) Shifting Property ngi

(i) nee
If F(s) is the complex Fourier Transform of f(x), then

F{f(x-a)} = eisa F(s).

rin
1 
g.n
 eisx f(x) dx ----------------( i )

e
We have F(s) =
2 - 


1
Now, F{f(x-a)} =  eisx f(x-a) dx
2 - 
Putting x-a = t, we have

1 
F{f(x-a)} =  eis(t+a) f(t) dt .
2 - 
1 
=eias
 eist f(t) dt .
2 - 

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= eias . F(s). ( by (i) ).

(ii) If F(s) is the complex Fourier Transform of f(x), then

F{eiax f(x) } = F(s+a).
1 
We have F(s) =  eisx f(x) dx ----------------( i )
2 - 

 1
Now, F{e iax
f(x)} =  eisx .eiax f(x) dx.
2 - 

ww =
1 

2 - 
 ei(s+a)x. f(x) dx .

w.E = F(s+a) by (i) .

asy
(3) Change of scale property

E
If F(s) is the complex Fourier transform of f(x), then

F{f(ax)} =1/a F(s/a), a  0.

ngi
 1 nee
We have F(s) =  eisx f(x) dx ----------------( i )
2 -  rin
 1 g.n
Now, F{f(ax)} =  eisx f(ax) dx.
2 - 

Put ax = t, so that dx = dt/a.

e
1
F{f(ax)} =  e ist/a .f(t) dt/a .
2 - 

1 1 
= .  ei(s/a)t f(t) dt .
a 2 - 

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= . F(s/a). ( by (i) ).
a

(4) Modulation theorem.

If F(s) is the complex Fourier transform of f(x),

Then F{f(x) cosax} = ½{F(s+a) + F(s-a)}.

 1
We have F(s) =  eisx f(x) dx
2 - 

ww
Now, F{f(x) cosax} =
1 
 eisx .f(x) cosax. dx.

w.E 2 - 

asy =


2 - 
1
 eisx. f(x)
eiax + e-iax
dx .

E 1 1 
2

ngi 1 
=
2 2 - 
 ei(s+a)x

nee
.f(x) dx +  ei(s-a)x f(x) dx
2 -

rin
=
1

2
{ F(s+a) + F(s-a)}
g.n
e
(5) nth derivative of the Fourier Transform

If F(s) is the complex Fourier Transform of f(x),

Then F{xn f(x)} = (-i)n dn/dsn .F(s).

1 
We have F(s) =  eisx f(x) dx ------------------- (i)
2 - 

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Differentiating (i) „n‟ times w.r.t „s‟, we get

dn F(s) 1
=  (ix)n. eisx f(x) dx
dsn 2 - 

(i)n 
=  eisx {xn f(x)} dx
2 -

= ( i )n F{xn f(x)}.

ww  F{x f(x)} =
n
1
.
dn F(s)

w.E (i)n dsn

dn

asy n
i.e, F{x f(x)} = (-i) n

ds n
F(s).

E
(6) Fourier Transform of the derivatives of a function.

If F(s) is the complex Fourier Transform of f(x), ngi

Then, F{f „(x)} = -is F(s) if f(x)  0 as x   . nee
1 
 eisx f(x) dx . rin
We have F(s) =
2 - 
g.n
Now, F{f „(x)} =
 1
 eisx f „(x) dx.
2 - 
e

1
=  eisx d{f (x)}.
2 - 

1 
= e .f(x) - is  f(x). eisx dx.
isx

2 - -

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1
= - is  eisx f(x) dx , provided f(x) = 0
2 -  as x    .

= - is F(s).

i.e, F{f ‟(x)} = - is F(s) ---------------------( i )

Then the Fourier Transform of f  (x),

1 
i.e, F{f (x)} =  eisx f (x) dx.

ww 2 - 

1

w.E =
2 - 
 eisx d{f ‟(x)}.

asy 1  

E =
2


e .f „(x) -  f „(x). eisx .(is)dx.
isx

ngi
- -

= - is
1

2 -  nee
 eisx f „(x) dx , provided f „(x) = 0
as x    .

= - is F{f „(x).} rin

= (-is).(-is)F(s). by( i ). g.n
= (-is)2 . F(s).

i.e, F{f “(x)} = (- is)2 .F(s) , Provided f , f‟ 0

e
as x   .
In general, the Fourier transform of the nth derivative of f(x) is given by

F{f n(x)} = (-is)n F(s),

provided the first „n-1‟ derivatives vanish as x  .

Property (7)
x F(s)
If F(s) is the complex Fourier Transform of f(x), then F  f(x)dx =
a (-is)

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

x
Let g(x) =  f(x) dx .
a

Then, g‟(x) = f(x). ------------( i )

Now f [g„(x)] = (-is) G(s), by property (6).

= (-is). F{g(x)}
x
= (-is). F  f(x) dx .
a
x

ww i.e, F{g‟(x)} = (-is). F

a
 f(x) dx .

w.Ex 1

a
asy
i.e, F  f(x) dx =
(-is)
. F{g‟(x)}.

E =
1

(-is)
F{f (x)}.
ngi[ by ( i )]

x
Thus, F  f(x) dx =
F(s)
.
nee
a (-is)
rin
Property (8) g.n
If F(s) is the complex Fourier transform of f(x),

Then, F{f(-x)} = F(s), where bar denotes complex conjugate.
e
Proof
 1  
F(s) =  f(x) e-isx dx .
2 -

Putting x = -t, we get

 1  
F(s) =  f(-t) eisx dt .
2 -

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
= F{f(-x)} .

Note: If F{f(x)} = F(s), then

(i) F{f(-x)} = F(-s).


(ii) F{f(x)} = F(-s).

Example 1

Find the F.T of f(x) defined by

f(x) = 0 x<a

ww = 1 a<x<b
=0 x>b.

w.E
The F.T of f(x) is given by

F{f (x)} =
1 
 eisx f (x) dx.

asy 2 - 

1 b

E =
2 a
 eisx .dx .

ngi
=
1

2
eisx b
nee
rin
is a

1 eibs – eias
=
2
.
is g.n
Example 2

Find the F.T of f(x) = x for  x   a

e
= 0 for  x  > a.

1
F{f (x)} =  eisx f (x) dx.
2 - 

1 a
=  eisx .x.dx.
2 -a

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1 a eisx
=  x .d
2 -a is
a
1 xeisx eisx
= -
2 is (is)2
-a

1 aeisa eisa ae-isa e-isa

= - + +
2 is (is) 2
is (is)2

ww 1 a 1

w.E =
2 is
isa
(e + e -isa
)+
s2
(eisa - e-isa )

asy
E =
1

2
-2ai

s
ngi
cossa +
s
2i
2
sinsa

=
2i
.
1
[sinsa - as cossa]. nee
2
rin
2
s
i [sinsa - as cossa]
= (2/)
s2
g.n
Example 3
e
Find the F.T of f(x) = eiax , 0 < x < 1

= 0 otherwise

The F.T of f(x) is given by

1 
F{f (x)} =  eisx f (x) dx.
2 - 

1 1
=  eisx . eiax dx.

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2 0

11
=  ei(s+a)x .dx .
2 0

1 ei(s+a)x 1
=
2 i(s+a) 0

1
{ei(s+a)x -1}

ww
=
i2.(s+a)

w.E =
2.(s+a)
i
{1- ei(s+a)}

Example 4 asy
Find the F.T of e
E
2 2
-a x

The F.T of f(x) is given by

, a>0 and hence deduce that the F.T of e

ngi
2
-x / 2
is e
2
-s / 2
.

F{f (x)} =
 1
 eisx f (x) dx.
2 - 
nee
 22 rin
F e-a
2x 2
=
1
 e –a x . eisx .dx.
2 - g.n
e
2
-s / 4a
2

 2
e
=  e-[ax – (is/2a)] dx .
2 -
2 2
 2
e-s / 4a
=  e-t dt, by putting ax –(is/2a) = t
a2 -
2 2
e-s / 4a
 2
= .  , since  e-t dt =  (using Gamma functions).
a2 -

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

1 2 2
= e-s / 4a . ----------------(i)
2.a
2
To find F{e-x /2
}

Putting a = 1/ 2 in (1), we get

2 2
F{e-x /2
} = e-s /2
.

Note:
If the F.T of f(x) is f(s), the function f(x) is called self-reciprocal. In the above

ww
example e -x
2
/2
is self-reciprocal under F.T.

