Avionics manual

1. INTRODUCTION TO AVIATION

1.1 History of Aviation

Aviation is the design, development, production, operation, and use of aircraft, especially
heavier-than-air aircraft. Aviation is derived from avis, the Latin word for bird.
The history of aviation has extended over more than two thousand years from the earliest
attempts in kites and gliders to powered heavier than air supersonic and
hypersonic flight. Aviation term applied to the science and practice of flight in heavier
than air craft, including airplanes, gliders, helicopters, addend VTOL (vertical takeoff
and landing) and STOL (short takeoff and landing) craft. These are distinguished from
lighter than air craft, which include balloons, airships etc.

Operational aviation is grouped broadly into three classes: military aviation, commercial
aviation and general aviation. Military aviation is the use of aircraft and other flying
machines for the purposes of conducting or enabling warfare, including national airlift
(cargo) capacity to provide logistical supply to forces stationed in a theater or along a
front. Air power includes the national means of conducting such warfare including the
intersection of transport and war craft. The wide variety of military aircraft
includes bombers, fighters, and fighter bombers. Commercial aviation includes primarily
the operation of scheduled and charter airlines. General aviation may include business
flights, private aviation, flight training, ballooning, parachuting, gliding, hang
gliding, aerial photography, foot-launched powered hang gliders, air ambulance, crop
dusting, charter flights, traffic reporting, police air patrols and forest fire fighting..

1.2 Aircraft

An aircraft is a machine that is able to fly by gaining support from the air, or, in general,
the atmosphere of a planet. It counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or by
using the dynamic lift of an airfoil or in a few cases the downward thrust from jet
engines. In another word aircraft is weight carrying structure that can travel through the
air, supported either by its own buoyancy or by the dynamic action of air against its
surfaces. The human activity that surrounds aircraft is called aviation. Crewed aircraft
are flown by an onboard pilot, but unmanned aerial vehicles may be remotely
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controlled or self-controlled by onboard computers. Aircraft may be classified by

different criteria, such as lift type, propulsion, usage, and others.

1.3 Airport

An airport is a location where aircraft such as fixed-wing aircraft, helicopters,

and blimps take off and land. Aircraft may be stored or maintained at an airport. An
airport consists of at least one surface such as a runway for a plane to take off and land,
a helipad, or water for takeoffs and landings, and often includes buildings such as control
towers, hangars and terminal buildings. Larger airports may have fixed base operator
services, seaplane docks and ramps, air traffic control, passenger facilities such as
restaurants and lounges, and emergency services. A military airport is known as
an airbase or air station. A water airport is a water aerodrome (an area of open water used
regularly by seaplanes or amphibious aircraft for landing and taking off), usually with
passenger facilities on adjacent land, which acts as an airport.

1.4 Airspace

Airspace means the portion of the atmosphere controlled by a country above its territory,
including its territorial waters or, more generally, any specific three-dimensional portion
of the atmosphere. Airspace may be further subdivided into a variety of areas and zones,
including those where there are either restrictions on flying activities or complete
prohibition of flying activities. By international law, the notion of a country's sovereign
airspace corresponds with the maritime definition of territorial waters as being 12
nautical miles (22.2 km) out from a nation's coastline.

1.5 Air traffic Controller

Air traffic control (ATC) involves communication with aircraft to help

maintain separation that is they ensure that aircraft are sufficiently far enough apart
horizontally or vertically for no risk of collision. Controllers may co-ordinate position
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reports provided by pilots, or in high traffic areas (such as the United States) they may
use radar to see aircraft positions.

ATC is especially important for aircraft flying under Instrument flight rules (IFR), where
they may be in weather conditions that do not allow the pilots to see other aircraft.
However, in very high-traffic areas, especially near major airports, aircraft flying
under Visual flight rules (VFR) are also required to follow instructions from ATC.

There are generally four different types of ATC:

 Center controllers, who control aircraft en route between airports

 Control towers (including tower, ground control, clearance delivery, and other
services), which control aircraft within a small distance (typically 10–15 km
horizontal, and 1,000 m vertical) of an airport.
 Oceanic controllers, who control aircraft over international waters between
continents, generally without radar service.
 Terminal controllers, who control aircraft in a wider area (typically 50–80 km)
around busy airports.

1.5 Air Traffic Management

ATM is the regulation of air traffic in order to avoid exceeding airport or air traffic
control capacity in handling traffic, and to ensure that available capacity is used
efficiently. Because only one aircraft can land or depart from a runway at the same time,
and because aircraft must be separated by certain time to avoid collisions, every airport
has a finite capacity; it can only safely handle so many aircraft per hour. This capacity
depends on many factors, such as the number of runways available, layout of taxi tracks,
availability of air traffic control, and current or anticipated weather. Especially the
weather can cause large variations in capacity because strong winds may limit the
number of runways available, and poor visibility may necessitate increases in separation
between aircraft. Air traffic control can also be limiting, there are only so many aircraft
an air traffic control unit can safely handle. Staff shortages, radar maintenance or
equipment faults can lower the capacity of a unit. This can affect both airport air traffic
control as well as en-route air traffic control center.
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2. AERONAUTICAL COMMUNICATION
2.1. Aviation Band

Aviation Band or Airband or Aircraft band is the name for a group of frequencies in
the VHF radio spectrum allocated to radio communication in civil aviation, sometimes
also referred to as VHF, or phonetically as "Victor". Different sections of the band are
used forradionavigational aids and air traffic control.

The VHF airband uses the frequencies between 108 and 137 MHz The lowest 10 MHz of
the band, from 108–117.95 MHz, is split into 200 narrow-band channels of 50 kHz.
These are reserved for navigational aids such as VOR beacons, and precision approach
systems such as ILS localizers.

As of 2012, most countries divide the upper 19 MHz into 760 channels for amplitude
modulation voice transmissions, on frequencies from 118–136.975 MHz, in steps of 25
kHz. In Europe, it is becoming common to further divide those channels into three
(8.33 kHz channel spacing), potentially permitting 2,280 channels. Some channels
between 123.100 and 135.950 are available in the US to other users such as government
agencies, commercial company advisory, search and rescue, military aircraft, glider and
ballooning air-to-ground, flight test and national aviation authority use. A typical
transmission range of an aircraft flying at cruise altitude (35,000 ft), is about 200 miles in
good weather conditions.

Aeronautical voice communication is also conducted in other frequency bands, including

satellite voice on Inmarsat and high frequency voice in the North Atlantic and remote
areas. Military aircraft also use a dedicated UHF-AM band from 220.0–399.95 MHz for
air-to-air and air-to-ground, including air traffic control communication. This band has a
designated emergency and guard channel of 243.0 MHz.

Some types of navaids, such as Non-directional beacons and Distance Measuring

Equipment, do not operate on these frequencies; in the case of NDBs the Low
frequency and Medium frequency bands are used between 190–415 kHz and 510–
535 kHz. The ILS glide path operates in the UHF frequency range of 329.3–335.0 MHz,
and DME also uses UHF from 962–1150 MHz
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2.2. ICAO and ITU

2.2.1. ICAO

The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) is a specialized agency of

the United Nations. It codifies the principles and techniques of international air
navigation and fosters the planning and development of international air transport to
ensure safe and orderly growth. Its headquarters are located in the Quartier
International of Montreal, Quebec, Canada.

The ICAO Council adopts standards and recommended practices concerning air
navigation, its infrastructure, flight inspection, prevention of unlawful interference, and
facilitation of border-crossing procedures for international civil aviation. In addition, the
ICAO defines the protocols for air accident investigation followed by transport safety
authorities in countries signatory to the Convention on International Civil Aviation,
commonly known as the Chicago Convention.

The Air Navigation Commission (ANC) is the technical body within ICAO. The
Commission is composed of 19 Commissioners, appointed by the Council.
Commissioners serve as independent experts, who although nominated by their states, do
not serve as state or political representatives. The development of Aviation Standards
and Recommended Practices is done under the direction of the ANC through the formal
process of ICAO Panels. Once approved by the Commission, standards are sent to the
Council, the political body of ICAO, for consultation and coordination with the Member
States before final adoption.

The ICAO should not be confused with the International Air Transport
Association (IATA), a trade organization for airlines also headquartered in Montreal, or
with the Civil Air Navigation Services Organisation (CANSO), an organization for Air
Navigation Service Providers (ANSPs) with its headquarters at Amsterdam Airport
Schiphol in the Netherlands. These are trade associations representing specific aviation
interests, whereas ICAO is a body of the United Nations.

2.2.2. ITU

The International Telecommunication Union, originally founded as the International

Telegraph Union, is a specialized agency of the United Nations concerned with
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Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs). As such, it is responsible for the

allocation of radio spectrum and satellite orbits, and for the standardization and
development of ICTs worldwide. ITU also organizes worldwide and regional exhibitions
and forums, such as ITU TELECOM WORLD, bringing together representatives of
government and the telecommunications and ICT industry to exchange ideas, knowledge
and technology.

The ITU, based in Geneva, Switzerland, is a member of the United Nations Development
Group. Founded on the principle of international cooperation between governments
(Member States) and the private sector (Sector Members, Associates and Academia),
ITU is the premier global forum through which parties work towards consensus on a
wide range of issues affecting the future direction of the ICT industry.

The ITU comprises three sectors, each managing a different aspect of the matter handled
by the Union, as well as ITU Telecom:

 Radio communication (ITU-R)

 Managing the international radio-frequency spectrum and satellite orbit
resources is at the heart of the work of the ITU Radio communication
Sector (ITU-R).
 Standardization (ITU-T)
 ITU's standards-making efforts are its best-known and oldest activity;
known prior to 1992 as the International Telephone and Telegraph
Consultative Committee or CCITT
 Development (ITU-D)
 Established to help spread equitable, sustainable and affordable access to
information and communication technologies (ICT).

ITU Membership

Membership of ITU is open to governments, which may join the Union as Member
States, as well as to private organizations like carriers, equipment manufacturers,
Avionics manual

funding bodies, research and development organizations and international and regional
telecommunication organizations, which can join ITU as non-voting Sector Members

2.3 VHF air to ground communication

The modernization of air/ground (A/G) communications in the very high frequency
(VHF) band for Air Traffic Services (ATSs) and Aeronautical Operational Control
(AOC) applications is becoming increasingly important as the competition for the
existing frequency spectrum intensifies. The Aviation Industry currently exploring
various modernization alternatives ranging from channel splitting to an integrated
digital voice and data system utilizing a single avionics unit that supports ATS and
AOC. A mandatory aspect of ATS applications is the preservation of real-time response
capabilities for critical services.
Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS) is a
digital datalink system for transmission of short, relatively simple messages
between aircraft and ground stations via radio or satellite. The protocol, which was
designed by Aeronautical Radio, Incorporated (ARINC) to replace their very high
frequency (VHF) voice service and deployed in 1978, uses telex formats. SITA later
augmented their worldwide ground data network by adding radio stations to provide
ACARS service. Over the next 20 years, ACARS will be superseded by
the Aeronautical Telecommunications Network (ATN) protocol for Air Traffic Control
communications and by the Internet Protocol for airline communications.
A person or a system on board may create a message and send it via ACARS to a
system or user on the ground, and vice versa. Messages may be sent either automatically
or manually.

VHF subnet work

A network of VHF ground radio stations ensure that aircraft can communicate with
ground end systems in real-time from practically anywhere in the world. VHF
communication is line-of-sight, and provides communication with ground-based
transceivers (often referred to as Remote Ground Stations or RGSs). The typical range is
dependent on altitude, with a 200-mile transmission range common at high altitudes.
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Thus VHF communication is only applicable over landmasses which have a VHF ground
network installed.

SATCOM and HF sub networks

SATCOM can provide worldwide coverage. Depending on the satellite system in use,
coverage may be limited or absent at high latitudes (such as needed for flights over the
poles). HF datalink is a relatively new network whose installation began in 1995 and was
completed in 2001. Aircraft with HF or global SATCOM data link can fly polar routes
and maintain communication with ground based systems (ATC centers and airline
operation centers). ARINC is the only service provider for HF data link.

2.4 HF ground to ground communication

High frequency (HF) radio provides aircraft with an effective means of communication
over long distance oceanic and trans-polar routes. In addition, global data
communication has recently been made possible using strategically located HF data link
(HFDL) ground stations. These provide access to ARINC and SITA airline networks. HF
communication is thus no longer restricted to voice and is undergoing a resurgence of
interest due to the need to find a means of long distance data communication that will
augment existing VHF and SATCOM data links. An aircraft HF radio system operates
on spot frequencies within the HF spectrum. Unlike aircraft VHF radio, the spectrum is
not divided into a large number of contiguous channels but aircraft allocations are
interspersed with many other services, including short wave broadcasting, fixed point-to-
point, marine and land-mobile, government and amateur services.
In the HF range (3 MHz to 30 MHz) radio waves propagate over long distances due to
reflection from the ionised layers in the upper atmosphere. Due to variations in height
and intensities of the ionised regions, different frequencies must be used at different
times of day and night and for different paths. There is also some seasonal variation
(particularly between winter and summer). Propagation may also be disturbed and
enhanced during periods of intense solar activity. The upshot of this is that HF
propagation has considerable vagaries and is far less predictable than propagation at
VHF. Frequencies chosen for a particular radio path are usually set roughly mid-way
between the Figure 5.1 VHF aircraft coverage in the North 5.1 HF range and propagation
Atlantic area lowest usable frequency (LUF) and the maximum usable frequency (MUF).
Avionics manual

The daytime LUF is usually between 4 to 6 MHz during the day, falling rapidly after
sunset to around 2 MHz. The MUF is dependent on the season and sunspot cycle but is
often between 8 MHz and 20 MHz. Hence a typical daytime frequency for aircraft
communication might be 8 MHz whilst this might be as low as 3 MHz during the night.
Typical ranges are in the region of 500 km to 2500 km and this effectively fills in the gap
in VHF coverage.

2.5. AFTN/ATN/AMSH
2.5.1 AFTN

The Aeronautical Fixed Telecommunication Network (AFTN) is a worldwide system

of aeronautical fixed circuits provided, as part of the Aeronautical Fixed Service, for the
exchange of messages and/or digital data between aeronautical fixed stations having the
same or compatible communications characteristics. AFTN comprises aviation entities
including: ANS (Air Navigation Services) providers, aviation service providers, airport
authorities and government agencies, to name a few. It exchanges vital information for
aircraft operations such as distress messages, urgency messages, flight safety
messages, meteorological messages, flight regularity messages and aeronautical
administrative messages.

2.5.1.1 AFTN Station Format

An AFTN address is an eight-letter-group composed of a four-letter ICAO Location

Indicator plus a three-letter-group identifying an organization or service addressed and
an additional letter. The additional letter represents a department, division or process
within the organization/function addressed. The letter X is used to complete the address
when an explicit identification of the department, division or process is not required.

Examples for some common three-letter-groups used in AFTN addresses in order to

identify an organization or service:
Avionics manual

2.5.1.1 AFTN Message categories and priority indicator

 Messages

 Distress messages;
 Urgency messages;
 Flight safety messages;
 Meteorological messages;
 Flight regularity messages;
 Aeronautical information services (AIS) messages;
 Aeronautical administrative messages;
 Service messages.

 Priority indicator

 Priority Indicator SS for Distress Messages

 Priority Indicator DD for Urgency Messages
 Priority Indicator FF for Flight Safety Messages
 Priority Indicator GG for Meteorological Messages, Flight Regularity Messages
and Aeronautical Information Services Messages
 Priority Indicator KK for Aeronautical Administrative Messages
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 Priority Indicator used for Service Messages are assigned as considered

appropriate by the originator, but most likely KK is used

2.5.3 AMHS

Aeronautical Message Handling System (AMHS) also is a standard for aeronautical

ground-ground communications based on X.400 profiles. It has been defined by
the ICAO. ICAO defines two fundamental levels of service within the ATSMHS;

 Basic ATSMHS and

 The Extended ATSMHS.

Additionally, ICAO outlines different subsets of the Extended ATSMHS. The Basic
ATSMHS performs an operational role similar to the Aeronautical Fixed
Telecommunication Network with a few enhancements. The Extended ATSMHS
provided enhanced features but includes the Basic level of service capability; in this way
it is ensured that users with Extended Service capabilities can interoperate, at a basic
level, with users having Basic Service capabilities and vice-versa.