Example 5
w.E
Find the F.T of

asy
f(x) = 1 for x<1.
= 0 for x>1.

Hence evaluate E 
 sinx
0
x
dx.
ngi
The F.T of f(x),
1
 eisx f (x) dx.
nee
rin
i.e., F{f (x)} =
2 - 

=
1 1
 eisx .(1).dx . g.n
=
2 -1

1 eisx
1 e
2 is -1

1 eis – e -is
= .
2 is
sins
=(2/) , s≠0
s
sins
Thus, F{f(x)}= F(s) =(2/). , s≠0

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

s
Now by the inversion formula , we get

1 
f(x) =  f(s). e-isx .ds.
2 - 

 sins 1 for x<1

or =  (2/) . e-isx .ds.=
- s 0 for x>1.

ww i.e,
1

 -
 sins

s
e-isx . ds.=
1 for x<1

0 for x>1.

w.E
Putting x = 0, we get

asy 1  sins
 ds = 1

E  -

2
s

 sins

ngi
i.e,
 0 s
nee
ds = 1, since the integrand is even.




sins
ds =

rin
0 s 2
g.n
Exercises
0
 sinx
Hence, 
x
dx =


2
e
(1) Find the Fourier transform of
1 for x<a
f(x) =
0 for x>a.

(2) Find the Fourier transform of

x2 for xa
f(x) =
0 for x>a.

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

(3) Find the Fourier transform of

a2 – x2 , x<a
f(x) =
0, x >a>0.

Hence deduce that  sint - tcost 

 dt =
- t3 4

(4) Find the Fourier transform of e-ax and x e-ax. Also deduce that
 cosxt 
ww 
- a2 + t2
dt =
2a
e-ax

w.E
{Hint : F{x. e -ax
}= -i
d
F{ e-ax}}

asy ds

E
4.5 Convolution Theorem and Parseval’s identity.

ngi
The convolution of two functions f(x) and g(x) is defined as
1 
f(x) * g(x) =
2 -
 f(t). g(x-t). dt.
nee
Convolution Theorem for Fourier Transforms. rin
g.n
The Fourier Transform of the convolution of f(x) and g(x) is the product of their

e
Fourier Transforms,

i.e, F{f(x) * g(x)} = F{f(x).F{g(x)}.

Proof:

F{f(x) * g(x)} = F{(f*g)x)}

1 
=  (f *g)(x). eisx . dx.
2 - 

1  1 
=   f(t). g(x-t). dt eisx dx .
2 - 2 -

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1 1 
=  f(t)  g(x-t). eisx dx . dt.
2 - 2 -
(by changing the order of integration).
1 
=  f (t).F{g(x-t)}. dt.
2 - 

1 
=  f(t). eits .G(s). dt. (by shifting property)
2 - 

ww = G(s).

1

2 - 
 f(t). eist dt.

w.E = F(s).G(s).

asy
Hence, F{f(x) * g(x)} = F{f(x).F{g(x)}.

E
Parseval’s identity for Fourier Transforms
ngi
nee
If F(s) is the F.T of f(x), then
 
 f(x) dx =  F(s)2 ds.
2

Proof:
- -
rin
By convolution theorem, we have g.n
F{f(x) * g(x)} = F(s).G(s).

Therefore, (f*g) (x) = F-1{F(s).G(s)}.

e
 1 1 
i.e,  f(t). g(x-t). dt =  F(s).G(s).e-isx ds. ----------(1)
2 - 2 -
(by using the inversion formula)
Putting x = 0 in (1) , we get

 
 f(t). g(-t). dt =  F(s).G(s).ds. ----------(2)

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-

 
Since (2) is true for all g(t), take g(t) = f(-t) and hence g(-t) = f(t) ---------(3)

Also, G(s) = F{g(t)}


= F{f(-t)}

= F(s) ----------------(4) (by the property of F.T).

Using (3) & (4) in (2), we have

  

ww

 f(t).f(t). dt =  F(s).F(s).ds.
- -


w.E 
  f(t) dt =  F(s)2 ds.
2

-


asy -

- E
i.e,  f(x)2 dx =  F(s)2 ds.
-
ngi
Example 6 nee
Find the F.T of f (x) = 1-x for x   1.
rin
=0

for x > 1
g.n
and hence find the value  sin4t dt.
0 t4 e
1 1
Here, F{f(x)}=  (1- x )eisx dx.
2 -1

1 1
=  (1- x) (cossx + i sinsx) dx.
2 -1

1 1 i 1
=  (1- x) cossx dx.+ (1- x) sinsx dx.
2 -1 2 -1

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

1 1
= 2  (1- x) cossx dx. by the property of definite integral.
2 0

1 sinsx
= (2/)  (1-x) d
0 s
1
sinsx cossx
= (2/) (1-x) -(-1) -
s s2

ww
0
1- coss
= (2/)

w.E
Using Parseval‟s identity, we get
s2

asy 2  1
 (1-coss) ds. = (1- x)2 dx.
2

E  -

4 
s4 -1

ngi 1

 0 s4 0 nee
 (1-coss)2 ds. = 2 (1- x)2 dx = 2/3.

16 
 sin4(s/2) ds. = 2/3. rin
i.e,
 0 s4
g.n
Setting s/2 = x , we get
e
16  sin4 x
 2.dx. = 2/3.
 0 16x4

 sin4 x
  dx. = /3.
0 x4

Example 7
Find the F.T of f(x) if

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1 for x<a
f(x) =
0 for x>a>0.


Using Parseval‟s identity, prove  sint 2
dt. = /2.
0 t

Here, 1
a
F{f(x)} =  eisx .(1) .dx .
2 -a

eisx

ww =
2
1

is
a

-a

w.E =
1 eisa – eisa

asy 2 is

E = (2/)
sinas

s
ngi
i.e., F(s) = (2/)
sinas
. nee
Using Parseval‟s identity
s

rin
  g.n
-
  f (x)  2 dx =   F(s)  2 ds,
- e
we have
a  sinas 2

 1 . dx =  (2/) ds.
-a - s

 sinas 2

2a = (2/)  ds.
- s

Setting as = t, we get

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

 sint 2

(2/)  dt/a = 2a
- ( t/a)

 sint 2

i.e.,  dt = 
- t

 sint 2

 2  dt = 
0 t

ww Hence,
0


sint

t
2

dt =  / 2.

w.E
4.6 Fourier sine and cosine transforms:

asy
Fourier sine Transform

2
E
We know that the Fourier sine integral is

  ngi
f(x) =
 0
 sin x .  f(t) sint dt.d.
0
nee
Replacing  by s, we get
rin
f(x) =
2  
 sinsx .  f(t) sinst dt. ds. g.n


It follows that if
0 0

e

Fs(s) = (2/ )  f(t) sinst dt..
0


i.e., Fs(s) = (2/ )  f(x) sinsx dx. ------------(1)
0


then f(x) = (2/ )  Fs(s) sinsx ds. ------------(2)
0

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The function Fs(s), as defined by (1), is known as the Fourier sine transform of f(x).
Also the function f(x), as given by (2),is called the Inverse Fourier sine transform of
Fs(s) .

Fourier cosine transform

Similarly, it follows from the Fourier cosine integral

2  
f(x) =  cos x .  f(t) cost dt.d.
 0 0

ww
that if

Fc(s) = (2/ )  f(x) cossx dx. ------------(3)

w.E
0


then f(x) = (2/ )  Fc(s) cossx ds. ------------(4)

asy 0

E
The function Fc(s), as defined by (3), is known as the Fourier cosine transform of
f(x). Also the function f(x), as given by (4),is called the Inverse Fourier cosine
transform of Fc(s) .
ngi
Properties of Fourier sine and cosine Transforms
nee
If Fs(s) and Fc(s) are the Fourier sine and cosine transforms of f(x) respectively, the
following properties and identities are true.
rin
(1) Linearity property
g.n
Fs [a f(x) + b g(x) ] = a Fs { f(x) } + b Fs { g(x) }.

and Fc [a f(x) + b g(x) ] = a Fc { f(x) } + b Fc { g(x) }.

(2) Change of scale property
e
Fs [ f(ax) ] = (1/a) Fs [ s/a ].

and Fc [ f(ax) ] = (1/a) Fc [ s/a ].