The ATSMHS is provided by a set of end systems, which collectively comprise the ATS
Message Handling System. The systems co-operate to provide users (human or
automated) with a data communication service. The AMHS network is composed of
interconnected ATS Message Servers that perform message switching at the application
layer.
Avionics manual

3. AERONAUTICAL NAVIGATION

3.1 INDRODUCTION
3.1.1. Introduction to Navigation System
Finding the way from one place to another is called NAVIGATION. Moving of an
aircraft from one point to another is the most important part for any kind of mission.
Plotting on the paper or on the map a course towards a specific area of the earth , in the
past, used to be a task assigned to a specialized member of the aircraft's crew such a
navigator. Such a task was quite complicated and not always accurate. Since it depended
on the observation, using simple maps and geometrical instruments for calculations.
Today, aerial navigation has become an art which nears to perfection. Both external
Navaids (Navigational Aids) and on-board systems help navigate any aircraft over
thousands of miles with such accuracy that could only be imagined a few decades ago.

3.1.2. Piloting
Piloting is the most common method of air navigation. This method, the pilot keeps on
course by following a series of landmarks on the ground. Usually before take-off, pilot
will making pre-flight planning, the pilot will draw a line on the aeronautical map to
indicate the desired course. Pilot will notes various landmarks, such as highways,
railroad tracks, rivers, bridges. As the pilot flies over each of landmark, pilot will checks
it off on the chart or map. If the plane does not pass directly over the landmark, the pilot
will know that he has to correct the course.

3.1.3. Dead Reckoning

Dead reckoning is the primary navigation method used in the early days of flying. It is
the method on which Lindberg relied on his first trans-Atlantic flight. A pilot used this
method when flying over large bodies of water, forest, deserts. It demands more skill and
experience than pilot age does. It is based on time, distance, and direction only. The pilot
must know the distance from one point to the next, the magnetic heading to be flown.
Pilot works on the pre-flight plan chart, pilot plan a route in advance. Pilot calculates the
time to know exactly to reach the destination while flying at constant speed. In the air,
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the pilot uses compass to keep the plane heading in the right direction. Dead reckoning is
not always a successful method of navigation because of changing wind direction. It is
the fundamental of VFR flight

3.1.4. Radio Navigation

Radio navigation is used by almost all pilots. Pilots can find out from an aeronautical
chart what radio station they should tune to in a particular area. They can then tune their
radio navigation equipment to a signal from this station. A needle on the navigation
equipment tells the pilot where they are flying to or from station, on course or not.

3.2 Non-Directional Beacon

3.2.1 Introduction

A medium frequency navigational aid which transmits non-directional signals ,

superimposed with a Morse code identifier and received by an aircraft's ADF.The non-
directional beacon and its associated automatic direction finding equipment is primarily a
short distance navigational aid. The ground station (NDB) radiates a signal in all
directions around the transmitter, and the aircraft receiver (ADF), when tuned to this
signal determines the direction from which the signal is being radiated. By following the
direction indicated by the ADF instrument the aircraft will fly over the NDB.

The system operates in the medium frequency band, that is, 200 to 400 Kcs., however,
most aircraft equipments are sufficiently flexible to enable one or two additional bands to
be selected so as to extend the use of this facility to cover bands utilized by broadcasting
stations. In isolated cases NDBs are operated in the higher frequency band (1666 Kcs.) to
lessen the reflecting influence of mountainous country.

3.2.2 NDB as a Navigational Aid

Non-Directional Beacon is a radio navigational aid used by the aircraft all over the world
for finding directions while flying from one point to other. Discovery of radio and ability
of detecting its source of emission, utilizing directional antenna, led to the development
of NDB. It is the simplest and oldest system, which has for many years played a vital
role in the navigation system for both aeronautical and maritime uses and will probably
do so for many years to come.
Avionics manual

Non-Directional Beacon is a ground station that transmits a low frequency or medium

frequency signal, which is radiated Omni-directionally in the horizontal plane (azimuth),
with vertical polarization. There is no coded navigation information inside the signal
apart from the station identification in Morse code that repeats 7 times per minute. The
NDB receiver in the aircraft gives the pilot information of the “bearing” to the NDB
transmitter stations, which are located in the air-routes or at the airports. Bearing is the
horizontal angular displacement in clockwise direction with respect to North. In addition
to the directional information the NDB station also gives indication when the aircraft is
passing overhead a station, i.e., the NDB station provides a position fix overhead
indicated by a decrease in field strength and an abrupt change of indicator needle by
180.

3.2.3 Working Principle

NDB is simply a radio transmitter that transmits tone modulated RF signal in the
LW/MW frequency band with station identification seven times per minute. Volume-1 of
ICAO Annex-10 to the convention on International Civil Aviation Organization states
that, "The radio frequencies assigned to NDB's shall be selected from those available in
the portion of the spectrum between 190 KHz and 1750 KHz. The frequencies being used
for NDB can vary from zone to zone. As the frequency band from 525 to 1605 KHz is
widely used for Radio Broadcasting, most of the frequencies for NDB's are selected
below 525 kHz within 200 to 415 kHz. The signal is amplitude modulated at 95% by a
station identification audio tone in Morse code (A2), which repeats 7 times per minute to
identify a station. The identification tone consists of two to three letters. The frequency
of the modulating tone can be either 400Hz or 1020Hz. Each letter is separated by a
dash. For example: The Kathmandu NDB at the Tribhuvan International Airport is coded
as KAM, which in Morse code translates as:

dash dot dash dash dot dash dash dash dash

K A M
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In the aircraft, a receiver called Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) automatically

displays the station bearing as soon as it is tuned to a NDB station. The Automatic
Direction Finder uses the Loop Aerial that has a specific direction finding property.
Depending upon the orientation of the loop aerial, signals in its output varies greatly. A
loop aerial possesses the following properties.

3.2.4 Loop Aerial

Direction finding maybe carried out in any region of radio spectrum, though certain
frequencies are specifically allotted for radio navigation purpose. In aviation only LF/MF
and VHF are used for radio direction finding. LF/MF are used for NDB ground stations
whereas VHF is used for finding the direction of the aircraft from the ground. The
technical features of direction finders operating in various frequencies naturally differ,
but the fundamental principles remain the same. In the LF/MF, due to comparatively
very large wave length, so called LOOP ANTENNA is extensively used. Loop Antennas
are highly directional in property, which could be derived mathematically as follows:

Consider a rectangular loop antenna of length “a” and width “b” with its plane vertical
mounted so that it can be rotated about its vertical axis. Let there be a vertically polarized
electromagnetic wave “E” incident on it, coming from a direction making an angle “”
with the plane of the loop at its center.
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The source is assumed to be so far away that the incident wave is a plane wave. Voltages
are induced in the vertical members of the loop, but not in the horizontal members as the
wave is vertically polarized. The magnitude of the voltage induced in the two vertical
members is therefore a.e1 and a.e2, where e1 and e2 are the magnitude of electrical field
in rms. The voltages in the two members will not be in phase, as can be seen from the
diagram since the arrival times will not be the same. Taking the electrical field at the
center of the loop as the reference, the voltage induced in AB lags by an angle , and that
induced in CD leads by , where  being the phase difference of the arriving signal with
respect to center of the loop. Considering  = 2 and difference in path length is ½ b
Cos. Then phase difference equivalent to path length is

 = 2. b Cos = .bCos

 2 

If the electric field at the center e(t) = E Cos t then voltages induced in two vertical
members will be :

e1 = aE Cos (t - b Cos )

e2 = aE Cos (t + b Cos )

Therefore resultant voltage at the output of the loop antenna will be

e = e1 – e2 = aE Cos (t - b Cos ) - aE Cos (t + b Cos )

 
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Or

e = 2 aE. Sin t . Sin b Cos

Since “b” is very small in comparison to  then we could do approximation as

Sin b Cos = b Cos

 

Hence e = 2E . ab Sin t. Cos

From the above formula we could make the following conclusions:

a) Output of the loop antenna is dependent of the incident angle “”. When the plane of
the loop antenna is perpendicular to the incident radio signal , i.e. when “” is 90
the output from the loop is zero and maximum when “” is 0

b) Output from the loop antenna will increase when the dimensions “a” and “b” will
increase. That is, output is directly proportional to the area of the loop. Accordingly,
if there are “N” turns in the loop then output voltage will also increase by “N” times.
Accordingly, a Loop Aerial may have two distinct positions as follows:

Null Position

If the plane of the loop is at right angle to the direction of the waves coming from the
radio beacon, the two sides of the loop will be at the same distance from the station. Thus
the signals will arrive at the same time without any phase difference, causing current
induced in both sides of the loop to be the same. However, since they are opposite in
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direction, they will cancel each other producing no rf output from the antenna. This is the
null position of the loop aerial.

rf waves

Min. or no signal

Maximum Position

If the plane of the loop aerial becomes parallel to the direction of the waves, signals will
reach at both sides with maximum difference in phase. That will produce maximum
signal strength.

Max. phase difference

rf waves

Max. signal

The Null position is preferred in direction finding because:

# It is easy to determine a null than a maximum

# It is more accurate and sharper.

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Sensing

There are always two null positions and two maximum positions for a loop antenna. The
loop aerial will always receive the same signal by turning it to 180 degrees. This may
create confusion about a station and there will be an ambiguity of 180 degrees regarding
the direction of the station.

The ambiguity is solved in the modern aircraft receivers by addition of another non-
directional antenna for sensing. The ADF receiver uses a rotating loop antenna, which
gives the figure of eight pattern, and a fixed sense antenna that gives an Omni-directional
pattern.

The figure of eight pattern from the loop antenna has positive (+) and negative (-) phase
as indicated below. The sensing antenna has omni-directional circular pattern with (+)
phase. The composite pattern therefore will be a cardioid as shown below.

Circular pattern +
- +
Cardioid

Figure of eight pattern

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When pilot tunes to an NDB station the ADF loop antenna automatically turns the
indicator towards the direction of the station with reference to magnetic north. This is
interpreted in the needle as the Radio Magnetic Bearing Indication.

3.2.4 ADF Display

The Automatic Direction Finders (ADF) are manufactured with either analog or digital
display. In either case, in ADF receiver, bearing information is presented on either a
Relative Bearing Indicator (RBI) or the more complex Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI).

3.2.4.1 Relative Bearing Indicator :

This is the simplest type of display, shows the pilot the bearing of the tuned NDB
transmitter relative to the axis of the aircraft. The RBI is measured clockwise in degrees
(O - 360) from the nose of the aircraft. See Figure above.
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3.2.4.2 Radio Magnetic Indicator:

This instrument displays the magnetic bearing of the NDB as well as the heading of the
aircraft. Therefore it is more convenient for the pilots. The figure above shows the
method of measuring RMI.

3.2.5 USES OF NBD

By using relative or magnetic bearings, NDB can be utilized for various navigation
purposes. Depending upon their use and where they are placed.

3.2.5.1 Homing: NDB is installed at the vicinity of the airport. Aircraft find their way to
the airport by tracking on to the beacon.

3.2.5.2 En-route: NDB is installed in between the airports on the prescribed routes.

Sometimes the beacon may be offset from the route. However, by using relative bearing
a position fix can be determined.

3.2.5.3 Holding: Such an NDB is called Locator Beacon and is placed a few miles away
from the airport area. Aircraft circle the beacon at different heights waiting for
permission to land.

3.2.5.4 Instrument approach: NDB is installed on the center line of the runway. Aircraft
Avionics manual

make straight-in approach by using the NDB.

3.2.6 Advantages of NDB

Although there are now several more accurate navigational systems available on other
radio frequency bands, the NDB is still used in every country in the world, and will
continue to do so for many more years to come. The reasons are obvious which can be
outlined as follows:

# Very simple air-borne and ground equipment

# Inexpensive to install and maintain

# Omni-directional information

# Any number of aircraft can use the same radio beacon

# Responsibility of accuracy mainly depends on airborne receiver

# Multi-purpose uses

3.2.7 Limitation of NDB

1. Night effect

Radio waves take two paths to the radio compass receiver. The first and normal path is
along the earth’s surface. If only these waves were received, the compass would point
directly to the NDB. The second path is via one or more wave refracting layers above the
earth (the ionosphere) returning to earth to mix with directs waves. Complete changes in
the nature of the waves take place on this path and produce errors in direction.
Avionics manual

Fig; night effect

The ratio of the intensity of indirect to direct waves in the total received signal
determines the liability of error of the radio compass. As the strength of the indirect
waves is far greater at night, errors then are more common and of greater magnitude: this
is called ‘night effect’. Often this effect is more pronounced within an hour of sunrise or
sunset, when the changes in the state of ionisation of the upper atmosphere are
particularly violent.

The night time range of an NDB is only dependable over distances where the ground
wave transmission predominates, which is approximately 60 miles over land and 100
miles over sea under reasonable propagating conditions. As the distance increases the
ratio of indirect to direct waves will increase and bearing indications will become erratic.
Treat with caution NDB reception beyond these ranges.

2. Co-Channel and Adjacent Interference from Other NDBs

If the signal from another NDB operating on the same or an adjacent frequency is
received with sufficient strength, the automatic bearing determination circuits of the
compass receiver will be influenced and a bearing error will result. Generally NDBs are
spaced geographically, and frequencies allocated to minimise these effects. At night,
however, when the sky wave component of an NDB extends to a far greater distance than
that of its ground wave, it may cause interference. This may be serious if the ADF
Avionics manual

receiver is tuned to an NDB beyond its rated coverage, when the signal strength will be
low and therefore susceptible to interference from extraneous transmissions

It is important to appreciate that the audible perception of another NDB identification

code heard on the same frequency as the selected NDB does not necessarily mean that
the indicated bearing is in error. Although its identification code can be heard, the
interfering signal may not be strong enough to influence the directional properties of the
ADF receiver. Under these circumstances, however, the indicated bearing should be
considered suspect and checked by other means.

3. Mountain Effect

Sometimes an effect similar to night effect is obtained in mountainous areas where the
energy received from an NDB consists of two or more waves, one of them direct and
others by reflection from the mountains. Bearing indications are found to change rapidly
until the affected area is passed.

4. Thunderstorms

A thunderstorm generates a tremendous amount of radio frequency energy and when the
aircraft is near to a storm centre the radio compass may indicate the direction of the
storm and not that of the NDB to which it is tuned. Therefore, when flying in the vicinity
of a thunderstorm, the accuracy of the bearing indications should be checked by other
means whenever possible.

5. The Effect of Terrain

The useful range of an NDB is influenced by the type of terrain over which the radio
wave travels. It is greatest over the sea and least over sandy or mountainous country, and
an NDB with a daylight range of 600 miles over the sea may only have a range of little
more than 100 miles over unfavorable types of land. Therefore, when an NDB is located
on the coastline, its range in different directions can be expected to vary considerably

6. Height Effects

The range of an NDB over the sea is relatively independent of aircraft height. Over
unfavorable terrain it increases considerably with height
Avionics manual

7. Quadrantal Error
Due metallic portions of the aircraft the radio waves get deflected. Error produced by
such a phenomenon is called quadrantal error because it is maximum in all four
quadrants. Quadrantal error differs for one aircraft to other, which can be corrected by
using the correction curve for that particular aircraft.

3.2.8 Sitting Requirement

An NDB may be located on or adjacent to the airport. If it is used as an approach aid

then it should be located on the centerline of the runway. In any case, the siting criterion
is not very complicated. However, the following should be observed:

The NDB site should be smooth, level and well drained. The antenna system should not
penetrate the approach or transitional surfaces of the airport. There should be no metal
buildings, power lines or heavy metal fences around the NDB station at a distance closer
than 100 feet.

3.2.9. Antenna System

NDB antennas are similar to normal LW/MW antennas. Because of dominating

transmission by the ground wave, vertically polarization is necessary. Hence vertical
wires or self-supporting structures are the solution. Since, NDB operating frequency is in
order of only a few hundred KHz, the practical length of an antenna must be much lower
Avionics manual

than /4 wave length. For example, for an NDB station working on 250 KHz, its
wavelength will be:

 = 300/ 0.250 = 1200 meters

or /4 = 300 meters

To erect an antenna 300 meters tall is not only very expensive but also prohibited near
the airport areas due to possible obstruction to the aircraft. In practice much shorter
antennas (from 20 to 40 meters) are used. Because the antennas are relatively very short
they are always capacitive in nature. Therefore, to resonate a NDB antenna some tuning
inductance must be used. As described above, NDB antennas are vertically polarized.
Therefore the radiator is kept in vertical position from ground. The earth acts as an image
to the radiator. To increase the capacitance of the antenna, a ground radial system has to
be provided. A ground radial system, which is also called counterpoise, is a system of
copper wires buried approximately 15 cm below the surface of the ground. The size and
shape of the counterpoise will vary with the type of antenna system used. Normally the
wires are laid at 5 to 10from the center, just below the radiator. Fig. 2.1-M below
shows a typical ground counterpoise of an NDB.
Avionics manual

3.2.9.1Radiation pattern

The polar diagram of an NDB antenna radiation is shown below. It is Omnidirectional in

the horizontal plane (H-plane) and directive in vertical plane (E-plane). Theoretically
there is maximum gain along the earth surface, but in practice we will have maximum
field strength at some angle from the surface due to losses in the ground wave
component.