(3) Modulation Theorem

i. Fs [ f(x) sinax ] = (1/2) [ Fc (s-a) - Fc (s+a)].

ii. Fs [ f(x) cosax ] = (1/2) [ Fs (s+a) + Fs (s-a)].

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

iii. Fc[ f(x) cosax ] = (1/2) [ Fc (s+a) + Fc (s-a) ].

iv. Fc[ f(x) sinax ] = (1/2) [ Fs (s+a) - Fs (s-a) ].

Proof

The Fourier sine transform of f(x)sinax is given by


Fs [ f(x) sinax ] =(2/ )  (f(x) sinax) sinsx dx.
0

ww 
= (1/2) (2/ )  f(x) [cos(s-a)x – cos(s+a)x] dx.

w.E
0

= (1/2) [ Fc (s-a) – Fc (s+a) ].

asy
Similarly, we can prove the results (ii), (iii) & (iv).


E
(4) Parseval’s identity

 ngi
0
 Fc(s) Gc(s) ds =  f(x) g(x) dx .
0
nee

 Fs(s) Gs(s) ds =  f(x) g(x) dx .

rin
0

 
0

g.n
0



Fc(s) 2
ds =  f(x)
0


2
dx .
e
 Fs(s) 2
ds =  f(x) 2
dx .
0 0

Proof
  
 Fc(s) Gc(s) ds =  Fc(s) [(2/ )  g(t) cosst dt] ds
0 0 0

 
=  g(t) [(2/ )  Fc(s) cosst ds] dt
0 0


=  g(t) f(t) dt

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 
i.e.,  Fc(s) Gc(s) ds =  f(x) g(x) dx .
0 0

Similarly, we can prove the second identity and the other identities follow by setting
g(x) = f(x) in the first identity.

Property (5)
If Fs(s) and Fc(s) are the Fourier sine and cosine transforms of f(x) respectively, then

d
(i) Fs{ x f(x) } = - Fc(s) .
ds

ww
(ii) Fc{ x f(x) } = -
d
Fs(s) .

Proof
w.E ds

The Fourier cosine transform of f(x),

i.e.,
asy 
Fc(s) = (2/ )  f(x) cossx dx.
0

d
E
Differentiating w.r.t s, we get

 ngi
ds
[ Fc(s) ] = (2/ )  f(x) {- x sin sx } dx.
0
nee

= - (2/ )  ( x f(x)) sin sx dx.
0
rin
= - Fs{x f(x)}
d g.n
i.e., Fs{x f(x)} = -

Similarly, we can prove

ds

d
{ Fc(s) }
e
Fc{x f(x)} = - { Fs(s) }
ds
Example 8

Find the Fourier sine and cosine transforms of e-ax and hence deduce the inversion
formula.

The Fourier sine transform of f(x) is given by


Fs { f(x) } = (2/ )  f(x) sinsx dx.
0

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne


Now , -ax
Fs { e } = (2/ )  e-ax sinsx dx.
0

e-ax ( - a sinsx – s cossx)
= (2/ )
a2 + s2
0

s
= (2/ ) , if a>0
2 2
a +s
The Fourier cosine transform of f(x) is given by

Fc { f(x) } = (2/ )  f(x) cossx dx.
ww 0


Now ,
w.E
Fc { e -ax
} = (2/ )  e-ax cossx dx.
0

-ax


asy = (2/ )
e ( - a cossx + s sinsx)

a2 + s2

E
0

= (2/ )
2
a +s
a
2 ngi , if a>0

Example 9
x, for 0<x<1 nee
Find the Fourier cosine transform of f(x) = 2 – x, for 1<x<2
0, for x>2
rin
The Fourier cosine transform of f(x), g.n
1
1
i.e., Fc { f(x) } = (2/ )0  x cossx dx. + (2/ )1  (2 - x ) cossx dx.
sinsx
e 2
2

sinsx
= (2/ )  x d + (2/ )  ( 2 – x) d
0 1
s s
1

sinsx cossx
= (2/ ) x  (1) -
s s2
0
2

sinsx cossx
+ (2/ ) (2 – x)  ( - 1) + -
s s2

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sins coss 1
= (2/ ) + -
s s2 s2
cos2s sins coss
+ - - +
s2 s s2

2 coss cos2s 1
= (2/ ) - -
s2 s2 s2

ww
Example 10
 x sinmx e-m

m>0.
w.E
Find the Fourier sine transform of e- x . Hence show that

The Fourier sine transform of f(x) is given by

0

1+x 2
dx =
2
,

asy 
Fs { f(x) } = (2/ )  f(x) sinsx dx.
0

E 
= (2/ )  e-x sinsx dx.
0
ngi
= (2/ )
e-x ( - sinsx – s cossx) nee 

1 + s2
rin 0

= (2/ ) .
s
g.n
1 + s2
Using inversion formula for Fourier sine transforms, we get e
 s
(2/ )  (2/ ) sin sx ds. = e-x
0 2
1+s

Replacing x by m,

 s sinms
e -m
= (2/ )  ds
0
1 + s2

 x sinmx

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= (2/ )  dx
0
1 + x2

 x sinmx e-m
Hence,  dx =
0 2
1+x 2
Example 11
x 1
Find the Fourier sine transform of and the Fourier cosine transform of .
a2+x2 a2+x2
x

ww
To find the Fourier sine transform of
2
a +x 2
,

w.E
We have to find Fs { e-ax }.

Consider,
asy
Fs { e-ax } = (2/ )  e-ax sin sx dx.
0


E = (2/ )
ngi
s

a2 + s2
.

Using inversion formula for Fourier sine transforms, we get

s
nee
rin

e -ax
= (2/ )  (2/ ) sinsx ds.
0
a2 + s2

 s sinsx e-ax g.n

i.e.,

Changing x by s, we get
0

s2 + a2

x sinsx
ds =

e-as
2
, a>0
e

 dx = ------------(1)
0 2 2
x +a 2

x  x
Now Fs = (2/ )  sinsx dx
2 2 0 2 2
x +a x +a

e-as
. = (2/ ) , using (1)
2

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= (/2) e-as
1
Similarly,for finding the Fourier cosine transform of , we have to findFc{e-ax}.
2 2
a +x


Consider , Fc{ e-ax } = (2/ )  e-ax cossx dx.
0

a
= (2/ )

ww
.
a2 + s2
Using inversion formula for Fourier cosine transforms, we get

w.E 0

e-ax = (2/ )  (2/ )
2
a

a +s 2
cossx ds.

asy 

cossx e-ax
i.e.,

E
Changing x by s, we get
0


s2 + a2

cossx
ds =

ngi
2a

e-as

0
x2 + a2
dx =
2a nee
------------(2)

1
= (2/ ) 
 1
rin
Now, Fc
x2 + a2 0

e-as
x2 + a2
cossx dx
g.n
. = (2/ )
2a
, using (2)
e
e-as
= (/2)
a

Example 12
2 2
Find the Fourier cosine transform of e-a x
and hence evaluate the Fourier sine transform
2 2
-a x
of xe .
2 2

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

The Fourier cosine transform of e-a x

is given by

2 2  2 2
Fc{e-a x
} = (2/ )  e -a x
cossx dx
0

 2 2
= Real part of (2/ )  e-a x
e isx dx
0

1 2 2
= Real part of e -s / 4a
. (Refer example (4) of section 4.4)
a .2.

ww =
1
e -s
2
/ 4a
2
. ----------------(i)

w.E a .2.

d
But ,
asy
Fs {x f(x)} = -
ds
Fc (s)

 Fs {x e-a
2 2
x E
} = -
d

ds
1

a 2
e -s
2
/ 4a
2

ngi , by (1)

1
e -s
2
/ 4a
2
( - s / 2a2).
nee
rin
= -
a 2

=
s
e -s
2 2
/ 4a
. g.n
Fc [ 1 / x ] = 1 / s
2 2. a3
e
and Fs [ 1 / x ] = 1 / s

This shows that 1 / x is self-reciprocal.

Example 13
 dx
Evaluate  using transform methods.
0
(a2 + x2)(b2 + x2)

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Let f(x) = e –ax , g(x) = e- bx


Then Fc{ s } = (2/ )  e-ax cossx dx.
0

a
= (2/ ) .
a2 + s2

b
Similarly, Gc{ s } = (2/ ) .
2 2
b +s
Now using Parseval‟s identity for Fourier cosine transforms,

ww
i.e.,

 Fc(s) . Gc(s) ds =  f(x) g(x)dx.


w.E
0 0

2  ab 
we have,  ds =  e–(a+b)x dx

asy 0
(a2 + s2)(b2 +s2)

e–(a+b)x
0

or
2ab




0 E ds

(a2 + s2)(b2 +s2)

=
–(a+b)


ngi
0

= 1 / ( a+b )
nee
Thus,


dx
=

rin
0
(a2 + x2)(b2 + x2) 2ab(a+b)
g.n
Example 14

Using Parseval‟s identity, evaluate the integrals

e
 dx  x2
0  and  dx if a > 0
(a2 + x2)2 0
(a2 + x2)2
Let f(x) = e-ax
s
Then Fs(s) = (2/ ) ,
a2 + s2
a
Fc(s) = (2/ )
a2 + s2

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Now, Using Parseval‟s identity for sine transforms,

 
i.e.,  Fs(s) 2
ds =  f(x) 2
dx .
0 0

 s2 
we get, (2/ )  ds =  e-2ax dx
0
(a2 + s2)2 0

 s2 e-2ax  1
or (2/ )  ds = =
0
(a2 + s2)2 -2a 0
2a

ww
Thus


x2
dx =

, if a > 0

w.E 0
(a2 + x2)2

Now, Using Parseval‟s identity for cosine transforms,

4a

i.e., asy

 Fc(s) 2
ds =  f(x)

2
dx .

E
0 0

we get, (2/ )
0


a2

(a2 + s2)2
ds =
ngi

 e-2ax dx
0

 ds 1 nee
(2a / ) 
rin
2
or =
0
(a2 + s2)2 2a

Thus ,
0


2
dx
2 2
=

3
, if a > 0
g.n
(a + x ) 4a

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Exercises
1. Find the Fourier sine transform of the function

ww f(x) = sin x , 0  x < a.

0 , x>a

formulaw.E
2. Find the Fourier cosine transform of e-x and hence deduce by using the inversion

 cos x dx 
asy

0 2
(1 + x )
=
2
e -

E
3. Find the Fourier cosine transform of e-axsin ax.

ngi
4. Find the Fourier cosine transform of e-2x + 3 e-x

5. Find the Fourier cosine transform of nee

(i) e-ax / x (ii) ( e-ax - e-bx ) / x
rin
6. Find, when n > 0
(i) Fs[xn-1] and (ii) Fc[xn-1]

g.n
Hint: e-ax xn-1dx =
(n)
,n>0,a>0

e
0 n
a

7. Find Fc[xe-ax] and Fs[xe-ax]

8. Show that the Fourier sine transform of 1 / (1 + x2) is (/2) e-s.

9. Show that the Fourier sine transform of x / (1 + x2) is (/2) e-s.

2
10. Show that x e-x / 2
is self reciprocal with respect to Fourier sine transform.

11. Using transform methods to evaluate

 dx
(i)  and
0
(x2+1)( x2+4)

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UNIT-V

Z – Transforms AND DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS

5.1 Introduction
The Z-transform plays a vital role in the field of communication Engineering and
control Engineering, especially in digital signal processing. Laplace transform and
Fourier transform are the most effective tools in the study of continuous time signals,
where as Z – transform is used in discrete time signal analysis. The application of Z –

ww
transform in discrete analysis is similar to that of the Laplace transform in continuous
systems. Moreover, Z-transform has many properties similar to those of the Laplace

w.E
transform. But, the main difference is Z-transform operates only on sequences of the
discrete integer-valued arguments. This chapter gives concrete ideas about Z-transforms
and their properties. The last section applies Z-transforms to the solution of difference

asy
equations.

Difference Equations E ngi

nee
Difference equations arise naturally in all situations in which sequential relation
exists at various discrete values of the independent variables. These equations may be

rin
thought of as the discrete counterparts of the differential equations. Z-transform is a very
useful tool to solve these equations.

g.n
A difference equation is a relation between the independent variable, the

and 3yn - 3yn - 2yn = cos n

e
dependent variable and the successive differences of the dependent variable.

For example, 2yn + 7yn + 12yn = n2 ----------- (i)

---------- (ii)

are difference equations.

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The differences yn, 2yn, etc can also be expressed as.

yn = yn+1 - yn,

2yn = yn+2 - 2yn+1 + yn.
3yn = yn+3 - 3yn+2 + 3yn+1 - yn and so on.

Substituting these in (i) and (ii), the equations take the form

2
yn+2 + 5yn+1 +6yn = n ----------- (iii)
and yn+3 - 3yn+2 = cos n ----------- (iv)
Note that the above equations are free of s.

ww
w.E
If a difference equation is written in the form free of s, then the order of the
difference equation is the difference between the highest and lowest subscripts of y‟s
occurring in it. For example, the order of equation (iii) is 2 and equation (iv) is 1.

asy
E ngi
The highest power of the ys in a difference equation is defined as its degree when
it is written in a form free of s. For example, the degree of the equations
yn+3 + 5yn+2 + yn = n2 + n + 1 is 3 and y3n+3 + 2yn+1 yn = 5 is 2.

nee
5.2 Linear Difference Equations
rin
A linear difference equation with constant coefficients is of the form g.n
a0 yn+r + a1 yn+r -1 + a2 yn+r -2 + . . . . +aryn = (n).

i.e., (a0Er + a1Er-1 + a2 Er-2 + . . . . + ar)yn = (n) ------(1)

e
where a0,a1, a2, . . . . . ar are constants and (n) are known functions of n.

The equation (1) can be expressed in symbolic form as

f(E) yn = (n) ----------(2)

If (n) is zero, then equation (2) reduces to

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f (E) yn = 0 ----------(3)

which is known as the homogeneous difference equation corresponding to (2).The

solution
of (2) consists of two parts, namely, the complementary function and the particular
integral.
The solution of equation (3) which involves as many arbitrary constants as the order of
the equation is called the complementary function. The particular integral is a
particular solution of equation(1) and it is a function of „n‟ without any arbitrary
constants.

Thus the complete solution of (1) is given by yn = C.F + P.I.

ww
Example 1

w.E
Form the difference equation for the Fibonacci sequence .

The integers 0,1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21, . . . are said to form a Fibonacci sequence.

asy
If yn be the nth term of this sequence, then

E
yn = yn-1 + yn-2 for n > 2

or yn+2 - yn+1 - yn = 0 for n > 0

ngi
5.3 Z - Transforms and its Properties
nee
Definition
rin
g.n
Let {fn} be a sequence defined for n = 0,1,2,…….,then its Z-transform F(z) is defined as

e

F(z) = Z{fn} =  fn z –n ,
n=0

whenever the series converges and it depends on the sequence {fn}.

The inverse Z-transform of F(z) is given by Z-1{F(z)} = {fn}.

Note: If {fn} is defined for n = 0, ± 1, ± 2, ……., then


F(z) = Z{fn} =  fn z –n , which is known as the two – sided Z- transform.
n=-

Properties of Z-Transforms
1. The Z-transform is linear.

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i.e, if F(z) = Z{fn} and G(z) = Z{gn}, then

Z{afn + bgn} = aF(z) + bG(z).

Proof:

Z{ afn + bgn} =  { afn + bgn} z-n (by definition)
n=0

 
= a  fn z + b gn z-n
-n
n=0 n=0

= aF(z) + b G(z)

ww
2. If Z{fn} = F(z), then Z{anfn} = F (z/a)

w.E
Proof: By definition, we have


asy
Z { anfn} =  an fn z-n
n=0

E 
=  fn (z/a)-n = F(z/a)
n=0

ngi
Corollary:

If Z{fn} = F (z), then Z{ a-nfn} = F(az).

nee
dF (z)
rin
g.n
3. Z{nfn} = -z ---------
dz

Proof

We have

F(z)=  fn z-n
n=0
e
Differentiating, we get

dF(z) 
------ =  fn (-n) z-n -1
n=0
dz
1 
= - -----  nfn z-n
z n=0
1
= - --- Z{nfn}
z

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dF (z)
Hence, Z{nfn} = -z ---------
dz

4. If Z{fn} = F(z), then

Z{fn+k}= zk{ F(z) – f0 – (f 1 / z ) - … - ( fk-1 / zk-1) } (k > 0)

Proof

Z { fn+k} =  fn+k z-n , by definition.

ww n=0

w.E =  fn+k z-n zk z-k

n=0

asy= z  fn+k z - (n+k)

k
n=0

E 
= zk  fm z-m , where m = n+k .
m=k

ngi
nee
= z {F(z) – f0 – (f1/z) - .. .. .. – ( fk-1 / z k-1) }
k

In Particular,

rin
g.n
(i) Z{f n+1} = z {F(z) - f0}

(ii) Z{f n+2}= z2 { F(z) – f0 – (f1/z) }

Corollary

If Z{fn} = F(z), then Z{fn–k} = z-k F(z).

e
(5) Initial value Theorem

If Z {fn} = F (z), then fo = ℓt F(z)

z-

Proof

We know that F (z) = f0 + f1 z-1 + f2z-2 + . . .