3.2.9.2 Types of antennas

A very simple, effective and widely used NDB antenna is T-antenna, which is illustrated
below. The vertical wire is, of course, the actual radiating element and the horizontal
wire provides additional antenna capacitance to the ground. To increase the capacitance
of the antenna three or more parallel wires are used in the horizontal portion. The normal
height of T-antenna is approximately 20 to 30 meters. Sometimes an inverted L-antenna
is also used. However, it is more sensitive to unwanted horizontally polarized electric
field component compared to a T-antenna.

The self-supporting mast or a mast radiator is also a popular NDB antenna. The normal
height of such an antenna is 20 to 40 meters. Top-loaded insulated guy wires increase
capacitance. Such an antenna is more efficient than a T-antenna and therefore widely
used for long range NDB as well as MW/LW broadcasting.

For locator beacons or for the beacons used for approach purposes, since the coverage
required is very small, relatively short antennas are used. One of such antennas is
Umbrella type. It is a small self supporting mast radiator with several top-loading
elements like an umbrella. The top loading increases the capacitance of the antenna,
hence it becomes easier to resonate. The normal height of an umbrella antenna is not
more than 12 meters.
Avionics manual

ILLUSTRATIONS
Avionics manual

3.2.10 Factor Affecting NDB Antenna

The radiation resistance of an NDB antenna is very low and equals to only a few ohms.
If it were possible to match a source of radio frequency energy so that all the power is
dissipated into the radiation resistance then these antennas would have been equally
efficient as one with much higher radiation resistance. However, in practice the total loss
resistance of the antenna is much higher than the radiation resistance. Therefore, most of
the energy gets wasted and the efficiency of the antenna becomes too low.

There are several factors that affect the efficiency of an NDB antenna. These are briefly
described below:

3.2.10.1 Antenna Reactance:

NDB antennas are capacitive in nature. The capacitance of antenna is important to know
because it provides the basis for knowing the amount of tuning inductance required for
resonance.
Avionics manual

Since, for resonance: L =1/ C

Smaller capacitance will need bigger inductance, causing more loss of energy in the
conductor. Thus the capacitance of an antenna should be as higher as possible. This can
be done either by increase in height of the antenna, or simply by additional top-loading.
The second option is more economical and favourable. The capacitance of an electrically
short vertical antenna may be calculated by the use of well known transmission line
formula. For a simple vertical radiator (insulated from ground) having a height “H” from
the ground and diameter “D”, its capacitance can be roughly calculated from the
following formula:

C = 5766 X Tan θ
Log 2H
D
Here C in pF, H and D in feet, and θ- electrical length of the radiator in degree.

The following table gives approximate values of a vertical radiator without top loading in
pF. From this it is evident that antenna capacitance is dependent of vertical height and
diameter of the radiator element.

Antenna diameter in inches

Antenna Height (ft) 0.1 1 12
50 90 pF 120 pF 184pF
75 131 170 254
100 167 219 308
150 245 314 451
200 322 428 654
250 399 504 795

Where antenna length is desirable to keep short, top loading is used. This greatly
increases the capacitance of the antenna thereby reducing the requirement of large
antenna tuning inductance. Additional capacitance generated by top loading in a T-
antenna can be calculated as follows:
Avionics manual

C = 5766 X Tan (0.07315L)

Log 4H
D
Here C in pF, H, L and D in feet. L – Length of top loading wire.

3.2.10.2 Radiation resistance:

The base radiation resistance is another important characteristic. It is a characteristic,

which has a direct relationship to the radiated power and consequently to effective range
of the NDB. Because the NDB antennas are electrically very short (less than 30), the
current distribution along the antenna is linear and radiation resistance may be calculated
to reasonably close approximation by the formula:

R = 2 /328 , where  is the electric length of the antenna in degree.  = 360

With the above formula it is evident that by increasing the length of the antenna its
radiation resistance increases, and hence the efficiency increases. See following table.

Radiation resistance in Ohms

Antenna Height (ft) 200KHz 300KHz 450KHz
50 0.041 0.092 0.206
75 0.092 0.207 0.466
100 0.163 0.367 0.825
150 0.367 0.825 1.857
200 0.657 1.467 3.300
250 1.020 2.295 5.164

3.2.10.3 Antenna Q :

Antenna system Q is the ratio of the reactance of the antenna capacitance to the antenna
total system resistance. It is always preferable to keep the Q as low as possible to reduce
losses in the antenna system.

Since Q = Xc/R ,
Avionics manual

Q can be reduced by increasing capacitance of the aerial. I.e. by addition of top loading
or by increasing the height. NDB transmitters are usually required to have a bandwidth
of at least 2X1020 Hz. 1020 Hz being the max ident frequency.

Bandwidth = f/Q

Therefore, at 300 KHz Q = 300,000/2040 = 147

Which means a Q of 147 at 300 KHz NDB station will insure that the ident modulation
will be radiated without any distortion. If bandwidth of the antenna is low ( Q is high)
then instead of 1020 Hz ident modulation of 400Hz should be used.

3.2.10.4 Expected range

NDB antenna should be designed in such a way that it should radiate reliable signal up to
the required coverage area. ICAO has specified that in the coverage areas the field
strength should not be less than 70V per meter. Between the latitudes 30N and 30S
field strength of 120V may be required.

Conclusion : To increase the efficiency and to improve the performance of an NDB

antenna its capacitance should be as high as possible and should be more than 500pF
at the lower frequencies. This can be achieved either by increasing the height of the
antenna or by providing additional top loading.

3.2.11 Transmitting Equipment

The NDB transmitter is relatively very simple equipment. The RF carrier is amplitude
modulated either by 400Hz or by 1020 Hz tone, which is coded with two to three letters
station identification in Morse Code. A simplified block diagram is shown in Fig. below:

Antenna

IDENT Unit TRANSMITTE

R UNIT
UNIT

MONITOR
Avionics manual

Monitor equipment monitors the performance of the radiating signal. Radiation is done
in A0/A2 mode. Depending upon the use an NDB could be classifies as one of the
following:

High Power: usable range extends up to 400 NM. Radio beacons of this type are
considered as en-route or homing radio navigational aids. The transmitter output is
normally 100W to 5KW.

Low Power : usable range extends from 10 NM to 25 NM. Radio beacons of this type are
called locators and are normally used for approach or holding purposes. The transmitter
output power is kept below 100W.

3.2.12 Monitoring and Calibration

Normally the NDB beacon has two transmitters and two monitors, i.e. dual equipment
system. Monitor analyzes the radiated signal and checks the following:

# Gives alarm if the transmitted carrier power is reduced more than 3dB. i.e. 50%

# Gives alarm if the identification signal is removed or continuous by any reason.

# Gives alarm if the monitor itself becomes faulty.

When one of the above conditions occurs the monitor unit commands the changeover
unit to shut sown the faulty transmitter and to start the standby. The NDB stations are
normally unattended, which are monitored for a failure by the technicians through radio.
To distinguish main transmitter from standby normally the main is modulated with 1020
Hz and the standby with 400Hz.

3.3 VHF Omi Directional Radio Range (VOR)

3.3.1 Navigational Aid
A navigation system in which one or more signals are emitted from a facility (or co-
located facilities) to produce simultaneous indication of bearing and distance. Since a
bearing is a radial line of position and a distance is a circular line of position, the rho-
theta system always ensures a position fix produced by the intersection of two lines of
position which are at right angles to each other. This produces a minimum geometric
dilution of position, a figure of merit for all radio navigation systems, and is one of the
Avionics manual

chief advantages of a rho-theta system. Another major advantage is that it is a single-site

system and can thus be installed on a ship or an island. This has also made it attractive
politically, enabling small countries to have their own navigation systems.VOR is an
example of such a system.

VOR as a Navigation Aid:

Accuracy: radial alignment error <3 degrees - maximum amplitude of bend

Ground: monitors are placed around the site to detect drift in the radiated signal if signal
exceeds tolerance, the transmitter shuts down.

Air: If signal level, andor, if either of the modulation levels falls below a preset level an
error flag signal is sent to the HSI

Availability: Most sites have dual transmitters so if one fails the other takes over. Avail-
ability is better than 99.

VOR
VOR, short for VHF omnidirectional radio range, is a type of short-range radio
navigation system for aircraft, enabling aircraft to determine their position and stay on
course by receiving radio signals transmitted by a network of fixed ground radio
beacons, with a receiver unit. It uses radio frequencies in the very high frequency (VHF)
band from 108 to 117.95 MHz. Developed in the US beginning in 1937 and deployed by
1946, VOR is the standard air navigational system in the world, used by both
commercial and general aviation. There are about 3000 VOR stations around the world.
A VOR ground station sends out a master signal which is sent with equal intensity in all
directions, and a highly directional second signal that varies in phase 30 times a second
compared to the master. This signal is timed so that the phase varies as the secondary
antenna spins, such that when the antenna is 90 degrees from north, the signal is 90
degrees out of phase of the master. By comparing the phase of the secondary signal to
the master, the angle (bearing) to the station can be determined. This bearing is then
displayed in the cockpit of the aircraft, and can be used to take a fix as in earlier radio
direction finding (RDF) systems, although it is, in theory, easier to use and more
accurate. This line of position is called the "radial" from the VOR. The intersection of
Avionics manual

two radials from different VOR stations on a chart provides the position of the aircraft.
VOR stations are fairly short range, the signals have a range of about 200 miles.
VOR stations broadcast a VHF radio composite signal including the station's identifier,
voice (if equipped), and navigation signal. The identifier is typically a two- or three-letter
string in Morse code. The voice signal, if used, is usually the station name, in-flight
recorded advisories, or live flight service broadcasts. The navigation signal allows the
airborne receiving equipment to determine a magnetic bearing from the station to the
aircraft (direction from the VOR station in relation to the Earth's magnetic North at the
time of installation). VOR stations in areas of magnetic compass unreliability are
oriented with respect to True North.

3.3.2. Frequency Band

 Operating frequency: 108MHz to 118 MHz
 Mainly used in frequency: 112MHz to 118MHz.
 Frequency used by Kathmandu VOR: 113.2 MHz
The channel separation between the VOR's is generally taken either 100 KHz or
200KHz. from place to place with frequency tolerance of  0.005%. In order to
accommodate more VOR beacons, in some densely installed areas, the channel
separation may be used as close as 50 KHz. But to avoid harmful interference or inter-
modulation the frequency tolerance of all the nearby VOR's should be maintained at 
0.002.

3.3.3. General Principal of Operation

The principle of operation is bearing measurement by phase comparison. This means that
the transmitter on the ground produces and transmits a signal, or actually two separate
signals, which make it possible for the receiver to determine its position in relation to the
ground station by comparing the phases of these two signals. In theory, the VOR
produces a number of tracks all originating at the transmitter. These tracks are called
radials and are numbered from 1 to 360, expressed in degrees, or ° . The 360° radial is
the track leaving the VOR station towards the Magnetic North, and if you continue with
the cardinal points, radial 090° points to the East, the 180° radial to the South and the
270° radial to the West, all in relation to the magnetic North. Think of a lighthouse at sea
and imagine the white light rotating at a speed of one revolution per minute (60 seconds).
Every time this white narrow beam passes through Magnetic North, a green
Avionics manual

omnidirectional light flashes. Omnidirectional means that it can be seen from any
position around the lighthouse. If we are situated somewhere in the vicinity of the light
sources and are able to see them, we can measure the time interval from the green light
flash until we see the white light. The elapsed time is directly proportional to our
position line in relation to the lighthouse. The speed of 1 RPM corresponds to 6° per
second, so if 30 seconds elapse between the time we see the green flash and the white
rotating light, we are on the 180° radial, or directly south of the station (30 sec x 6°/sec =
180°). This calculation can be done from any position and the elapsed time is directly
proportional to our angular position (radial). We could name these light signals, calling
the green one the Reference (REF) signal and the white beam the Variable (VAR) signal.
The same principle is employed in a VOR.
Avionics manual

3.3.4 VOR Transmission Techniques

Modulation Goniometer

Cardioid pattern

9960 Hz 30 Hz FM 30% AM RF Amp.

Omnidirectional pattern
A 9960 Hz
Figure: General block diagram of CVOR transmitter

9960 Hz generator produces the sub-carrier frequency, which is the basis for the REF
signal. The 9960 Hz is fed to a 30Hz frequency modulator in order to produce the
frequency deviation of  480 Hz. This again is amplitude modulated with 30% on the
VHF transmitter, normally 50 to 200 Watts output. The REF signal is fed to an
omnidirectional antenna, which normally is a loop antenna, called Alford loop antenna.
The REF signal is also in parallel fed to a modulation eliminator, which removes the
modulation, and the signal output from this block is then a clean continuous wave (CW)
signal with the same carrier frequency. This signal is fed to the horizontally polarized
dipole antenna to obtain the figure of eight pattern.Since the frequency of these two
signals are the same, they will combine together to form a cardioid. The goniometer
rotates the figure of eight at 1800 rpm, which will also cause the cardioid to rotate at the
same rate.

A cardioid has maximum and minimum radiation pattern. While rotating, when the
maximum pattern is towards the receiver it will receive maximum signal and for
minimum pattern the signal received will be minimum. Therefore, if the cardioid is made
to rotate at 1800 times per minute (30 times per second), the receiver will get the signal
as 30 Hz AM. The following Fig. 2.2.6 explains the rotation of the cardioid pattern and
the resulting AM signals received by the airborne VOR receivers at north, east, south and
west directions. Form these figures it is evident that the variable phase of the amplitude
modulation (space modulation) is dependent of azimuth degree by degree.
Avionics manual

VOR is a phase comparison system. This means simply that the phase of one signal
is compared with the phase of another. However, a problem arises in that this
type of comparison is possible only between signals whose frequencies are
identical, and one also needs to be able to identify the source of each signal.
Some-times this identification can be accomplished by time multiplexing the
signals and storing the phase information in the receiver circuitry for later
comparison. But in the VOR system both signals are transmitted simultaneously,
and there needs to be a way to prevent the two from producing a resultant as
they pass through space. This is accomplished by transmitting one signal as
amplitude modulation and the other as frequency modulation. Detection in the
receiver produces two separate audio signals of exactly the same frequency but
with measurable phase difference.

The two signals being compared are both 30 Hz signals. One is transmitted in a
manner so as to produce a circular radiation pattern. Thus all aircraft at the same
instant in time, and at the same distance from the transmitter, receive the same
exact phase of this 30 Hz signal. Consequently, this signal is called the reference
signal. The other signal has a radiation pattern shaped like a cardioid, and this
pattern is caused to rotate about the station 30 times per second. The airborne
equipment which receives this cardioid signal detects a signal strength which
depends on which part of the cardioid it is receiving at any particular instant of
time. By the rotation of this pattern amplitude modulation is created, and the
received signal strength from the variable signal undergoes a cyclic change which
is repeated 30 times per second.

Since both signals occur at the same 30 Hz rate there is a repetitive

synchronization between the two, and all that is needed is an index point so that
they may be compared for phase difference. This index point is established on the
reference signal, and the phase of the variable signal is initially adjusted so that
the phase difference between the two is 0o at magnetic north. The rotation of the
variable signal from north azimuth creates a phase difference of one electrical
degree for each rotational degree; therefore, an observer can determine his
geographical azimuth by simply measuring the phase difference between the phase
of the reference signal and the phase of the variable signal. A receiver anywhere
within the coverage area of a facility will receive two 30 Hz signals-one from
Avionics manual

the reference field and one from the variable field cardioid that is passing by.
The phase of the signal from the variable field will lag that of the reference field
by the exact number of degrees the receiver bears from magnetic north.

3.3.6. VOR Errors

1) Multi-path errors: The major bearing errors in the VOR system are caused by multi-
path reception. Signals reaching the aircraft receiver may include those that arrive after
reflections from natural or man-made objects as well as those arriving by a direct path.
The multi-path signals will add and subtract as the phases of direct and reflected signals
vary while the aircraft flies along the course.

2) Ground station errors: results from misphasing of the 30 Hz reference and variable
phases, misalignment of the north and other calibration errors at the VOR station. The
major ground station error is due to spurious vertical polarization generated by the
antennas resulting in undesirable vertically polarized 30 Hz azimuth dependent
component. This spurious 30Hz component will not be in phase with the actual 30 Hz
horizontally polarized variable phase. The aircraft antenna, although horizontally
polarized, will pick up some of this vertically polarized signal when the aircraft will tilt.
These factors may cause an additional error to the tune of 1.

3) Aircraft receiver error: It is a function of the cost and age of the aircraft receiver. The
older generation aviation receivers tend to have errors, which in new equipment have
been essentially eliminated. The modern aircraft receivers have performance better than
2.

4) Pilotage or flight technical error: It is a function of many parameters, which are all
difficult to measure. Studies of flight technical errors show the error to be higher when
the aircraft makes a turn than on a straight-line route.

Since all errors are independent with respect to each other, the total error can be
calculated as follows

Total error =  (Em2 + Eg2 + Ea2 +Ep2) Where

Em = Multi-path error

Eg = Ground station error

Avionics manual

Ea = Aircraft receive

Ep = Pilotage error

3.3.7. Doppler VOR (DVOR)

The DVOR is a later and improved design of VOR which suffers less from siting errors. The
CVOR requires a clear area of at least 1500ft in radius. The DVOR is more practical in
crowded areas or where there are tall buildings. However, it's a big structure . The DVOR
reverses the usage of the two 30Hz signals. However, by also reversing the direction of it's
rotating variable signal it produces exactly the same result in the receiver. The receiver has
no "knowledge" that it's a DVOR as opposed to CVOR it's receiving and operates as
normal.In the DVOR the main VHF carrier is AM modulated at 30Hz - providing the
Reference signal. This is transmitted from a central omnidirectional antenna and has the
same phase all around the VOR for any receiver.The effect of a 9960 FM modulated
subcarrier is created using the Doppler effect by emplying a switched array of antenna
arranged in a circle of diameter 44ft. (This distance being the exact amount to provide +/-480
apparent frequency shift in the subcarrier.) Imagine a carrier of Fc MHz, AM modulated at
30Hz on the central antenna. Then imagine an array of an even number of aerial elements
arranged around the central aerial in a circle of diameter 44ft. (Typically 48 are used.) The
VOR controller presents the subcarrier as sidebands on the opposite ends of an imaginary
arm. Pairs of opposite aerials are switched in to form a rotating arm at 30Hz (1800RPM).
The opposite aerials elements carry are sidebands of (Fc+9960Hz) and (Fc-9960Hz)
frequencies.

From the receiver's perspective, there's a constant phase 30Hz AM modulation on the main
Fc MHz carrier but there also appears to be a 9960Hz subcarrier which is in turn frequency
modulated at 30Hz. The sidebands will appear to be frequency modulated at 30Hz by +/-480
Avionics manual

Hz due to the rotation and subsequent 44ft variation in distance between transmitting aerial
and receiver causing Doppler Shift as the transmitting "arm" rotates. Of course, the phase of
the 30Hz frequency modulation on the subcarrier (with respect to the reference signal) will
depend on the receiver's angular position around the VOR. Hence, the same receiver
comparison will result in the receiver's radial position being established as in the CVOR. The
Doppler effect is created by letting the VAR signal be electronically rotate, on the circular
placed aerials, at a speed of 30 revolutions per second. With a diameter of the circle of 13.4
meters, the radial velocity of the VAR signal will be 1264 m/s. This will create a Doppler
shift, causing the frequency to increase as the signal is rotated towards the observer and
reduce as it rotates away with 30 full cycles of frequency variation per second. This results in
an effective FM of 30 Hz. A receiver situated at some distance in the radiation field
continuously monitors the transmitter. When certain prescribed deviations are exceeded,
either the IDENT is taken off, or the complete transmitter is taken off the air. This receiver is
call is monitor antenna. It detects the following

 RF level
 9960 Hz modulation
 30 Hz AM modulation level
 30 Hz FM
 Azimuth

The information from the antenna goes to the monitor unit which monitors the error and
takes necessary action like shutting down the VOR if the error persists.
The resulting interference of the REF and the VAR signal gives a pattern known as the
cardioid pattern. This cardioid pattern rotates with the VAR signal and covers 360 degrees
for one complete switching of the antenna array.
The cardioid pattern is same as the pattern found in the CVOR section above. The receiver
antenna on the aircraft receives this pattern and isolates the two signals to detect the azimuth.

3.3.8. Types of DVOR

Based on antenna rotation techniques, three different types of DVOR have been
developed. These are, single sideband, double sideband, and alternate sideband.

Single sideband: - In SSB-DVOR one sideband, fc + 9960 KHz is fed to the commutator
and switched around the ring of radiating elements. The system is capable of radiating
the correct frequency spectrum. However, in space a receiver finds some variation in
Avionics manual

field strength. The nearer antenna gives higher field strength than the opposite far end
antenna, as they are placed apart. This gives rise to an additional unwanted 30 Hz AM in
variable FM signal

d1

d2

Double sideband:- Double sideband operation reduces the above counterpoise effect to
almost zero. In this system, upper and lower sideband signals are radiated simultaneously
from antennas diametrically opposite to each other. Both sidebands are commuted at 30
Hz in the same direction.
24 Lower sideband

Upper sideband

Alternate-sideband:- The alternate-sideband is the simplification of the double-sideband.

The two sidebands are radiated alternately from opposite sides. Although technically
perfect, it requires some additional modifications in aircraft receiver, ald also requires
larger counterpoise than the above two.

Out of above three systems, the double sideband VOR became more popular. In Nepal
all DVORs are working with double sidebands.

3.3.8 Siting Requirement

The DVOR antenna system consists of an array of antennas on a raised platform in the
middle of unpopulated fields. The sitting guidelines for a VOR transmitter are given below:
 The site should be on the highest ground in the vicinity to obtain maximum line of
sight coverage; preferably 1000 ft – 2000 ft. The land around the station should be
Avionics manual

circular and as flat as possible. A downward slope up to a gradient of 4% is

acceptable.
 The height of the high tension lines r wire fences should not subtend a vertical angle
more than 1.5 degree.
 Single trees of moderate size of up to 30 ft. may be allowed beyond 500 ft. No group
of trees is allowed within 1000 ft. if they subtend vertical angle greater than 2 degree
from the VOR antenna.
 No metallic structure should subtend a vertical angle greater than 1.2 degree or
should be within 500 ft. from the station. Wooden structures with negligible metallic
contents may be allowed if they subtend vertical angle no more than 2.5 degree.
 In the mountainous terrain, a mountain top site will often be preferable. The site
should be on the highest accessible hilltop or mountain, the top of which should be
graded flat to a radius of at least 150 ft. On such sites, the antenna system should be
installed approximately a half wavelength above the ground level in the center of the
graded area and the transmitter building should be beyond the graded area down the
slope below the optical line from the antenna array. No ground trees, power lines,
buildings etc. between 150 ft. and 1200ft. should be within the optical line of site of
the antenna array.

The VOR system usually coexists with the DME system. The VOR system consists of a
central antenna that radiates an omnidirectional reference signal. There are 48 antennas
situated at a distance of 7m from the center of the array structure. Each antenna is an
ALFORD LOOP ANTENNA. The central antenna is used to continuously radiate REF
signals whereas the surrounding antennas form the VAR signal. The signals have been
explained in the previous section. The net interaction of the signals gives rise to the rotating
cardioids pattern. The counterpoise is a metallic structure on top which is covered by chicken
wire. Since the signals from the antennas bounce at the edge of the counterpoise, wider the
counterpoise better the immunity from nearby reflections. This causes less multipath
reflections and gives space and frequency diversity effects, thereby improving the DVOR.
The monitor antenna, placed 80m away from the structure, is approximately 3m from the
ground level. It serves to monitor the system and if the signals from the VOR are outside of
allowed threshold, the monitor antenna detects this fault of the antenna and transmits the
information.
Avionics manual

SITING CRITERIA BETWEEN CVOR AND DVOR:-

Obstructions CVOR DVOR

1. Flat area without any obstructions 1000-2000' 450'-900'

2. Wooden structures 2.5 5.6

3. Group of trees 2 4.4

4. Overhead lines 1.5 3.3

5. Metallic structures 1.2 2.6

6. Fences 0.5 1.1

3.3.9 Advantages of DVOR over CVOR

 When the site is fixed and no alternative sites exit, DVOR gives a higher
guarantee of performance and also requires less expertise on site to achieve that
performance.
 DVOR has fewer constraints on site selection than CVOR
 In high growth area, the performance of DVOR will not deteriorate with the
expansion in the locality
 DVOR is less sensitive to industrial interference.
 DVOR has less maintenance cost, has less frequent fight testing requirements and
is more reliable.
The only advantage of CVOR over DVOR is its cost.

3.3.10. VOR receiver system

The primary purpose of the airborne equipment associated with the VOR sys-tem
is to detect the 30 Hz amplitude modulated signal produced by the rotating
cardioids pattern and compare it with the 30 Hz frequency modulated reference.
At the output of the 108.0-118.0 MHz receiver is an AM detector. The purpose of this
detector is to pick off the various amplitude modulating signals from the VHF
carrier.
Avionics manual

The detector output is comprised of four elements:

 Voice modulation, if it has been used at the transmitter

 Coded 1020 Hz identification tones
 A 30 Hz signal produced by the rotating cardioids
 A 9960 Hz tone which has been frequency modulated 480 Hz by the30 Hz
reference signal.

Figure: Schematic Drawing of Conventional VOR Receiver

The voice frequencies and the identification tone are relayed to the audio
distribution system of the aircraft. The 30 Hz information which was amplitude
modulating the carrier, i. e., the azimuth dependent signal, is filtered to remove
other components and fed to the phase comparison circuitry. The 9960 Hz
subcarrier information is removed by the 10kHz filter and then limited and
applied to an FM detector whose output is the 30 Hz reference signal. After
appropriate filtering this is compared with the azimuth dependent signal, and
bearing information is the result.
Avionics manual

DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT

3. DME as a navigational aid

Distance plays a vital role for navigating from one point to other. In aviation, for locating
the position of an aircraft polar coordinates (Rho, Theta) system is used, where VOR
provides the bearing and DME the distance. Distance Measuring Equipment, or DME, is
a standard navigational aid used by all members of the International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) for civilian aircraft operation. For military use, a similar system
has been developed, which is called Tactical Air Navigation (TACAN). Both operate in
the same principal.

Distance measuring is achieved by interactive communication between the aircraft and

the ground DME station. For this an aircraft initiates the process by sending a train of
paired RF modulated pulses at a rate of 135 pulse pairs per second (pps). Once the
aircraft starts getting the replies from the ground DME station the rate is reduced to
27pps. This is called "interrogation" and the aircraft is called "interrogator". After
receiving the signal the DME ground station checks the width and spacing of the
incoming signal to ascertain that they are within the specified limits. If yes, then it is
further delayed to make it exactly 50 us from the time of arrival of the first signal and
then responds back to aircraft with a similar pair of signal. This is called "reply" and the
ground station is referred to as "Transponder".

Hence DME station provides pilots with a continuous digital display of distance from the
aircraft to the facility. Operating on line-of-sight principal, DME furnishes distance
information with a very high degree of accuracy. Reliable signals may be received at
distances up to 200 NM at line-of-sight altitude with an accuracy of better than  0.5 NM
or 1.25% of the range, whichever is greater. However, the system is considered to be
capable of providing distance information accurate to within 370m (0.2NM) or 0.25%
of slant distance, whichever is greater, for at least 95% of time. Principal factors for
maximum range are aircraft height, transmitter power and receiver sensitivity, both in
ground and in the air. Distance information received from DME equipment is Slant
Range distance and not actual horizontal distance.
See fig. 1.
Avionics manual

Slant distance

DME station

Actual distance

(Fig. 3.1)

Most of the modern commercial jet-aircraft fly below 40,000 ft. (6.59 NM). Therefore,
when the aircraft is at a longer distance from the DME station, the slant distance and the
actual distance are very close to each other.

3.2. Distance measurement

The distance measured by the aircraft is not the horizontal distance but is the "slant"
distance. Since flying height of the aircraft compared to the distance to be measured is
relatively very small, there is virtually a very little difference to be counted for. Hence
with very negligible margin it could be considered as equal to the horizontal distance.
See the following illustration in Fig.2. When the aircraft is 100 NM away from the
station and flying at a height of 6NM (36,500 Ft) then the slant distance would be 100.18
NM which is very close to 100NM. Accuracy is higher when the aircraft is far from the
station. However, accuracy is lower when closer to the station. Over the DME station,
which is the cone of silence, the accuracy is extremely low and cannot be used. However
this coverage is small and quickly overflown by the aircraft.

Not
accurate overhead

D = √ (62 + 1002) = 100.18 NM

6 NM

100Km
(Slant distance. Fig.3.2)

3.3 Applications

Since, DME provides distance information; it can be used in several ways in aviation.
Avionics manual

3.3.1 DME co-located with a VOR (VOR/DME) - Rho-theta system

It is the most popular use of DME where a DME is installed together with a VOR. Since
VOR provides azimuth and DME distance, they both form together a Rho-theta (,)
system. Thus, an aircraft can find his polar coordinate of any location around the
VOR/DME station, which acts as the center of the sphere.
This enables the pilots as well as the ground air-traffic controllers to determine the exact
position of the aircraft with respect to the station
N




(Formation of polar coordinate by VOR/DME. Fig.3.3)

A VOR/DME station can be located at the

# Vicinity of the runway

# On the centerline of the runway
# Or, on the airway routes.

When it is installed around and on the centerline of the runway, an aircraft can use it for
homing and departure as well as to align itself to the runway, and make straight-in
approach. Such an approach, however, is not very accurate as with an ILS and is called
non-precision approach. An ILS approach is fully reliable hence it is called precision
approach. In the places where an ILS is not available, non-precision approach is very
helpful. Kathmandu airport uses DVOR/DME non-precision approach for all landings
and takeoffs day and night. When a VOR/DME station is located away from the airport,
it is mostly used for en-route aid, which provides position fix and route guidance. The
illustration in Fig. 2.3-3 shows how an aircraft can make turn at points A and B using
VOR/DME systems.

In most of the VOR/DME installations both the equipment are placed inside the same
shelter and the DME antenna is located on the same vertical axis of the VOR antenna.
It is called coaxial collocation. In DVOR/DME installations, however, due to space
restrictions the DME antenna may be installed as far as 80m from the VOR antenna
system. In some other situations, the antenna separation may be much higher, but in any
case it should not exceed 600m (2000 ft.). When antennas are separate, it is called offset
collocation.
Avionics manual

In VOR/DME installations, DME frequency is paired with VOR as per allocations made
in ICAO Annex-10. Therefore, as soon as a pilot tunes to the specific VOR frequency, if
the DME is collocated, it is received automatically. To identify collocation, both VOR
and DME share the same station identification code. The identification code is repeated
seven times per minute, with three times for VOR and once for DME, and so on. In such
installations, the range of DME should be the same as VOR. The radiation pattern of
both equipment is Omnidirectional. If VOR is not available, DME is sometimes co-
located with a NDB. It serves the same purpose but with less accuracy with respect to
azimuth guidance. In NDB/DME installations the DME frequency is not paired.
Therefore, both have to be selected independently. In Pokhara NDB/DME collocation
has been provided.

3.3.2 DME with ILS (ILS/DME)

At some geographical locations, where installation of associated Marker Beacons of the

Instrument Landing System (ILS) is not possible, a DME can be installed to provide the
distance information. When DME is used as an alternate to Markers, the DME is located
on the airport and adjusted in such a way that the zero range indication will be a point
near the end of the runway. Also, to reduce the angular error the DME antenna should
not be more than  20 from the centerline of the runway. In most of the cases, the DME
is normally located inside the Glide Slope (GS) shelter of ILS. The Glide Slope station is
normally 250 to300 meters from the end of the runway, and is only offset from the
centerline by 120-150meters. Therefore, it meets the above requirements. See fig. 2.3-4.
In ILS/DME installations, DME frequency is paired with Localizer frequency and they
both share the same identification tone, like with VOR. While it is not specifically
required that DME be frequency paired with the Localizer, in most of the cases when it is
used as an alternate to Outer Marker, frequency pairing is preferred to simplify pilot
operation.

Where only Localizer service is provided, it can be collocated with the Localizer. DME
is also installed with the Microwave Landing System (MLS), which is an alternate to ILS
with better accuracy and ideal for difficult sites. DME collocated with an ILS or MLS
system should have directional radiation pattern with distance accuracy better than  0.2
NM.

3.3.3 DME alone

DME is also installed as an independent station. In such installations the radiation pattern
is normally omnidirectional.

3.4 Principal of operation

DME ground system, which has transmitter/receiver, called transponder, works in

conjunction with airborne transmitter/receiver, called interrogator. The principal is that
Avionics manual

the interrogator transmits continuously a series of interrogation pulse pairs to the

transponder, which are received by the transponder receiver. After checking the
correctness of the incoming pulses the transponder holds for specified delay period and
transmits back the reply pulses. The time difference between interrogations and reply
pulses are measured in the interrogator receiver which is computed into distance
information to display directly in nautical miles. In navigation the distance is always
measured in nautical mile. 1' (minute) latitude or longitude represents 1NM. (1 NM =
1.86 KM).