Taking limits as z   on both sides, we get

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ℓt F(z) = f0
z 

Similarly, we can find

f1 = ℓt { z [F(z) – f0]}; f2 = ℓt { z2 [F(z) – f0- f1z-1]} and so on.

z  z 

(6) Final value Theorem

If Z{fn} = F(z), then ℓt fn = ℓt (z-1) F(z)

n  z 1

Proof

ww
By definition, we have


w.E
Z {fn+1 – fn} =  {fn+1 – fn} z-n
n=0

asy
Z{fn+1} – Z{fn} =  {fn+1 – fn} z-n
n=0

E 

ie, z {F(z) – f0} – F(z) =  {fn+1 – fn} z-n
n=0

ngi
(z –1) F(z) – f0z =  {fn+1 – fn} z-n
n=0
nee
Taking, limits as z  1 on both sides, we get

rin
ℓt {(z –1) F(z)} – f0
z 1
= ℓt
z 1 n=0
 {fn+1 – fn} z-n
g.n


e
=  (fn+1 – fn) = (f1 – f0) + (f2 –f1) + . . . + (fn+1 – fn)
n=0

= ℓt fn+1 – f0
n 

i.e, ℓt {(z –1) F(z)} – f0 = f - f0

z 1

Hence, f = ℓt [(z-1) F(z)]

z 1

i.e, ℓt fn = ℓt [(z-1) F(z)]

n  z 1

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SOME STANDARD RESULTS

1. Z{an} = z / (z-a), for |z| > |a|.

Proof
By definition, we have

Z{a } =  an z-n
n
n=0

ww =  (a/z)n
n=0

w.E = ---------
1-(a/z)

asy = z / (z-a), for |z| > |a|

In particular, we have
E
Z{1} = z / (z-1), (taking a = 1).
ngi
and n
Z{(-1) } = z / (z +1), (taking a = -1).
nee
2. Z{nan} = az /(z-a)2
rin
Proof: By property, we have
g.n
dF(z)
Z{nfn} = -z --------
dz
e
d
= -z -------- Z{an}
dz

d z az
Z{nan} = -z ----- ------- = ---------
dz z-a (z-a)2

Similarly, we can prove

Z{n2an} = {az(z+a)}/ (z-a)3

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d
(3) Z{n } = -z ------ Z{nm-1}, where m is a positive integer.
m

dz

Proof 
Z{nm} =  nm z-n
n=0


= z  nm – 1 n z-(n+1) ----------------(1)
n=0

Replacing m by m-1, we get

ww 
Z{nm-1}= z  nm – 2 n z-(n+1)
n=0

i.e, w.E 
Z{nm-1}=  nm – 1 z –n.
n=0

asy
Differentiating with respect to z, we obtain

d
E 
------ Z{nm-1} =  nm – 1 (-n) z-(n+1) ----------(2)
dz n=0
ngi
Using (2) in (1), we get
d
Z{nm} = -z ------ Z{nm-1}, which is the recurrence formula. nee
dz
In particular, we have rin
d
Z{n} = -z ----- Z{1} g.n
dz

d z z
= -z ----- ------- = ---------
e
dz z-1 (z-1)2

Similarly,
d
Z{n2} = -z ----- Z{n}
dz

d z
= -z ----- -------
dz (z-1)2

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z (z+1)
= -------------.
(z-1)3

z (z - cos)
4. Z {cosn } = -------------------- and
z2 - 2z cos +1
z sin
Z {sinn } = --------------------
z2 - 2z cos +1

We know that

ww Z{an} = z /(z-a), if |z| > |a|

w.E
Letting a = e i, we have

z z
in

asy
Z{e } = ---------- = --------------------
z-ei z–(cos  + isin)

E z
Z{cosn + isinn} = ---------------------------
(z–cos ) - isin
ngi
z {(z–cos ) + isin}
nee
= ------------------------------------------------
{(z–cos ) - isin} {(z–cos ) + isin}

z (z–cos ) + izsin rin

= ----------------------------
z2 - 2z cos +1
g.n
Equating the real & imaginary parts, we get e
z (z - cos)
Z (cosn ) = -------------------- and
z2 - 2z cos +1
z sin
Z (sinn ) = --------------------
z2 - 2z cos +1

z (z - rcos)
5 . Z{r cosn } = ---------------------
n
and
z2 – 2rz cos +r2

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zr sin
n
Z{r sinn} = --------------------- if |z|>|r|
z2 – 2rz cos +r2
We know that

Z{an} = z /(z-a), if |z|>|a|

Letting a = rei , we have

Z{rnein } = z /(z -re i) .

z
n
i.e, Z{r (cosn + isinn) } = -------------

ww z - rei
z
= ---------------------------

w.E z – r(cos + isin)

z {(z - rcos) + i rsin}

asy = ----------------------------------------------------------
{(z – rcos) – i rsin}{(z – rcos) + i rsin}

E ngi
z (z - rcos) + i rzsin
= ---------------------------------------
(z – rcos)2 +r2 sin2

z (z - rcos) + i rzsin nee

= ------------------------------------
z2 – 2rz cos +r2
rin
Equating the Real and Imaginary parts, we get
g.n
n
z (z- rcos)
Z{r cosn} = ------------------------ and
z2 – 2zrcos + r2
e
zrsin
Z{rn sinn} = ------------------------; if | z | > | r |
z2-2zrcos + r2

Table of Z – Transforms
fn F(z)

z
1. 1 ---------
z–1

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z
2. (-1)n ---------
z+1
z
3. an ---------
z–a
z
4. n -----------
(z–1)2

z2 + z
2
5. n -------------
(z–1)3

ww 2z

w.E
6. n(n-1) ----------
(z–1)3

7. n(k)
asy k!z
------------
(z–1)k+1

8. nan
E az
-----------
(z–1)2
ngi
z (z-cos) nee
9. cosn --------------------
z2 – 2zcos+1 rin
z sin g.n
10. sinn --------------------
z2–2zcos + 1

z (z-rcos)
e
11. rn cosn ----------------------
z2–2rz cos + r2

rz sin
n
12. r sinn ----------------------
z2–2rzcos +r2
z2
13. cos(n/2) ------------
z2 + 1

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z
14. sin(n/2) ------------
z2 + 1

Tz

15 t -----------
(z–1)2

ww
16 t2
T2 z(z + 1)
------------------
(z–1)3

17 e atw.E z
-----------

asy z – eaT

18 e-at E z

ngi
-----------
z – e-aT

nee
19 Z{cost}
z (z - cosT)
----------------------
rin
z2 - 2z cosT +1

z sinT g.n
20 Z{sint } ----------------------
z2 - 2z cosT +1 e
zeaT (zeaT – cos bT)
21 Z{e –at cos bt} --------------------------------
z2e2aT – 2zeaT cos bT +1

zeaT sin bT
–at
22 Z{e sin bt} --------------------------------
z2e2aT – 2zeaT cos bT +1

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2 (z – 1)3 3
2 (z – 1)

Example 2

Find the Z– transform of

(i) n(n-1)
(ii) n2 + 7n + 4
(iii) (1/2)( n+1)(n+2)

(i) Z { n(n-1)}= Z {n2} – Z {n}

z (z+1) z
= -------------- - ----------

ww (z-1)3 (z-1)2

w.E z (z+1) – z (z-1)

= -----------------------
(z – 1)3

asy2z
= ------------
(z-1)3

(iii) E ngi
Z{ n2 + 7n + 4}= Z{n2} + 7 Z{n}+ 4 Z{1}

z (z+1) z z
nee
= -------------- + 7 ---------- + 4 -----------
(z-1)3 (z-1)2 z-1
rin
z {(z+1) + 7(z-1) + 4(z-1)2}
= ------------------------------------ g.n
2
2z(z -2)
= ---------------
(z-1)3
(z – 1)3
e
(n+1) (n+2) 1
(iii) Z ---------------- = ------{ Z{n2} + 3Z{n}+2Z{1}}
2 2

1 z(z+1) 3z 2z
= ------ ----------- + -------- + -------- if |z | > 1
2 (z-1)3 (z-1)2 (z-1)

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z3
= -------------
(z-1)3
Example 3

Find the Z- transforms of 1/n and 1/n(n+1)

.
1  1
(i ) Z ----- =  ------- z-n
n=1
n n

1 1 1

ww
= ----- + ------ + -------- + . . . .
z 2z2 3z3

w.E
= - log (1 – 1/z ) if |1/z| < 1

asy
= - log (z-1 / z)

= log (z/z-1), if | z | >1.