Readout in NM

Airborne Tx Rx
Interrogator

Rx Tx

Delay Ground
Transponder

(Distance Measuring System. Fig.3.6)

DME operates in UHF frequency band from 960 MHz to 1215 MHz. The band is divided
in to 126 1-MHz channels for interrogations, and another 126 1-MHz channels for
replies. There is always a difference of  63 MHz between interrogation and reply
pulses. When DME transponder is intended to operate with an ILS, VOR or Microwave
Landing system (MLS), its frequencies are paired with associated navigation system. The
details of these channel pairing is indicated in ICAO Annex-10. Thus, a pilot only tunes
to ILS; VOR or MLS frequency channels and receives automatically the distance
information when a DME is collocated with any of them. To identify a particular station,
DME transmits identification codes at a fixed repetition rate, which varies in accordance
with installations. If alone then it is at the rate of 6 words per minute.

For obtaining the distance information, it is just required to tune the VOR frequency
which will then automatically tune the DME Frequency as they are paired with each
other. The aircraft interrogator starts transmitting a series of double pulses at a Pulse
Repetition Frequency (PRF) of 135 Pulse Pairs per Second (PPS). It is called the Search
Mode. For modern interrogator equipment the search time is just 1-2 seconds. As soon as
the interrogator receives the reply signals from the ground station PRF decreases from
Avionics manual

135 PPS to just 27 PPS and starts displaying the distance information. It is called Track
Mode or Lock Mode.

A modern DME station is capable of proving up to 2700 PPS. Therefore, a maximum of

100 aircraft may receive distance information simultaneously from one transponder.
However, 95 aircraft will be in lock mode and 5 in track mode. When there is no
interrogation from the aircraft, the transponder receiver generates the interrogation
signals internally at the rate of 2700 PPS and receives the reply in order to keep on
activating the transponder continuously, and to monitor the performance of the station.
As the aircraft interrogations are increased the internal interrogations are automatically
decreased at the same rate to keep overall PRF to 2700.

For interrogation as well as for reply DME uses a pair of pulses, called Gaussian Pulses,
which are 12  0.25 s apart and 3.5  0.5 s wide. The frequencies of interrogation and
reply, however, differ by  63 MHz from each other.

After receiving a pair of interrogation pulses the DME receiver checks the width and
spacing of the pulses, holds it for a total of 50  1s and then triggers back a reply.
Therefore, from the start time of the reception of the pulses the transponder receiver
would not accept any new incoming signals for 50  1s. This is called “Receiver Dead
Time”..

0.5

3.5  0.5s width

12  0.25s spacing

(Pulse width and spacing of interrogation and reply for DME. Fig 3.7)

The DME receiver dead time of 50  1s is necessary to make all the DME equipment
similar in performance as the actual circuit delay could vary from 20 to 30 s from
equipment to equipment that may lead to unacceptable errors. Furthermore it has
significant importance in echo suppression. This would be dealt with in detail in the
following paragraphs.
Avionics manual

Interrogation Reply

50  1s

(Receiver delay or dead time. Fig.3.8)

3.5 Gaussian Pulse

The DME system uses Gaussian Pulses instead of rectangular pulses, as normally is in
the case of primary Radar system. The reason for this is that the DME channels are very
closely spaced, i.e. 1-MHz apart.

If rectangular pulses were used then the frequency spectrum would follow a SinX/X
form and the energy would spread outside the 1-MHz channel bandwidth. This would
cause the energy to pass into adjacent channels, which may give rise to unnecessary
interference in co-channels.

To decrease the spectrum width it is necessary to reduce harmonics in the pulse. That's
why the Gaussian pulse has been chosen. Mathematically it can be proved that a
Gaussian pulse has relatively smaller frequency spectrum. Hence, most of the energy can
be maintained within the 1-MHz channel and interference with co-channel stations is
reduced. The Gaussian pulse can be represented by the formula:

f (x) = Ae(-t/σ)2

Where “A” is the amplitude and “σ” is the pulse half duration at 1/e point.

But this is at the expense of accuracy in distance indication, because if the detection level
will vary (which normally would occur due to shape of the pulse), it will result in
variation of time. In DME, the measurement of time is done at half amplitude of the
Gaussian pulse. Therefore, any distortion in shape may cause distance error. A variation
of just 1 s may cause an error of approximately 150 meters.

ICAO Annex-10 specifies the shape of the Gaussian pulse. The Gaussian pulse has been
illustrated in Fig.9. To reduce the harmonics and the distance error, the pulse should be
obtained in the equipment as accurately as possible.
Avionics manual

Amplitude

100%

90%

50%

10%
Time

Pulse rise time Pulse decay time

Pulse duration

(Gaussian pulse : Fig.-3.9)

Pulse rise time - The time as measured between 10 and 90 per cent amplitude
points on the leading edge of the pulse envelope. (2.5 - 3 s )

Pulse decay time-The time as measured between 90 and 10 per cent amplitude
points on the trailing edge of the pulse envelope. (2.5 - 3 s )

Pulse duration - The time interval between the 50% amplitude point on leading
and trailing edges of the pulse envelope. (3.5  0.5s)

3.6 DME Transponder Operation

A simplified bloc diagram for a general DME transponder is shown in Fig. 10. The
transponder antenna, which is normally a stacked array of conical dipoles, receives
interrogation pulses. Polarization of antenna is vertical and it radiates omni-directionally
Avionics manual

in the horizontal plain with 9dB gain at 3 degree over the horizon. The antenna works iL-
band.

Interrogating pulses Reply pulses fo + 63 MHZ

(fo)

Antenna Mixer Decoder Monitors

and IF 1&2
ampl.

50 us

Receiver

Coupler Dead
time

Transmitter Encoder Main delay Station

Unit Identification

(Simplified Bloc Diagram of Transponder. Fig. 3.10)

The coupler isolates the Receiver and Transmitter signals and hence the Interrogating
pulses are passed to the Mixer, which gives 63 MHz (difference between interrogating
and reply frequencies).

The signal is amplified in the IF unit and also passes through a Ferris Discriminator
which is a very high selective Band Pass filter. Normally in the IF unit the signal is also
mixed down to a 2nd IF frequency around 11 MHz. the signal is then detected and passed
to a Decoder which checks that the pulse spacing of the so called video pulses (LF
pulses) are within 12 + 1 us. If so, the Decoder triggers a short spike pulse with
reference to the 2nd pulse in the pair.
Avionics manual

Normally the total system delay in a modern transponder circuitry is approximately 20us
(including the 12us delay in decoder) hence the Main delay circuit must delay the pulse
spike for further 30us to obtain the over all delay of 50us. The Main delay circuit is
mainly a simple Monostable multivibrator. The Coder (or Encoder) will for each spike
input give out a double Gaussian pulse pair with the correct pulse spacing and pulse
characteristics given by ICAO. (The Coder consists mainly of multivibrators and a
Gaussian filter). This video signal modulates the Transmitter, which produces RF pulse
pairs with correct frequency. The Transmitters are either Low power (100 Wp
transistorized PA) or Medium power (1kWp PA including valves) or High power (5kWp
with klystrons). Here Wp denotes “pulse power” that is much lower than the average
power of the transmitter. Pulse power is the power of the transmitter for a very short
period while transmitting the particular pulse. The frequency is always 63 MHZ above or
below the correct interrogating frequencies.

The Transponder also transmits identifications signal at every 30 seconds when co-
located with VOR or ILS-LLZ. The identification signal has the frequency 1350 pulse
per second and do have 2 or 3 letters in the Morse code which indicates the signature of
the ground beacon.

Even if no aircraft is present to interrogate the transponder the duty cycle must be kept
constant 2700 pulse pairs and this is carried out by the Monitor, which gives noise or
squitter pulses inversely proportional to interrogating pulses. Therefore, with no
interrogations all 2700 pulse pairs will come from the Monitor. On the other hand, with
100 aircrafts interrogating, there will be no pulses coming out from the Monitor, because
all 2700 pulse pairs will be produced by the aircraft.

3.8 DME errors and echo suppression

3.8.1 DME errors

DME works in UHF band, therefore, strict line-of-sight principal applies to it. DME
mainly suffers from multi-path error. Since DME antenna in the aircraft is not
directional, the interrogation pulses from the aircraft may also be reflected from the
surrounding terrain; buildings etc. and arrive later as the echo pulses. See Fig. 12. The
echo pulses, if they are strong and within the specified limits (i.e. correct width and
spacing), they may also be accepted by the transponder as the true signals. Consequently,
false replies may be triggered back. These replies originating from echo pulses could be
accepted in some aircraft receivers and may cause false indication
Avionics manual

Tower

t2

t
rock

t1

DME station House

3.8.2 Echo suppression by DME dead time

To eliminate echo to some extent, DME dead time is very useful. The DME dead time is
a period of blanking of the transponder receiver during which no incoming signal is
accepted. In most of the DME transponders the dead time is adjusted to 50  1s. If the
reflecting points are within 5 NM from the DME station then most of the echo pulses
will be rejected by the DME receiver. However, the long distance echo pulses, if they are
strong, may cause problem. The following illustration clarifies the above statements.

3.8.2.1 Short distance echo

The echo pulses may arrive in phase or out of phase compared to direct pulses. The
Fig.13 illustrates the situation when both pulses arrive in phase. If the first pair of the
echo pulse arrives with a delay of, say, 10 s then the first direct pulse will not be
distorted. However, the second direct pulse will add up with the first echo pulse. From
the above it is seen that after addition the width of the second pulse gets wider. If it is
more than 4 s then the DME receiver will reject the pair. Similarly, when the echo pulse
will arrive anti-phase then the composite waveform will be less than 3.5 s, which will
again be rejected by the receiver. To avoid this situation blanking of receiver for some
time is necessary, which is referred to as DME dead time or receiver dead time. During
this period no other pair is accepted until a reply has been made in response to that
particular pair. If the receiver dead time was not there any echo pulse that will arrive
during that period would have been accepted by the receiver. This would have created
either rejection of valid pulses due to signal deformations or false distance indications
due to echoes.
Avionics manual

1-st pulse 2-nd pulse

Direct pulse

Echo pulse

Resultant pulse

3.5s > 4.5s

<
12 s

(Deformation of pulse pair due to echo. Fig. 3.13)

Receiver dead time is normally adjusted to 50 - 60 s. It will protect from echo signals
that will generate from reflections closer to DME station (up to 5 NM). These are the
short distance echoes.

3.8.2.2 Long-distance echo

Long-distance echoes are those which arrive after the receiver dead time. Normally the
long distance echoes are weaker. Therefore, they are below the receiver threshold point
and rejected by the transponder. However, sometimes the far distance echoes may be
strong enough to be accepted by the receiver and trigger the replies causing false lock on
problem. To avoid the situations the receiver dead time may be increased further more
than the normal 50 to 60 s.

By increasing the receiver dead time false lock on problem may be reduced but this will
affect on overall reply efficiency of the Ground station. This is because during the dead
time the transponder receiver will reject all the incoming signals from other aircraft.
Reply efficiency is a factor that indicates the ability of the transponder receiver to receive
interrogations and make replies successfully. There is a relationship between efficiency
and dead time.
Avionics manual

Reply efficiency = 1 - 2700X receiver dead time.

For 50 s receiver dead time we get:
Reply efficiency = 1-2700X50. 10-6 = 0.86.5 (86.5%)

For 100 s receiver dead time we get:

Reply efficiency = 1-2700X100. 10-6 = 0.73 (73.5%)

Thus, by increasing the receiver dead time while we can suppress the long distance
echoes, we reduce the reply efficiency of the ground system. So length of the receiver
dead time should be taken in to consideration only after examining the nature of the
echoes. The following illustration in Fig. 14 shows the relationship between receiver
dead time and reply efficiency of the DME. If the dead time is more than 150 s then the
reply efficiency in practice will be 50%, which is the lower threshold of an aircraft
interrogator to maintain the distance information. ICAO recommends to keep the dead
time not exceeding 60  1s unless the long distance echoes are too prominent to be
neglected. Even then it should be increased only by the minimum amount just necessary
to allow the suppression of echoes

Reply Eff.

100%

80%

50%

60 80 100 120 140 Rx dead time s

(Receiver dead time vs. reply efficiency, Fig.3.14)

Another factor, that affects the reply efficiency, is the receiver sensitivity or receiver
threshold. In order to accept most of the aircraft signals the receiver sensitivity of the
ground equipment should be very high. In any case, if the incoming pulse pair strength is
- 120 dbW/m2 the transponder will reply with an efficiency of 70% or more. The
transponder output power is normally kept at 1KW pulse peak power.

3.9 Siting requirements

The basic requirements in siting a DME beacon are to ensure adequate coverage and to
avoid the possibility of interference to the correct operation of the aid. Site selected in
open country should keep hills, mountains, large buildings, etc. at as small angle of
elevation as practicable. The Fig. 15 shows the basic site requirements of a DME station.
Avionics manual

Non-metallic objec

Metallic objects

DME 2.5 1.2

200' 1000'

Gradient of 4:100

(Basic site requirement of a DME, Fig. 3.15)

The distant obstacle horizon should preferably not extend above an elevation angle of
0.5 when viewed from the near ground level at the proposed location of the DME.
Within 200' from the DME antenna the area should be flat and clear of all obstructions.
No group of trees or overhead lines are permitted within this radius. Beyond 200' a
downward slope of 4:100 is permitted. Within 200' - 1000' from the DME all metallic
objects should not subtend an angle greater than 1.2. For non-metallic obstructions up to
2.5 is allowed. As a general guidance, small buildings, power and telephone lines and
fences can be tolerated within 200' provided they are not higher than the DME antenna.
Normally a DME antenna is kept up to a height of 20' from the ground if that clears local
obstructions.

Large buildings such as multi-story buildings, steel bridges, metallic towers etc. are
potential sources of interference. If they are within 3 NM from the station they may
cause signal deformations. All the houses within 1000' should be constructed lengthwise
and along the radials from the DME station as far as practicable. DME is highly affected
by electrical noise. Therefore, any high-tension line above 22KV should be kept as far as
3000'. There are no restrictions on vehicular movements around the site.

3.10 Antenna system

Since DME suffers from echo signals generated by multi-path effect, highly directional
antenna system is used to avoid unwanted reflections. The DME signal is vertically
polarized. In non-directional stations, such as in VOR/DME, the radiated signal is
Omnidirectional with slightly tilted beam width of approximately 6. This provides
desired power on the horizon necessary for minimum echo generation. See fig.16.
Avionics manual

6

DME station

(Radiation pattern of DME. Fig. 3.16)

To achieve such a low beam width stacked biconical antenna radiating elements are used.
They form together an antenna array, which provides narrow radiation pattern of 6. The
difference between maximum and minimum azimuth points is not more than 2db.

(Biconical antenna element. Fig. 3.17)

When a DME is installed with an ILS highly directional antenna system is used.
Furthermore, in such an installation the transponder time delay is adjusted in such a
manner that the aircraft interrogator indicates zero range at a specified point.

3.11 Monitoring and calibrations

The DME is a highly accurate and dependable aid, which provides distance information
to the aircraft. Therefore, the independent monitor units constantly monitor its
performance. Normally up to two monitors are used. In the even that any of the
conditions specified below occur, the monitors will cause the following actions to take
place:

# a suitable indication shall be given at the aircraft cockpit.

# the operating transponder shall be automatically switched off and the standby
transponder will be turned on.

# The monitors continuously measure the following radiated parameters of the DME:

# a fall of 3db or more in transmitted power output.

Avionics manual

# Pulse spacing of 12 s exceeds more than  1s

# Reply delay exceeds by  1s

# Reply efficiency  70%

# Identification tone not repeated every 30 seconds or transmitted continuously for more
than 5 seconds.

# Pulse counts  850 pulse pairs per second.

Monitoring signals are obtained from the pick up probes closely placed near the antenna
elements.

Like in other navigational aid equipment, calibration is done in regular intervals, both in
the ground and air. While ground calibration is carried out by using specific measuring
test equipment, for the flight calibration specially equipped aircraft is deployed. The
aircraft normally checks the DME coverage area, field strength, reply efficiency and
echoes in the specified routes and places.
Avionics manual

Instrument Landing System

The Instrument Landing System, abbreviated as ILS, is a system of electronic equipment,
which assists the landing aircraft to make straight in approach by using cockpit
indications at any non-visual meteorological conditions. ILS is a standard aid, adopted
by the members of ICAO since its development in 1940's. There are hundreds of ILS's in
operation at all modern airports throughout the world. It is still considered to be the most
reliable, most utilized and most implemented precision approach system in the world.

The system comprises of a Localizer, a Glide Slope, and two to three Marker Beacons.
The landing path is determined by the intersections of two planes, as shown in Fig.1-A,
and could be explained as follows:

 A vertical plane containing the runway centerline, is defined by a VHF

Transmitter, called Localizer (LLZ).
 A horizontal plane of 2º-4º vertical angle containing the runway centerline, is
defined by an UHF transmitter, called Glide Slope (GS).
 Vertically radiated VHF Markers (IM,MM & OM) transmitters provide fixed
distance information


Marker pattern Localizer pattern

LLZ GS IM MM OM

Glide Slope pattern

(Radiation pattern of an ILS)

All these stations form a system that provides an electronic passage, exactly at an
approach angle that is required for a safe landing.
Avionics manual

The ILS helps to bring the aircraft safely down to a pre-defined height, called the
Decision Height, from where the pilot has to make his own decision whether to land or to
make a missed approach. The missed approach is an aviation terminology for
unsuccessful landing. In this case, the aircraft has to make a turn and try to land once
again. In category- IIIC, visibility is not needed and a blind landing can be made using
electronic equipment. Therefore, based on decision height and the visibility of the
runway, three categories of ILS are defined by the International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) which is tabulated below.

Table -T1

ILS CATEGORIES DECISION HEIGHT (M) VISIBILITY (M)

CAT - I 60 800

CAT - II 30 400

CAT - IIIA 0 200

CAT - IIIB 0 50
CAT - IIIC 0 0

Since the pilots fully rely on ILS guidance for landing, the signals radiated by an ILS
should be very accurate and authentic. ICAO Annex-10 specifies the necessary technical
tolerances that have to be maintained for the above three categories of ILS's.

In many occasions, where the geographical conditions do not permit installation of

Marker beacons at predefined distances, Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) is co-
located with ILS. The DME can be co-located with an ILS in the following three ways
- DME with Glide Slope
- DME with Localizer
- DME installed independently.
Avionics manual

Thus, while landing on ILS, a pilot determines his position from the runway end by
DME. In some locations, an NDB is installed on the centerline of the runway in stead of
a Marker. Such an NDB is then called a compass locator.

Coverage of an ILS

Localizer: The horizontal localizer coverage sector is extended from the center of the
localizer antenna array to the distances of:

# 46.3 km (25 NM) with  10 from the from course line.# 31.5 km (17 NM) between
10 and 35 from the front course line.

# 18.5 km (10 NM) outside of  35, only if the coverage is needed.

Here, the course line means the extended centerline of the runway. In most cases the
coverage is limited to  35 only. Where the topographical features do not permit a
longer range, the localizer radiation can be reduced to 18 NM instead of 25 NM within 
10, and 10 NM instead of 17 NM between 10 and 35 lines.

35
10NM
LLZ antenna 17NM 10
25NM Course line

10
35

( Horizontal coverage of localizer)

Fig.4.2
Avionics manual

Difference in Depth of Modulation

Figure: Difference in Depth of Modulation for ILS-GS (side view)

The total beam width is approximately 1.4 degrees and the angle of the desired
approach glide slope is 3 degrees. By demodulating the received glide slope signal and
calculating the difference in depth of modulation (DDM) between the two tones,the ILS-
GS provides the pilot with vertical course data.Difference in depth of modulation (DDM)
is the relative difference between the two AM carriers of 90 Hz and 150 Hz. If the DDM
is a positive value, the upper 90 Hz beam is predominant, whereas if the DDM is a
negative value, the lower 150 Hz beam is
predominant. A pilot would need to exercise motor judgment to maintain enough power
and approach angle for ideal vertical descent (DDM=0). The landing approach angle
must also be corrected so that the aircraft landing will be “cushioned” by air upon
touchdown and be within tolerances of the landing gear’s mechanical integrity.

4.2.2. Marker Beacons:

Fig: Marker Beacon Placement with respect to runway

Avionics manual

Normally, only two Marker beacons are installed in most of the locations. These are,
Middle Marker MM) and Outer Marker (OM). The Inner Marker (IM) may be added
whenever its need may be felt at any particular site.

All the Markers radiate vertically in an elliptical shape on the course line through which
the aircraft makes the approach. The Marker beacon system should be adjusted to
provide the coverage over the following distances, measured on localizer and glide slope
intersection:

a) Inner Marker: 15050m (500ft  160ft)

b) Middle Marker: 300  100m (1000ft  325ft)

c) Outer Marker: 600  200m (200ft  650ft)

4.2.3. Siting Requirements

Since ILS transmitters work on mid-VHF band and they carry sensitive navigation
signals; care must be taken for its proper siting requirements. The ability of an ILS
system to provide a reliable signal depends upon proper formulation of radiation pattern,
and absence of natural and man made objects that may cause signal aberrations.

In the early days, installation of an ILS was a major problem restricting its use only to
the airports with clear and plain terrain with little or no man made obstructions in the
vicinity. Nowadays, due to advancements in technologies, companies developing and
manufacturing ILS have improved the design and performance to such an extent that an
ILS can be installed even at a very difficult location. Especially, in the last one decade
ILS technology has progressed to include important innovations in the field of antenna
and microchips, which made it adaptable to any siting challenge and more reliable than
the old systems.

Since the quality of the radiated signal is highly dependent on topographical features
surrounding the airports, the problems are successfully overcome these days by utilizing
special antenna configurations, and the manner in which RF signals are fed to them.
Avionics manual

Therefore installation may vary significantly from site to site. As a general rule, the
following siting criterion is adopted.

Localizer siting criteria

The preferred location for a Localizer is on the centerline of the runway beyond 300
meters from the stop end. The distance between the end of the runway and antenna
positions may be varied to suit a particular condition. The antenna array could even be
located beyond 600 meters to allow for planned runway extension. However, it will
reduce the course width of the Localizer. On the other hand, it is recommended not to
reduce the distance by less than 300 meters, as antenna might be subject to high intensity
jet propulsion, and at busier airports field measurements may have to be restricted.

The shelter containing electronic equipment is generally located at 60 to 90 meters to one

side of the antenna system. The shelter could be located behind the antenna also if this
has advantage for a particular site and does not infringe airport clearance. However,
screened antenna array must be used at such installations and back-course coverage will
not be possible.

The ground surface within the site area should be as flat as possible, normally up to 1-%
gradient. Beyond the site area slope should not be more than 5%. Within the airport
boundary area at plus or minus 10 degrees from the antenna along the centerline of the
runway, there should not be any large buildings, power lines, MF or HF antennas, or
other potential reflectors.
5% gradient

 300m

180m 10 no large objects

Centerline Ant.

60-90m 10

LLZ Building

Critical area (1% gradient)

(Critical area of LLZ

Avionics manual

5. AERONAUTICAL SURVEILLANCE

5.1 History of Radar

Radar is an object detection system which uses radio waves to determine the range,
altitude, direction, or speed of objects. It can be used to detect aircraft,
ships, spacecraft, guided missiles, motor vehicles, weather formations, and terrain. The
radar dish or antenna transmits pulses of radio waves or microwaves which bounce off
any object in their path. The object returns a tiny part of the wave's energy to a dish or
antenna which is usually located at the same site as the transmitter. People understood
the concept of radar long before scientists first built a radar system. In the late 1930's all
of the countries involved in World War II rushed to create better radar systems to use in
the war. Great Britain was one of the leading developers of radar in the years leading up
to World War II. The research they conducted led to an early warning radar system
called "Chain Home". They built radar stations around the British Isles to provide
warning of an aerial invasion. This was one of the advantages which helped the
outnumbered Royal Air Force defeat the German Luftwaffe during the Battle of Britain.
While radar development was encouraged by wartime efforts, people were also interested
in using radar as an anti-collision system. After the Titanic ran into an iceberg and sank
during bad weather in 1912, people were interested in ways to avoid this happening
again. Out of these all of these efforts, weather radar was
developed.

A radar system has a transmitter that emits radio waves called radar signals in
predetermined directions. When these come into contact with an object they are
usually reflected or scattered in many directions. Radar signals are reflected especially
well by materials of considerable electrical conductivity especially by most metals,
 Avionics manual

by seawater and by wet lands. Some of these make the use of radar altimeters possible.
The radar signals that are reflected back towards the transmitter are the desirable ones
that make radar work. If the object is moving either toward or away from the transmitter,
there is a slight equivalent change in the frequency of the radio waves, caused by
the Doppler Effect. Radar receivers are usually, but not always, in the same location as
the transmitter. Although the reflected radar signals captured by the receiving antenna
are usually very weak, they can be strengthened by electronic amplifiers. More
sophisticated methods of signal processing are also used in order to recover useful radar
signals.

5.3 Theory of Primary and Secondary Surveillance Radar

5.3.1. Introduction

The word RADAR was originally derived from the descriptive phrase "Radio Detection
And Ranging". Although this phrase has for a long time been used, it seems to be an
incomplete description of what Radar can be used for. The present-day RADAR can
provide much more information than finding the range of an object. The fundamental
principal of all Radar systems is to calculate the distance of an object from the Radar site
by measuring the time a pulse of radio energy takes to travel to the object and back
again. The importance of radar in aviation is that it can provide information about the
precise position and velocity of the aircraft. In addition, the more complex equipment
can supply other useful data, such as, velocity, identification, height, etc. Radar can
contribute to the safety and surveillance of the aircraft in thick density areas. For
example, near an aerodrome, where the air traffic density is very high, radar may be used
to sequence the aircraft onto final approach as a final approach aid, and for separation
soon after takeoff. There are two basic types of Radar system:

 Primary Radar - A system, which uses reflected radio, signals.

 Secondary Radar - A system in which radio signals transmitted from the
Radar station on the ground initiates the transmission of
radio signals from another station, e.g. aircraft.

 Use of Radar in Civil Aviation

Surveillance is one of the most important elements in aviation. Through surveillance an air traffic
control post can monitor the movements of aircraft as well as can provide guidance and avert
accidents. In aviation surveillance is done in two ways:

a) Through position reporting

Avionics manual

b) Through Radar.

Providing surveillance through position reporting by aircraft is highly unreliable and could cause
misunderstandings resulting in fatal accidents. Therefore, radar has been widely used in civil
aviation as one of the major surveillance tools for many years now. The prime purpose is to
detect the aircraft flying within the controlled as well as uncontrolled airspace for traffic
separation and control, and also for providing guidance during landing. Some of the uses of radar
in aviation are as follows:

 ASR (Airport Surveillance Radar)

It is a medium to low power primary radar installed for surveillance and traffic separation in
the airport terminal area. It works in S-band with pulse power up to 1 MW and antenna
revolution around 15rpm.

 PAR (Precision Approach Radar)

With this radar an air traffic controller guides the approaching aircraft to take the correct
approach to the airport. PAR works in the band 9000 - 9180 MHz and normally of low
power.

 ARSR (Air Route Surveillance Radar)

As the name denotes, ARSR works as an air-route surveillance radar with relatively high
coverage range of 200 to 300NM. It works in L-band (1250 - 1350 MHz) and normally
placed in the air routes with high traffic density.

5.3.2 PRIMARY RADAR

5.3.2.1 General Block Diagram

The purpose of primary radar system in aviation is to present a continuous supply of

useful information to the air traffic controllers on the ground regarding the range, bearing
and, in some cases, elevation of the aircraft within the operational range of the radar
system. Thus, every primary radar system must be capable of:

 Transmission
 Reception
 Display

A basic block diagram of the primary radar is shown in Fig.1-2. Trigger Unit, which is
also called as the Master Timer, provides triggering signals in the form of a series of very
brief electrical pulses at a regular interval. Each pulse fires the modulator to send a high
power high voltage pulses to the transmitter. The duration of square wave pulses from
the modulator is determined by certain design characteristics in the modulator. The
beginning of each pulse from the modulator unit switches on the transmitter and the end
of the same pulse switches it off. Thus the modulator pulses represent a kind of on/off
switch for the transmitter.
Avionics manual

Antenna

Duplexer

RF Amplifier
Transmitter Informal
Converter
Antenna

Modulator IF Amplifier System

Detector
Synchronizer
Video Amplifier

Sweep CRT Scanning

Generator Indicator System

(F

FIG. 5.2 Basic primary radar block diagram)

In primary radar, since the incoming signal has to return back from a long distance, high
transmission power is desirable so as the received signal is not too weak to be detected.
Therefore, the Transmitter unit is consists of a Magnetron or Klystron. For low powered
systems requiring smaller coverage, solid state transmitters are also used. As seen from
the block diagram, the transmitter is radiating only for a very brief duration - usually in
the region of millionth of a second. The output of the transmitter is a series of pulses of
radar energy. Each pulse thus produced is delivered to the aerial. Electromagnetic energy
from the transmitter is radiated from the aerial at a regular interval. The radiated energy
is confined within a fairly narrow beam. The receiving aerial should be sensitive within
the same fairly narrow angle so that echoes from the objects illuminated by the
transmitter can also be detected. Therefore, normally same aerial is employed for both
transmission and reception. However, because the receiver has to be very sensitive, it
must be protected each time a pulse of high power is transmitted by the transmitter. This
is achieved by isolating the receiver during transmission with a Transmit/Receive
Switch.
Avionics manual

If the radar system has to search an appreciable sector with a narrow beam, then the
beam must be moved about in that sector. One way of achieving this movement, which is
referred to as "scanning", is to rotate the whole aerial unit. Therefore, the radar antenna is
being rotated at a constant speed.

The signal reception block detects energy reflected from the objects within the
operational range of the radar system. The received signal, being very weak, is first of all
amplified and suitably treated by the high gain low noise receiver prior to sending it to
the display unit. The received signal is displayed on the screen of the display unit. As
range is calculated by measuring the time between transmission and reception, it is
necessary to synchronize the start of the time base with the beginning of transmitted
pulse. This is done in the time base unit upon information from the trigger unit. The
reference data is added in order to isolate the unwanted echoes.

5.3.2.2 Radar equation and radar range

Free space Radar equation

The ground radar systems being used in civil aviation have been designed for various
specific purposes. Some of them are used for short distances whereas others for great
distances. One of the important factors is to establish the maximum range. Maximum
range is dependent on the characteristics of the aerial, transmitter, receiver and the size of
the target. Ignoring for the time being the effect of ground on the radiation pattern from
the aerial, let's examine the relationship between maximum range and the following
parameters:

 R - Range of the aircraft in meters

 Pt - Transmitted power in Watts
 G - Gain of the aerial
 S - Equivalent echoing area of the aircraft
 Ar - Effective absorbing area of the aerial while receiving
 Pr - Received power in Watts

The transmitted power is the power that is transmitted for the duration of the pulse. In
radar terminology this is known as the "peak power". During the period between pulses
the transmitter is not generating any power. The "effective mean power" will be
somewhat much smaller than the peak power and can be expressed as follows:

Mean power = Pt X Pulse length = Pt x Pulse Length x PRF

PRI
Avionics manual

Therefore, for example, if the peak power Pt is 1MW, Pulse length is 1 µs and pulse
repetition frequency (PRF) is 500/sec then the mean power will be:

Mean power = 1x106 x1x10-6 x500 = 500W

If we first of all assume that the transmitted power is radiated equally in all directions, it
will be spread out progressively over great areas as it travels further away from the
transmitter. As the received power density is inversely proportional to the distance from
the transmitter, the power density intercepted at a distance R at the target will be:

Pt W/m2

4 R2

Now if the aerial is designed to concentrate its power in one direction only, the power
density will be increased by an amount G, the gain of the antenna. Therefore the density
intercepted at R will be:

Pt x G W/m2
4 R2

Some of its energy is reflected back to the radar on the ground. The amount of reflection
will depend upon the particular echoing characteristics of the aircraft and a factor
equivalent to echoing area; s. Therefore, the power Pd radiated from the aircraft is given
by the formula:

Pd = Pt x GxS Watts

4R2

As the power travels towards the radar site it is further attenuated according to the
inverse square law. Therefore power density intercepted by the radar aerial Pa will be:

Pa = Pt xGxS W/m2

16R4

The power actually fed into the receiver, Pr will be dependent upon the effective
absorbing area, Ar of the aerial. Therefore:
Avionics manual

Pr = Pt xGxSx Ar W/m2

16 2 R4

5.3.2.3 Radar Range

Transposing the above we could get the equation for the radar range as follows:

R= 4 PtxGxSx Ar meters

16 2 Pr

From the above equation it is evident that the maximum range of a primary radar is
dependent on several factors, such as transmitted power, gain of the antenna, area of the
reflecting object, effective absorbing area of the radar antenna and received power.
However, one factor that will affect more than others is the capability of the radar
receiver to receive the smallest possible signal Pr that can be identified and accepted by
its threshold. If the other parameters are considered to be constant then the formula can
be written as

Rmax = k. 4 Pt

From the above it is seen that if it is required to double the maximum range by increasing
the transmitted power, the increase has to be 16 fold, which is not an ideal solution.
Conversely, the effect of doubling the transmitted power would be to increase the
maximum range by just 4 2 times. i.e.1.19 times, which is an increase of only 19%.