1 E 1 1
(ii) Z --------- = Z ------ - ------- ngi
n(n+1)

n
1
n+1
 1
=  ----- z-n   ------ z-n nee
n=1
n n=0
n+1
rin
z
= log ------ 
1 1
1+ ------- + ------- + . . . g.n
z-1

z
= log ------  z
1
2z

1
3z2

1 2 1 1 3
e
---- + ----- ------ + ------ ----- + . . .
z-1 z 2 z 3 z

z
= log ------  z { - log (1 – 1/z)}
z-1

z
= log ------  z log (z/z-1)
z-1

= (1- z) log {z/(z-1)}

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Example 4

Find the Z- transforms of

(i) cos n/2

(ii) sin n/2
 n
(i) Z{cos n/2} =  cos ------ z-n
n=0
2
1 1
= 1  ------ + ------  ……………..

ww z2 z4

w.E
-1
1
= 1 + ------
z2

asy z2 + 1 -1

= ----------
z2

E z2
= ---------- , if | z | > | ngi

z2 + 1
n
(ii) Z{sin n/2} =  sin ------ z-n
nee
n=0
2
rin
1 1 1
= -----  ------ + ------  . . . . . . . . . . . g.n
1
z z3

1
z5

1
= ------ 1 - ------ + ------- - . . .
e
z z2 z4
-1
1 1
= ---- 1 + ------
z z2

1 z2 +1 -1

= ---- ----------
z z2

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1 z2 z
= ----- ---------- = ---------
z z2 + 1 z2 + 1

Example 5

Show that Z{1/ n!} = e1/z and hence find Z{1/ (n+1)!} and Z{1/ (n+2)!}

1  1
Z ------- =  ------ z-n
n=0
n! n!

(z-1)n

ww 
=  ---------
n=0
n!

w.E z-1 (z-1)2

= 1 + ------- + --------- + . . .
1! 2!

asy
1
-1
= e z = e1/z

To find
E
Z --------
(n+1)!
ngi
We know that Z{fn+1} = z { F(z) – f0}

Therefore,
nee
1
Z --------
1
= z Z ----- – 1 rin
(n+1)! n!
= z { e1/z -1} g.n
Similarly,
1
Z -------- = z2 { e1/z -1 – (1/z)}.
e
(n+2)!

Example 6

Find the Z- transforms of the following

(i) f(n) = n, n > 0

0, n< 0
(ii) f (n) = 0, if n > 0
1, if n < 0

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

(iii)f(n) = an / n!, n > 0

0, otherwise


(i ) Z{f(n)} =  f (n) z –n
n=0


=  n z –n
n=0

= (1 / z) + (2/ z2) + ( 3/ z3) + . . .

= (1 / z) {1+ (2/z) + (3/z2) + . . .}

ww = (1/z){ 1 – (1/z)}-2

w.E z-1 -2
= 1/z ------
z

asy = z / (z-1)2, if |z |> |


Z{f(n)}=  f (n) z –n

E
(ii)
n=-

=  z –n

ngi
n=-

 nee
=  zn
n=0
rin
= (1/1 – z), if | z | < 1.

an g.n
e
 
–n
(iii) Z{f(n)} =  f (n) z =  ------ z –n
n= 0 n=0
n!
(az-1)n

=  ------------
n=0
n!
-1
= eaz = e a/z

Example 7
2z2 + 3z +12
If F(z) = --------------------- , find the value of „f2‟ and „f3‟.
(z-1)4

2z2 + 3z +12

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Given that F(z) = ---------------------.

(z-1)4

This can be expressed as

1 2 + 3z-1 +12z-2
F(z) = ----- ---------------------.
z2 (1- z-1)4

By the initial value theorem, we have

fo = ℓt F(z) = 0.
z-

ww
Also, f1 = ℓt {z[F(z) - fo]} = 0.
z-

Now,
w.E f2 = ℓt {z2 [F(z) - fo – (f1 /z)]}
z-

asy = ℓt
2 + 3z-1 +12z-2
--------------------- - 0 – 0.

E = 2.
z-
(1- z-1)4

ngi
and f3 = ℓt {z3 [F(z) - fo – (f1 /z) – (f2/ z2)]}
z-
nee
= ℓt z 3
2 + 3z-1 +12z-2
rin
2
--------------------- – -------
z-
(1- z-1)4 z2
g.n
Given that = ℓt
z-
3
11z3 + 8z -2
z ---------------------. = 11.
z2 (z-1)4
e
5.4 Inverse Z – Transforms
The inverse Z – transforms can be obtained by using any one of the following
methods.They are

I. Power series method

II. Partial fraction method
III. Inversion Integral method
IV. Long division method

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I. Power series method

This is the simplest method of finding the inverse Z –transform. Here F(z) can
be expanded in a series of ascending powers of z -1 and the coefficient of z –n will be the
desired inverse Z- transform.

Example 8
Find the inverse Z – transform of log {z /(z+1)} by power series method.

1 1/y
Putting z = -------, F (z) = log --------------
y (1 / y) + 1

ww 1
= log ---------

w.E 1+y

= - log (1+y)

asy y2 y3
= - y + -------- - --------- + . . . . . .

E 2

1 ngi
3

1 (-1)n

0, for n = 0
3 nee
= -z-1 + ------ z –2 - ------ z-3 + . . . . . +-------- z-n
2 n

Thus, fn =
(-1)n / n , otherwise rin
g.n
II. Partial Fraction Method
e
Here, F(z) is resolved into partial fractions and the inverse transform can be taken
directly.

Example 9
z
Find the inverse Z – transform of ------------------
z2 + 7z + 10
z
Let F (z) = -------------------
z2 + 7z + 10

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F(z) 1 1
Then -------- = ------------------ = --------------------
z z2 + 7z + 10 (z+2) (z+5)

1 A B
Now , consider ------------------ = --------- + ---------
(z+2) (z+5) z+2 z+5

1 1 1 1
= ------- -------- - ------- ---------
3 z +2 3 z +5

ww
Therefore,
1 z 1 z
F (z) = ------- -------- - ------- ----------

w.E
3 z +2 3 z+5

asy
Inverting, we get
1 1

E = ------- (-2)n - ------ (-5)n

3
ngi
3

Example 10 nee
Find the inverse Z – transform of
8z 2

---------------------rin
8z2
(2z–1) (4z–1)

z2
g.n
Let F (z) = --------------------- = ----------------------
(2z–1) (4z–1) (z– ½ ) (z – ¼) e
F (z) z
Then ---------- = ---------------------------
z (z– ½ ) (z – ¼)

z A B
Now, -------------------- = --------- + ----------
(z– ½ ) (z – ¼) z– ½ z–¼

F (z) 2 1
We get, ---------- = -----------  -------------
z z– ½ z–¼

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z z
Therefore, F (z) = 2 -----------  -----------
z– ½ z–¼

Inverting, we get
z z
fn = Z –1{F(z)}= 2 Z-1 -----------  Z-1 -----------
z– ½ z–¼

i.e, fn = 2 (1 / 2)n – (1 / 4)n , n = 0, 1, 2, . . . . . .

ww
Example 11

Find
w.E Z-1
4- 8z-1 + 6z-2
-------------------
(1+z-1) (1-2z-1)2
by the method of partial fractions.

Let asy
4- 8z-1 + 6z-2
F(z) = -------------------

E
(1+z-1) (1-2z-1)2

4z3 - 8z2 + 6z ngi

= ---------------------
(z + 1) (z - 2)2
nee
F(z)
Then ----- =
2
4z - 8z + 6 A B C
rin
-------------------- = ------- + --------- + --------, where A = B = C = 2.
z (z + 1) (z - 2)2 z+1 z-2 (z-2)2
g.n
F(z) 2 2 2
So that ------- = ------- + --------- + ----------
z z+1 z-2 (z -2)2 e
2z 2z 2z
Hence, F(z) = ------- + --------- + ----------
z+1 z-2 (z -2)2

Inverting, we get

fn = 2(-1)n + 2(2)n + n.2n

i.e, fn = 2(-1)n + (n+2)2n

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Inversion Integral Method or Residue Method

The inverse Z-transform of F (z) is given by the formula

1
fn = ------  F(z) z n-1 dz
2i C

= Sum of residues of F(z).zn-1 at the poles of F(z) inside the contour C which is
drawn according to the given Region of convergence.

Example 12

ww
Using the inversion integral method, find the inverse Z-transform of
3z

w.E 3z
-------------
(z-1) (z-2)

asy
Let F(z) = ---------------.
(z-1) (z-2)

E
Its poles are z = 1,2 which are simple poles.
By inversion integral method, we have
1 ngi
nee
fn = ------  F(z). z n-1 dz = sum of resides of F(z). z n-1 at the poles of F(z).
2i C

1 3z 1 3zn
rin
i.e, fn = ------  -------------. zn-1 dz = ------  ------------- dz = sum of residues
2i C (z-1)(z-2) 2i C (z-1)(z-2)
g.n ---------(1).
Now,
3zn
Residue (at z =1) = ℓt (z-1). ------------- = -3
z-1
(z-1)(z-2)
e
3zn
Residue (at z =2) = ℓt (z-2). -------------- = 3.2 n
z2
(z-1)(z-2)

Sum of Residues = -3 + 3.2n = 3 (2n-1).

Thus the required inverse Z-transform is

fn = 3(2n-1), n = 0, 1, 2, …

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

Example 13
z(z+1)
Find the inverse z-transform of ----------- by residue method
(z-1)3
z(z+1)
Let F(z) = -----------
(z-1)3

The pole of F(z) is z = 1, which is a pole of order 3.

By Residue method, we have
1
fn = --------  F(z). z n-1 dz = sum of residues of F(z).z n-1 at the poles of F(z)

ww 2i C

w.E
1 z+1
i.e., fn = --------  z . -------- dz = sum of residues .
2i C
n

(z-1)3

asy 1 d2
Now, Residue (at z = 1) = ---- ℓt ------ ( z -1)3
zn(z+1)
-----------

E 2! z1 dz2

1 d2 ngi
(z-1)3

= ---- ℓt
2! z1
----- { zn ( z +1)}
dz2
nee
1 d2 rin
= ---- ℓt ----- { zn+1 + zn)}
2! z1 dz2 g.n
1
= ---- ℓt { n(n+1) z n-1 + n(n-1) z n-2 }
2 z1
1
e
= ---- { n(n+1) + n (n-1)} = n2
2
Hence, fn = n2, n=0,1,2,…..

IV. Long Division Method

If F(z) is expressed as a ratio of two polynomials, namely, F(z) = g(z-1) / h(z-1),
which can not be factorized, then divide the numerator by the denominator and the
inverse transform can be taken term by term in the quotient.

Example 14

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1+2z-1
Find the inverse Z-transform of --------------------, by long division method
1-z-1

1+2z-1
Let F (z) = ----------------
1-z-1

By actual division,

1+3z-1 +3z-2+3z-3

ww 1 – z -1 1 + 2z-1
1 – z -1

w.E +3z -1
3z-1 – 3z-2

asy + 3z -2
3z -2 – 3z-3

E ngi
+ 3z -3
3z -3 – 3z -4

+3z -4
nee
-1 -2 -3
Thus F(z) = 1 + 3z + 3z + 3z + . . . . . .
rin
Now, Comparing the quotient with
g.n

 fnz-n = fo + f1z-1 + f2z-2 + f3z-3 + . . . . . .
n=0

We get the sequence fn as f0 = 1, f1 = f2 = f3 = . . . . . . = 3.

e
Hence fn = 1, for n = 0

3, for n > 1

Example 15
z
Find the inverse Z-transform of ------------
z2 – 3z +2

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By actual division

z -1 + 3z -2 + 7z –3 + ... ... ...

1-3z-1 + 2z-2 z-1

z -1 - 3z -2 + 2z –3

3z-2 – 2z -3
3z-2 – 9z –3 + 6z -4

ww 7z -3 – 6z –4
7z -3 – 21z –4 + 14z-5

w.E
 F(z) = z -1 + 3z -2 + 7z –3 + ... ... ...
+15 z -4 – 14z –5

asy
Now comparing the quotient with

 E ngi
 f n z –n = f0 + f1 z-1 + f2 z-2 + f3 z –3 + .. ..
n=0
nee
We get the sequence fn as f0 = 0, f1 = 1, f2 = 3, f3 = 7, .... ... ....
n
Hence, fn = 2 -1, n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
rin
Exercises g.n
1. Find Z-1 {4z / (z-1)3} by the long division method

z (z2 – z + 2)
e
2. Find Z-1 ------------------- by using Residue theorem
(z+1) (z-1)2

z2
-1
3. Find Z ------------------- by using Residue theorem
(z+2) (z2+4)

4. Find Z-1 (z/z-a) by power series method

5. Find Z-1 (e-2/z) by power series method

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z3 – 20z
6. Find Z-1 ---------------- by using Partial fraction method
(z-4) (z-2)3

5.5 CONVOLUTION THEOREM

If Z-1{F (z)} = fn and Z-1{G(z)} = gn, then

n
Z-1{F(z). G(z)} =  fm. gn-m = fn* gn, where the symbol * denotes the operation of
m=0

convolution.
Proof

ww
 
We have F (z) =  fn z-n, G (z) =  gnz-n
n=0 n=0

...)
w.E
 F(z) .G (z) = (f0 + f1z-1 + f2z-2 + ... + fnz-n + ... ). (go + g1z-1 + g2z-2 + ...+ gnz-n+

asy =  (fogn+f1gn-1+f2gn-2+ . . .+ fngo)z-n

n=0

E = Z (fogn+f1gn-1+f2gn-2+ . . .+ fngo)
n
= Z  fm gn-m
m=0
ngi
= Z {fn * gn}

Z-1 { F(z) . G(z)} = fn * gn

nee
rin
Hence,

Example 16

Use convolution theorem to evaluate g.n

Z -1
z2
-----------------
(z-a) (z-b)
e
We know that Z-1 {F(z). G(z)} = fn*gn.
z z
Let F (z) = ---------- and G (z) -----------
z-a z-b

z z
-1
Then fn = Z ---------- = a & gn = Z ----------- = bn
n -1

z-a z-b

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Now,
Z-1 {F(z). G (z)} = fn * gn = an * bn
n
=  am bn-m
m=0

a
n m
= b  -------
n
which is a G.P.
m=0
b

(a/b) n+1 - 1
n
=b -----------------------
(a/b) – 1

ww -1
ie, Z
z2
----------------
an+1 – bn+1
= ---------------------

w.E
(z-a) (z-b) a–b

Example 17 asy
Find z-1 E z 3

ngi
-------- by using convolution theorem
(z-1)

z2 z nee
Let F (z) = ---------- and G (z) -----------
(z-1)2 (z-1) rin
Then fn = n+1 & gn = 1 g.n
By convolution Theorem, we have
n
Z-1 { F(z). G (z) } = fn * gn = (n+1) * 1 =  (m+1) . 1
m=0
e
(n+1) (n+2)
= --------------------
2

Example 18
Use convolution theorem to find the inverse Z- transform of
1
--------------------------------
[1 – (1/2)z –1] [1- (1/4)z-1]

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-1 1 -1 z2
Given Z ------------------------------ - = Z ---------------------------
[1 – (1/2)z –1] [1- (1/4)z-1] [z-(1/2)] [z – (1/4)]
z z
Let F (z) = -------------- & G (z) = -------------
z – (1/2) z – (1/4)

Then fn = (1/2)n & gn = (1/4)n.