Further, the absorbing area of the antenna can be written as: Ar = G 2/ 4

Therefore the radar equation can be now written as:

Avionics manual

Rmax = 4 Pt G2 2s

643 Pr

The above equation shows that for the fixed wavelength , the maximum range varies as
the square root of the antenna gain, G. Therefore, if it is required to increase the range of
the radar it is more practical to increase the antenna gain than to increase the transmitter
power. Antenna gain can be easily increased by using special techniques available in
modern-day antenna engineering.

5.3.2.4. Minimum and Maximum Range

Minimum Range

The radar energy received by the radar aerial has had to travel a distance equal to twice
the range, i.e. 2R.

Since Time T = 2R Where V being the velocity of light, 300,000 Km/Sec.

Then, R = TV, Hence, for pulse width of T= 1µs, R = 150 meters

The minimum range of a radar installation is determined by the period between the
beginning of the transmission of the pulse and the earliest time that its return can be
registered. Two factors affect this time:

1. The pulse width - It is not possible to start measuring the time until the whole pulse
has been transmitted. Hence width of a pulse determines the minimum range. For
example, for a pulse width of 1µs the minimum range is 150m.

2. Receiver restoration time - The time the receiver takes to recover to normal after
transmission has taken place, which in turn, depends upon the design of a particular
equipment.

Maximum range

In Radar the next energy pulse is only transmitted after the first one has traveled to its
maximum range and had time to travel back. Therefore, the time interval between two
pulses will limit the theoretical maximum range of radar.
Avionics manual

Since R = TV and T=1 Hence, R = V Hence R  1/PRF

2 PRF 2PRF

1. From the above it is seen that the maximum range attainable by a radar is inversely
proportional to the pulse repetition frequency. More the pulse repetition frequency
lesser the maximum attainable range by a radar installation.

2. For a particular radar system design, Pt, G and Ar will remain constant. Therefore,
from the radar range equation shown hereunder it is evident that the maximum range
of a radar installation will depend upon received reflected power Pr by the radar
antenna. Pr is the smallest power that can be identified as a signal after passing
through the receiver to the display.

R= 4 PtxGxSx Ar meters

16 2 Pr

Identification of a signal maybe hampered by the presence of noise. At low frequencies

the noise may arrive at the aerial mixed with the signal. However, it is the internal
receiver noise that matters most. As the receiver itself generates the receiver internal
noise, Pr will depend upon the quality of the receiver and will be responsible for
maximum range of a particular radar for its transmitted power and aerial system. To
combat the problem of receiver noise "parametric amplifiers" are commonly used in
radar receivers. Research on low noise receivers continues in an attempt to achieve
further improvements.

5.3.3 SECONDARY SURVEILLANCE RADAR (SSR)

5.3.3.1 General Introduction

Secondary radar is described in civil aviation as the Secondary Surveillance Radar

(SSR). It consists of a ground-based transmitter/Receiver, which works in conjunction
with airborne Transmitter/Receiver. The ground-based unit triggers the airborne
transponder into operation when particular conditions are satisfied. SSR is used all over
the world by civil aviation in only two frequencies. The ground-based transmitter, known
as the "interrogator", transmits on 1030 MHz to the aircraft transceiver, known as
"transponder". The transponder, having received the ground transmission on 1030 MHz,
transmits back its information on 1090 MHz. The ground receiver then accepts
information on 1090MHz providing air traffic controllers with vital statistics about the
flight of the aircraft.
Avionics manual

Rx/Tx
Antenna 1030 Mhz
1030/1090
1090Mhz

Tx/Rx

(Fig. 5-12 Basic SSR Principal)

5.3.4 Comparison with Primary Radar

Primary Radar depends on the reflection of radar signal and operates on one frequency.
As a consequence reflections from ground, buildings, precipitations, etc., will be fed to
the display along with aircraft echoes. This can cause the display to be cluttered with
unwanted signals. Also, the power output of a primary radar must be sufficiently high to
allow for the two-way path and for the losses on reflection. Nevertheless, primary radar
is self-contained and does not require equipment to be installed in the aircraft.

Secondary radar is independent of aircraft echoeing area. In fact, because the airborne
equipment has its own transmitter, much less power is needed than in primary radar for
the same operational range. Also, as the airborne responses of the secondary radar is on a
different frequency to the ground transmission, ground clutter and other unwanted
echoes are not accepted for presentation. With suitable coding, secondary radar can
provide aircraft indentification without aircraft maneuvres and thus with much less use
of other communication system. The coding system may also be used to send printed
information from aircraft to air-traffic controllers on ground. Unfortunately, the coding
system relies on pulses being either “present” or “not present” and therefore weak signals
cannot be tolerated as they may generate false information. Secondary radar also suffers
from the disadvantage that it requires each aircraft to carry a transponder.
Avionics manual

5.3.5 The Coding System

The method used in SSR for communicating information consists of the transmission and
reception of pulses. The ground interrogator first transmits a pair of pulses with definite
width and spacing to the aircraft. Depending upon various modes used in radar for
various purposes, the pulse spacing could vary from each other. In secondary radar it is
necessary to design the system to reduce the chances of transponder operation as a result
of receiving spurious pulses. For this reason, two pulses with a known spacing are
transmitted from the interrogator. The ground based interrogation pulses are produced
differently depending upon “mode of operation” of the secondary radar.

0.8  0.1s

Mode-A

8  0.2s

Mode-B

17  0.2s

Mode-C

21  0.2s

Mode-D

25  0.2s

(Fig: Various modes of SR and their pulse spacing)

After receiving the interrogation pair of pulses from the ground interrogator, the aircraft
transponder transmits back a reply to ground. In the process of replying, the aircraft
transponder does not reply to any other signals at least for the duration of the reply
pulses train. It is known as receiver dead time of radar transponder. This dead time does
not last more than 125 microseconds after transmission of the last reply pulses. The
aircraft transponder recognizes the interrogation mode by the time spacing between two
pulses. The transponder reply, as illustrated below, consists of a train of pulses each of
which is 0.45 s wide and 1s apart.
Avionics manual

0.45s

F1 6 or 12 information pulses F2 Ident

1.45s

20.3s 4.35s

(Fig. 5.14 Reply Pulse Train from transponder)

The train of pulses is built up as follows:

Two framing pulses 20.3s apart (F1 and F2). The first frame pulse is always the first
pulse in the train. The information pulses lie between two frame pulses and composed of
either 6 or 12 pulses. The information signal is formed in binary codes, which means
either presence or absence of pulses. If six pulse positions are used then the number of
codes available is 26 = 64. For 12 positions the number of codes available is 212 = 4096.
The identity pulse is transmitted only when the switch is activated in the aircraft at the
request of the air trafic controller. The identity pulses are then transmitted automatically
for a period of twenty seconds.

5.4 Monopusle SSR and Mode-S

5.4.1 Monopulse SSR

The new Mode S system was intended to operate with just a single reply from an aircraft,
a system known as monopulse. The accompanying diagram shows a conventional main
or "sum" beam of an SSR antenna to which has been added a "difference" beam. To
produce the sum beam the signal is distributed horizontally across the antenna aperture.
This feed system is divided into two equal halves and the two parts summed again to
produce the original sum beam. However the two halves are also subtracted to produce a
difference output. A signal arriving exactly normal, or boresight, to the antenna will
produce a maximum output in the sum beam but a zero signal in the difference beam.
Away from boresight the signal in the sum beam will be less but there will be a non-zero
Avionics manual

signal in the difference beam. The angle of arrival of the signal can be determined by
measuring the ratio of the signals between the sum and difference beams. The ambiguity
about boresight can be resolved as there is a 180° phase change in the difference signal
either side of boresight. Bearing measurements can be made on a single pulse, hence
monopulse, but accuracy can be improved by averaging measurements made on several
or all of the pulses received in a reply from an aircraft,

Figure: Antenna main beam with difference beam

5.4.2 Mode-S

A mode S interrogation comprises two 0.8 µs wide pulses, which are interpreted by a
mode A & C transponder as coming from an antenna sidelobe and therefore a reply is not
required. The following long P6 pulse is phase modulated with the first phase reversal,
after 1.25 µs, synchronizing the transponder's phase detector. Subsequent phase reversals
indicate a data bit of 1, with no phase reversal indicating a bit of value 0. This form of
modulation provides some resistance to corruption by a chance overlapping pulse from
another ground interrogator. The interrogation may be short with P6 = 16.125 µs, mainly
used to obtain a position update, or long, P6 = 30.25 µs, if an additional 56 data bits are
included. The final 24 bits contain both the parity and address of the aircraft. On
receiving an interrogation, an aircraft will decode the data and calculate the parity. If the
remainder is not the address of the aircraft then either the interrogation was not intended
for it or it was corrupted. In either case it will not reply. If the ground station was
expecting a reply and did not receive one then it will re-interrogate.
Avionics manual

Figure : S mode interrogation

Figur
e: S mode Reply

The aircraft reply consists of a preamble of four pulses spaced so that they cannot be
erroneously formed from overlapping mode A or C replies. The remaining pulses contain
data using pulse position amplitude modulation. Each 1 µs interval is divided into two
parts. If a 0.5 µs pulse occupies the first half and there is no pulse in the second half then
a binary 1 is indicated. If it is the other way round then it represents a binary 0. In effect
the data is transmitted twice, the second time in inverted form. This format is very
resistant to error due to a garbling reply from another aircraft. To cause a hard error one
Avionics manual

pulse has to be cancelled and a second pulse inserted in the other half of the bit period.
Much more likely is that both halves are confused and the decoded bit is flagged as "low
confidence". The reply also has parity and address in the final 24 bits. The ground station
tracks the aircraft and uses the predicted position to indicate the range and bearing of the
aircraft so it can interrogate again and get an update of its position. If it is expecting a
reply and if it receives one then it checks the remainder from the parity check against the
address of the expected aircraft. If it is not the same then either it is the wrong aircraft
and a re-interrogation is necessary, or the reply has been corrupted by interference by
being garbled by another reply. The parity system has the power to correct errors as long
as they do not exceed 24 µs, which embraces the duration of a mode A or C reply, the
most expected source of interference in the early days of Mode S. The pulses in the reply
have individual monopulse angle measurements available, and in some implementations
also signal strength measurements, which can indicate bits that are inconsistent with the
majority of the other bits, thereby indicating possible corruption. A test is made by
inverting the state of some or all of these bits (a 0 changed to a 1 or vice versa) and if the
parity check now succeeds the changes are made permanent and the reply accepted. If it
fails then a re-interrogation is required.

Mode S operates on the principle that interrogations are directed to a specific aircraft
using that aircraft's unique address. This results in a single reply with aircraft range
determined by the time taken to receive the reply and monopulse providing an accurate
bearing measurement. In order to interrogate an aircraft its address must be known. To
meet this requirement the ground interrogator also broadcasts All-Call interrogations,
which are in two forms

In one form, the Mode A/C/S All-Call looks like a conventional Mode A or C
interrogation at first and a transponder will start the reply process on receipt of pulse P3.
However a Mode S transponder will abort this procedure upon the detection of pulse P4,
and instead respond with a short Mode S reply containing its 24 bit address.

The alternative form of All-Call uses short Mode S interrogation a with a 16.125 µs data
block. This can include an indication of the interrogator transmitting the All-Call with
the request that if the aircraft has already replied to this interrogator then do not reply
again as aircraft is already known and a reply unnecessary.
Avionics manual

5.5 Radar Data Processing System

Radar signal or data processing can be defined as the manipulation of the received signal,
represented in digital format to extract the desired information whilst rejecting unwanted
signals. In particular, surveillance radar takes a decision about the presence or absence of
targets whilst cancelling radar echoes caused by ground clutter, radio frequency
interference and noise source. Airborne radar accomplishes the same job in spite of the
strong clutter return and its Doppler spread caused by the platform motion. The tracking
filter processes the target radar measurements (e.g.: range, azimuth, elevation and range
rate) in order to achieve the following purposes: reduce the measurement errors by
means of a suitable time average, estimate the velocity and acceleration of the target,
predict future target position. The tracking filter can be considered as an application of
stochastic filtering theory which is an important branch of modern theory of dynamic
systems. The latter is characterized by the introduction of the following concepts:
dynamic evolution of the system state variables, optimal control under well-defined
disturbances and inputs, use of stochastic processes to model noise-corrupted data and
uncertain parameters. The concept of a dynamic system is introduced to obtain a
mathematical description of the input-output behavior of a physical object of interest; for
instance, the time evolution of the position of an aircraft. Deterministic system theory is
not completely sufficient for practical design of operational systems. First, no
mathematical model of a system is ever perfect; approximations, uncertain parameters,
unmodelled effects are inherent ingredients. Secondly, dynamic systems are driven not
only by input commands but also by disturbances from the environment and
imperfections in the actuator’s ability to deliver commanded controls. These are
uncontrollable effects for which there are usually no adequate deterministic models.
Finally, sensors that provide data about the system may deliver only partial information
about the system state; they introduce their own time lag and other dynamics and are
always noise-corrupted. These considerations justify the extension of the dynamic
system concepts to the stochastic case where the aforementioned uncertainties and
approximations are modelled as randomised input processes. A fundamental problem
then arises in that it is necessary to find a method to optimally estimate the dynamic state
on the basis of such stochastic mathematical models and incomplete noise-corrupted data
from sensors.
Avionics manual

5.6. Introduction to Automatic Dependence Surveillance and Multi

Lateration system
5.6.1. Automatic Dependence Surveillance
The arrival of satellite technology in the late 1980s brought with it the possibility of
another type of ATC surveillance equipment, principally for use in areas where radar
coverage does not or cannot exist. Originally known by the acronym FANS (Future Air
Navigation System), this has matured into the system known as Automatic Dependant
Surveillance (ADS). It is Automatic because it requires no pilot or controller input to
function (other than turning the equipment on and logging in to the system), and
Dependant because it requires operating airborne equipment (like SSR).

The ADS system is basically a data link system that transmits data from the aircraft's on-
board navigation systems about its position, altitude and intentions (projected flight path)
to the ground system. In that sense, it can be thought of as an analogue to SSR. Although
it was the availability of satellite technology that gave the genesis to ADS, the system
can also use VHF or even HF links to ground stations.

The original ADS system is now known as ADS-C, or ADS-Contract, because reports
from the aircraft are generated in accordance with a 'contract' set up with the ground
system. For example, the ground system may demand reports when the aircraft reaches
top of climb, at position reporting points or other navigational waypoints, or at specified
time intervals. These reports basically replace verbal reports from the pilot and facilitate
the application of procedural separation.

There is also a further application of the ADS idea, known as ADS-Broadcast (ADS-B).
In this system the aircraft has a special transponder that 'squitters', or broadcasts, similar
information to that described above, but at a much higher rate of twice per second. This
information can be received either by a ground station, for Air Traffic Services use, or by
another aircraft. This leads to the possibility of so-called Cockpit Display of Traffic
Information (CDTI).
Avionics manual

5.6.2 Multi lateration system

Multi lateration is a navigation technique based on the measurement of the difference in
distance to two or more stations at known locations that broadcast signals at known
times. Unlike measurements of absolute distance or angle measuring the difference in
distance results in an infinite number of locations that satisfy the measurement. When
these possible locations are plotted, they form a hyperbolic curve. To locate the exact
location along that curve, a second measurement is taken to a different pair of stations to
produce a second curve, which intersects with the first. When the two are compared, a
small number of possible locations are revealed, producing a "fix".

Multilateration is a common technique in radio navigation systems, where it is known

as hyperbolic navigation. These systems are relatively easy to construct as there is no
need for a common clock, and the difference in the signal timing can be measured visibly
using an oscilloscope. This formed the basis of a number of widely used navigation
systems starting in World War II with the British Gee system and several similar systems
introduced over the next few decades. The introduction of the microprocessor greatly
simplified operation, greatly increasing popularity during the 1980s. The most popular
hyperbolic navigation system was LORAN-C, which was used around the world until the
system was shut down in 2010. Other systems continue to be used, but the widespread
use of satellite navigation systems like GPS have made these systems largely redundant.