We know that Z-1{ F(z). G(z)} = fn * gn

= (1/2)n * (1/4)n

1 m 1 n-m

ww
n
=  ------- -------
m=0
2 4

w.E 1 n n 1 m 1
= ------  ------- -------
-m

asy
m=0
4 2 4

E 1 n n
= ------  2 m ngi
nee
m=0
4

1 n

rin
= ------ { 1+2+22+ . . . + 2n} which is a G.P
4

1 n 2n+1 - 1 g.n
= ------
4

1 n
--------------
2-1
e
= ------ {2n+1 – 1}
4

1 1 n
= ---------- - -------
2n-1 4

1 1 1
 Z-1 --------------------------------- = ------ - -------
[1 – (1/2)z –1] [1- (1/4)z-1] 2 n-1 4n

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5.6 Application of Z - transform to Difference equations

As we know, the Laplace transforms method is quite effective in solving linear

differential equations, the Z - transform is useful tool in solving linear difference
equations.

To solve a difference equation, we have to take the Z - transform of both sides of

ww
the difference equation using the property

w.E
Z{fn+k}= zk{ F(z) – f0 – (f 1 / z ) - … - ( fk-1 / zk-1) } (k > 0)

Using the initial conditions, we get an algebraic equation of the form F(z) = (z).

asy
By taking the inverse Z-transform, we get the required solution fn of the given difference

E
equation.

ngi
Exmaple 19
nee
rin
Solve the difference equation yn+1 + yn = 1, y0 = 0, by Z - transform method.

Given equation is yn+1 + yn = 1 g.n

---------- (1)

Let Y(z) be the Z -transform of {yn}.

Taking the Z - transforms of both sides of (1), we get

e
Z{yn+1} + Z{yn} = Z{1}.

ie, z {Y(z) - y0} + Y(z) = z /(z-1).

Using the given condition, it reduces to

z
(z+1) Y(z) = --------
z-1

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i.e, Y(z) = ---------------------

(z - 1) (z + 1)

1 z z
or Y(z) = ----- --------- - --------
2 z-1 z+1

On taking inverse Z-transforms, we obtain

yn = (1/2){1 - (-1)n}

ww
Example 20

w.E
Solve yn+2 + yn = 1, y0 = y1 = 0 , using Z-transforms.

Consider yn+2 + yn = 1 ------------- (1)

asy
Taking Z- transforms on both sides, we get

E
Z{yn+2}+ Z{yn} = Z{1}

y1 z
z2 {Y(z) - y0 - ------ } + Y(z) = --------- ngi
z
z
z-1
nee
(z2 + 1) Y(z) = -----------
z-1
rin
z
or Y(z) = -------------------- g.n
(z - 1) (z2 + 1)

Y(z) 1 A
e
Bz + C
Now, ------ = --------------- = ------- + -----------
z (z-1)(z2+1) z-1 z2+1

1 1 z 1
= ----- ------- - --------  ----------
2 z-1 z2 + 1 z2 + 1

1 z z2 z
Therefore, Y(z) = ----- ------- - --------  ----------
2 z-1 z2 + 1 z2 + 1

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Using Inverse Z-transform, we get

yn =(½){1 - cos (n / 2) - sin (n / 2)}.

Example 21

Solve yn+2 + 6yn+1 + 9yn = 2n, y0 = y1 = 0, using Z-transforms.

Consider yn+2 + 6yn+1 + 9yn = 2n -------- (1)

ww
Taking the Z-transform of both sides, we get

Z{yn+2} + 6Z{yn+1} + 9Z{yn} = Z {2n}

w.E y1 z
i.e,
asy
z2 Y(z)-y0 - ------ + 6z {Y(z) - y0} + 9Y(z) = --------
z z–2

2 E z
(z + 6z + 9) Y(z) = --------
z-2 ngi
nee
i.e, Y(z)
z
= ----------------
(z-2) (z+3)2 rin
Therefore,
Y(z) 1
-------- = ----------------
(z-2)(z+3)2
g.n
z

Y(z) 1 1 1 1 e 1 1
ie, ------ = ------ ------- - ------- ------- - ----- -------- ,
z 25 z-2 25 z+3 5 (z+3)2
using partial fractions.

1 z z 5z
Or Y(z) = ------ -------  -------  --------
25 z-2 z+3 (z+3)2

On taking Inverse Z-transforms, we get

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yn = (1/ 25){ 2n - (-3)n + (5/3) n (-3)n}.

Example 22

Solve the simultaneous equations

xn+1 - yn = 1; yn+1 - xn = 1 with x (0) = 0; y (0) = 0.

The given equations are

xn+1 - yn = 1, x0 = 0 ------------- (1)

yn+1 - xn =1, y0 = 0 -------------- (2)

ww
Taking Z-transforms, we get
z
z {X(z) - x0} – Y(z) = --------

w.E z-1
z
z {Y(z) - y0} – X(z) = --------

asy
Using the initial conditions, we have
z-1

E z
z X(z) – Y(z) = --------
ngi
z-1

z nee
z Y(z) – X(z) = --------
z-1
rin
Solving the above equations, we get
g.n
z
X(z) = -------- and
(z-1)2
z
Y(z) = --------.
(z-1)2 e
On taking the inverse Z-transform of both sides, we have xn = n and yn = n ,
which is the required solution of the simultaneous difference equations.

Example 23

Solve xn+1 = 7xn + 10yn ; yn+1 = xn + 4yn, with x0 = 3, y0 = 2

Given xn+1 = 7xn + 10yn ------------- (1)

yn+1 = xn + 4yn ------------- (2)

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 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.ne

Taking Z- transforms of equation(1), we get

z { X(z) - x0} = 7 X(z) + 10 Y(z)

(z - 7) X(z) – 10 Y(z) = 3z ----------(3)

Again taking Z- transforms of equation(2), we get

z {Y(z) - y0} = X(z) + 4Y(z)

-X(z) + (z - 4)Y(z) = 2z ---------- (4)

Eliminating „x‟ from (3) & (4), we get

ww 2z2 - 11z 2z2 - 11z

w.E
Y(z) = ---------------- = -------------------
z2 - 11z+8 (z-9) (z-2)

so that asy
Y(z) 2z - 11 A B
---- = ---------------- = ------- + ------- ,where A =1 and B = 1.
z

Y(z)
E (z-9) (z-2)

1 1
z-9 z-2

ngi
ie, ----- = ---------- + ---------
z z-9 z–2 nee
z z
rin
ie, Y(z) = ---------- + ---------
z-9 z–2
Taking Inverse Z-transforms, we get yn = 9n + 2n.
g.n
From (2), xn = yn+1 - 4yn = 9n+1 + 2n+1 - 4 (9n + 2n) e
= 9.9n + 2.2n - 4.9n - 4.2n

Therfore, xn = 5.9n - 2.2n

Hence the solution is xn = 5.9n - 2.2n and yn = 9n + 2n.

Exercises

Solve the following difference equations by Z – transform method

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1. yn+2 + 2yn+1 + yn = n, y0 = y1 = 0

2. yn+2 – yn = 2n, y0 = 0, y1 = 1

3. un+2 – 2cos un+1+ un=0, u0 = 1, u1 = cos

4. un+2 = un+1 + un, u0 = 0, u1 = 1

5. yn+2 – 5yn+1+ 6yn = n (n-1), y0 = 0, y1 = 0

6. yn+3 – 6yn+2 + 12yn+1 – 8yn = 0, y0 = -1, y1 = 0, y2 = 1

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5.7 FORMATION OF DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS
Example
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Form the difference equation

yn  a 2n  b(2) n E
yn 1  a 2n 1  b(2) n 1
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 2a2n  2b(2)n
yn2  a2n2  b(2)n1
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 4a2n  4b(2)n rin
Eliminating a and b weget,
yn 1 1 g.n
yn 1
yn  2
2 2 =0
4 4 e
yn (8  8) 1(4 yn1  2 yn2 )  1(4 yn1  2 yn2 )  0

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16 yn  4 yn  2  0
4( yn  2  4 yn )  0
yn  2  4 yn  0

Exercise:
1. Derive the difference equation form yn  ( A  Bn)(3)n
2. Derive the difference equation form U n  A2n  Bn

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
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1. Higher Engineering Mathematics – Dr.B.S. Grewal
2. Engineering Mathematics – Vol III – P. Kandasamy

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3. Engineering Mathematics-II – T.Veerarajan

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4. Higher Engineering Mathematics – N.P.Bali & others
4. Advanced Mathematics For Engineering- Narayanan

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5. Advanced Engineering Mathematics- C.Ray & C.Barrett
6. Advanced Engineering Mathematics- Erwin Kreyszig

rin
g.n
e

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