Multilateration is commonly used in civil and military surveillance applications to

accurately locate an aircraft, vehicle or stationary emitter by measuring the "Time
Difference of Arrival" (TDOA) of a signal from the emitter at three or more receiver
sites. If a pulse is emitted from a platform, it will arrive at slightly different times at two
spatially separated receiver sites, the TDOA being due to the different distances of each
receiver from the platform. In fact, for given locations of the two receivers, a whole set
of emitter locations would give the same measurement of TDOA.
Avionics manual

6. AERONAUTICAL MOBILE SATELLITE SYSTEM

(AMSS) AND GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE
SYSTEM (GNSS)
6.1. International maritime satellite System (Inmarsat)
Inmarsat was established in 1979 to serve the maritime industry by developing satellite
communications for ship distress, safety and management applications. Today it operates
a global satellite network for maritime, land and aeronautical users. The network is
accessed via independent land earth station operators who offer a range of
communications including voice and multimedia. The Inmarsat communications system
has three major components:
• The space segment
• The ground segment
• The mobile earth stations (MESs) for maritime and land operation and aeronautical
earth stations (AESs) for aircraft operation.

The space segment: The space segment is provided by Inmarsat and consists of four
operational satellites, with back-up satellites in orbit and ready to be used if necessary.
The family of satellites includes the earlier Inmarsat-2 series and the more recent
Inmarsat-3 constellation. The third-generation Inmarsat-3 satellites have been in service
since 1997. They offer coverage using a global beam and spot beams. Each Inmarsat-3
satellite is eight times more powerful than an Inmarsat-2 satellite. The flexibility offered
by the Inmarsat-3 satellites makes it possible to reallocate both RF power and bandwidth
between the global beam and spot beams, allowing a more efficient use of the available
spectrum. Each Inmarsat-3 satellite also carries a navigation transponder, designed to
enhance the accuracy, availability and integrity of the Global Positioning System (GPS)
and Glonass satellite navigation systems. The Inmarsat-2 series of satellites was
launched during 1990-92. Inmarsat’s network uses L-band (1.5/1.6GHz) frequencies
from the ship direction. Each satellite’s global beam covers approximately one-third of
the Earth’s surface (including land and sea) from a geostationary orbit nearly 36,000km
above the Equator. In this orbit each satellite moves at exactly the same rate as the Earth
rotates, so remaining in the same position relative to the Earth’s surface. Figure 1-1
shows the four satellites in space and their coverage areas, which correspond to the four
ocean regions:
Avionics manual

• Atlantic Ocean Region-East (AOR-E)

• Atlantic Ocean Region-West (AOR-W)
• Indian Ocean Region (IOR)
• Pacific Ocean Region (POR)

The ground segment: The ground segment comprises a network of land earth stations
(LESs) which are operated byland earth station operators; network co-ordination stations
(NCSs); and a network operationscentre (NOC).Each land earth station operator provides
a link between the satellite network and theinternational telecommunication network. An
LES is capable of handling many calls to andfrom MESs simultaneously, over the
different Inmarsat networks.LESs are owned by telecommunications operators which act
as land earth station operatorsand provide a wide range of communications services to
the MES user. At present there areabout 40 land earth station operators around the world.
Many land earth station operators nowoffer service in all four ocean regions, through a
global sharing agreement with other landearth station operators in ocean regions which
cannot be seen from their own location.
Avionics manual

For each Inmarsat system and ocean region there is a network co-ordination station
(NCS)which monitors and controls all communications. Each NCS communicates with
the landearth station operators in its ocean region, the other NCSs and the network
operations centre(NOC) located at Inmarsat’s London headquarters, making it possible to
transfer operationalinformation throughout the system.
.

The Inmarsat-A system: Inmarsat-A was the first service to be introduced,

becoming commercially available in 1982.An analogue system, it provides two-way
direct-dial phone, fax, telex and electronic mail and data communications at rates of up
to 9.6 kilobits per second (kbit/s). Later models make possible high-speed data
communications at 56/64 kbit/s. With recent developments in data compression
techniques, it is now possible to send high-definition still photographs, video and video
conferencing via an Inmarsat-A MES.
The relatively large size and weight of the Inmarsat-A antenna, as shown in Figure 1-3,
mean
that, generally, Inmarsat-A MESs are fitted only on larger ships.

The Inmarsat-B system: The Inmarsat-B system was introduced in 1994 and uses
digital technology to provide high quality telephone, fax, telex, e-mail and data
communications, with the antenna size and weight being approximately the same as for
Inmarsat-A. Like Inmarsat-A, Inmarsat-B iscapable of high-speed data communications
(at up to 64 kbit/s), making it especially suitable for data-intensive users such as oil and
seismological companies which need to exchange large amounts of data on a regular
basis.
1.4 The Inmarsat-C system: Inmarsat-C was introduced in 1991 to complement
Inmarsat-A by providing a global lowcosttwo-way data communications network using a
small terminal that could be fitted oneither a large or small vessel. Its compactness
makes it especially suitable for smaller vesselssuch as yachts, fishing vessels or supply
craft.
The Inmarsat-C system does not provide voice communications but is a means of
sending text, data and e-mail messages to and from shore-based subscribers using a
store-and-forward technique. This requires the user to prepare the message prior to
sending it; it is then transmitted via the land earth station operator who sends it on to its
Avionics manual

intended destination.The global communications capability of the Inmarsat-C system,

combined with its Maritime Safety Information (MSI) broadcasts and distress-alerting
capabilities, has resulted in the Inmarsat-C system being accepted by the International
Maritime Organisation (IMO) meeting the requirements of the Global Maritime Distress
and Safety System (GMDSS).

The GMDSS carriage requirements are mandatory for all merchant ships of over 300
gross registeredtonnes (grt) and all passenger vessels which make international voyages.
Fitting an Inmarsat-C MES is a cost-effective way for a ship to meet GMDSS carriage
requirements; which accounts for many ships having Inmarsat-C MESs.
The Inmarsat-E system: The Inmarsat-E distress alert system has been globally
available since 1997. Inmarsat-E combines the position determining capacities of GPS
with the geostationary satellite technology of the Inmarsat communications system. It
complies fully with GMDSS regulations, provides reliable coverage between latitudes
80o North and 80o South for both SOLAS and non-SOLAS vessels, and is available free
of charge to users. The system features both float-free buoy-type EPIRBs (Emergency
Position Indicating Radio Beacons),as well as hand-portable versions for smaller vessels.

The Inmarsat-M system: Inmarsat-M was introduced in 1993 to complement the

existing Inmarsat-A system by providing global telephone/fax and data communications
on an MES which is in expensive and compact in size. As shown in Figure 1-3, the
Inmarsat-M MES is smaller and lighter than an Inmarsat-A MES, making this network
suitable for smaller vessels such as fishing vessels and yachts.
The Inmarsat mini-M system: The Inmarsat mini-M system was launched in January
1997 and offers the same services as Inmarsat-M, but in a smaller, more lightweight and
compact unit. This MES can be madesmaller because it operates only in the spot-beam
coverage of the latest Inmarsat-3 satellites.With internal batteries, the typical talk time is
about 1.5 - 2.5 hours and up to 50 hours onstandby. However, most maritime
installations have external power supplies which allow forcontinuous operation.
It is possible to operate an Inmarsat mini-M with a Subscriber Identity Module (SIM)
card.
This can be easily installed and removed, making it possible for a number of individuals
to
Avionics manual

make calls on a shared Inmarsat mini-M, while allowing for individual billing.
The Inmarsat Fleet system: The Inmarsat Fleet (F77) system was launched in
November 2001. It offers a unique highperformanceservice for high-speed shore-to-ship
and ship-to-shore communications. FleetF77 introduces a new Mobile ISDN and Mobile
Packet Data Service (MPDS) deliveringvoice, fax and data at speeds of up to 64 kbit/s.
Inmarsat Fleet F77 is equipped to satisfy thelatest distress and safety requirements of the
GMDSS. It offers more efficient data-drivencommunications for applications such as
technical management and crew rostering, accessinga head office intranet, and obtaining
updates of weather and chart information. Store-andforwardvideo is also available for
onboard diagnostics and telemedicine.
Multi-channel operation: The standard operation of an Inmarsat MES is as a single-
channel unit, with each MES ableto make only one call at a time (Single Call Per
Channel or SCPC). But (except for Inmarsat-C) it is possible to operate multi-channel
MESs. Because of their greater power, these aregenerally larger pieces of equipment and
have larger antennae than single-channel MESs.
Using Inmarsat in the shore-to-ship direction: This handbook is aimed primarily at
those using the Inmarsat network from onboard a ship,but it is useful to know how a
shore subscriber sends a message to an Inmarsat-fitted ship.Although the procedure for
calling an Inmarsat-fitted ship may differ between countries, theshore subscriber should
generally not experience any difference from land-based communication when making a
phone, fax, e-mail or data call to a ship equipped with an Inmarsat-A, B, M or mini-M
MES, or sending telex messages to an Inmarsat-A or B MES.Different procedures apply
when a shore subscriber is sending a message to an Inmarsat-C MES.

6.2. International Telecommunication Satellite System (IntelSat)

The International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (INTELSAT)'is a non-
profit cooperative that owns and operates a global commercial satellite system. The
Organization consists of one hundredand ten member countries with representatives
chosen to make administrative decisions on their government's behalf.INTELSAT's aim
isto provide a communication satellite system to the entire world communityon a non-
discriminatory basis. Although INTELSAT has been able to maintain a "monopoly"
ininternational satellite communications, recent developments in the fieldof international
Avionics manual

telecommunications threaten to jeopardize that position.Not only must INTELSAT

contend with technological advancesin optical fiber transmission facilities, but it now
also must prepareitself for inevitable competition with entirely separate international
satellitesystems.This Article examines these current developments in
internationaltelecommunications and considers the possible impact they will likelyhave
on INTELSAT. More specifically, the Article focuses on the recentUnited States
initiative to encourage its private corporations toinfiltrate those satellite markets
traditionally reserved for INTELSAT.

6.3. Global Positioning System

6.3.1. Introduction
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based satellite navigation system that
provides location and time information in all weather conditions, anywhere on or near
the Earth where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites.GPS
was created and realized by the U.S Department of Defense (DoD) and was originally
run with 24 satellites.Roger L. Easton is generally credited as its inventor. It consists of
satellites, control and monitor stations, and receivers. GPS receivers take information
transmitted from the satellites and uses triangulation to calculate a user’s exact location.

How the Global Positioning System Works

The basis of the GPS is a constellation of satellites that are continuously orbiting the
earth. These satellites, which are equipped with atomic clocks, transmit radio signals
that contain their exact location, time, and other information. The radio signals from the
satellites, which are monitored and corrected by control stations, are picked up by the
GPS receiver. A GPS receiver needs only three satellites to plot a rough, 2D position,
which will not be very accurate. Ideally, four or more satellites are needed to plot a 3D
position, which is much more accurate. The receiver computes the position using
trilateration. Trilateration is the process of determining absolute or relative locations of
points by measurement of distances, using the geometry of circles, spheres or triangles.
Avionics manual

GPS Functionality
It consists of three segments:
Space Segment — Satellites orbiting the earth
The space segment consists of 29 satellites circling the earth every 12 hours at 12,000
miles in altitude. This high altitude allows the signals to cover a greater area. The
satellites are arranged in their orbits so a GPS receiver on earth can receive a signal from
at least four satellites at any given time. Each satellite contains several atomic clocks.
The satellites transmit low radio signals with a unique code on different frequencies,
allowing the GPS receiver to identify the signals. The main purpose of these coded
signals is to allow the GPS receiver to calculate travel time of the radio signal from the
satellite to the receiver. The travel time multiplied by the speed of light equals the
distance from the satellite to the GPS receiver.

Control Segment — The control and monitoring stations

The control segment tracks the satellites and then provides them with corrected orbital
and time information. The control segment consists of five unmanned monitor stations
and one Master Control Station. The five unmanned stations monitor GPS satellite
signals and then send that information to the Master Control Station where anomalies are
corrected and sent back to the GPS satellites through ground antennas.

User Segment — The GPS receivers owned by civilians and military

Avionics manual

The user segment consists of the users and their GPS receivers. The number of
simultaneous users is limitless.

How GPS Determines a Position

The GPS receiver uses the following information to determine a position:
Precise location of satellites
When a GPS receiver is first turned on, it downloads orbit information from all the
satellites called an almanac. This process, the first time, can take as long as 12 minutes;
but once this information is downloaded; it is stored in the receiver’s memory for future
use.
Distance from each satellite
The GPS receiver calculates the distance from each satellite to the receiver by using the
distance formula: distance = velocity x time. The receiver already knows the velocity,
which is the speed of a radio wave or 186,000 miles per second (the speed of light). To
determine the time part of the formula, the receiver times how long it takes for a signal
from the satellite to arrive at the receiver. The GPS receiver multiplies the velocity of the
transmitted signal by the time it takes the signal to reach the receiver to determine
distance.

Triangulation to determine position

The receiver determines position by using triangulation. When it receives signals from at
least three satellites the receiver should be able to calculate its approximate position (a
2D position). The receiver needs at least four or more satellites to calculate a more
accurate 3D position. The position can be reported in latitude/longitude, UTM, or other
coordinate system.

Sources of Errors
The GPS is not a perfect system. There are several different types of errors that can
occur when using a GPS receiver, for example:
User mistakes
User mistakes account for most GPS errors; and a GPS receiver has no way to identify
and correct these mistakes. Common examples of user mistakes include:
– Inputting incorrect information into a GPS receiver, such as the datum, and when
creating a waypoint.
Avionics manual

– Unknowingly relying on a 2D position instead of a 3D position for determining

position coordinates. This mistake can result in distance errors in excess of a mile. The
signal from the satellite may be blocked by buildings, terrain, electronic interference, and
sometimes dense foliage. A GPS receiver needs a fairly clear view of the sky to operate.
– The human body can cause signal interference. Holding a GPS receiver close to the
body can block some satellite signals and hinder accurate positioning. If a GPS receiver
must be hand held without benefit of an external antenna, facing to the south can help to
alleviate signal blockage caused by the body because the majority of GPS satellites are
oriented more in the earth’s southern hemisphere.
Multipath interference
Multipath interference is caused by the satellite signal reflecting off of vehicles,
buildings, power lines, water and other interfering objects. Multipath is difficult to detect
and sometimes impossible for the user to avoid or for the receiver to correct. When
using a GPS receiver in a vehicle place the external antenna on the roof of the vehicle to
eliminate most signal interference caused by the vehicle. If the GPS receiver is placed
on the dashboard there will always be some multipath interference.
Satellite and receiver clock errors
These can be slight discrepancies in the satellite’s atomic clocks which may cause slight
position errors in the GPS receiver. Errors are monitored and corrected by the Master
Control Station.
Orbit errors
Satellite orbit pertains to the altitude, position, and speed of the satellite. Satellite orbits
vary due to gravitational pull and solar pressure fluctuations. Orbit errors are also
monitored and corrected by the Master Control Station.
Satellite geometry
The location of GPS satellites in relation to a GPS receiver on the ground can impact the
receiver’s ability to triangulate a 3D position. The quality of a receiver’s triangulated
position improves the further apart GPS satellites are located from each other in the sky
above the receiver. The quality decreases if the satellites are grouped close together in
the sky above the receiver.
Atmospheric interference
The atmosphere can slow or speed up the satellite signal. Fortunately, error caused by
atmospheric conditions (ionized air, humidity, temperature, pressure) has been reduced
with the implementation of the Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS).
Avionics manual

Application
1. Military
 Military GPS user equipment has been integrated into fighters, bombers,
tankers, helicopters, ships, submarines, tanks, jeeps, and soldiers'
equipment.
 In addition to basic navigation activities, military applications of GPS
include target designation of cruise missiles and precision-guided
weapons and close air support.

2. Civilian
Automobiles are often equipped GPS receivers.
 They show moving maps and information about your position on the map,
speed you are traveling, buildings, highways, exits etc.
For aircraft, GPS provides
 Continuous, reliable, and accurate positioning information for all phases
of flight on a global basis, freely available to all.
3. Agriculture
 GPS provides precision soil sampling, data collection, and data analysis,
enable localized variation of chemical applications and planting density to
suit specific areas of the field.

6.4. Global Orbiting Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS)

The Global Orbiting Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) is based on a
constellation of active satellites which continuously transmit coded signals in two
frequency bands, which can be received by users anywhere on the Earth's surface to
identify their position and velocity in real time based on ranging measurements. The
system is a counterpart to the United States Global Positioning System (GPS) and both
systems share the same principles in the data transmission and positioning methods.
GLONASS is managed for the Russian Federation Government by the Russian Space
Forces and the system is operated by the Coordination Scientific Information Center
(KNITs) of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation.
The operational space segment of GLONASS consists of 21 satellites in 3 orbital planes,
with 3 on-orbit spares. The three orbital planes are separated 120 degrees, and the
Avionics manual

satellites within the same orbit plane by 45 degrees. Each satellite operates in circular
19,100 km orbits at an inclination angle of 64.8 degrees and each satellite completes an
orbit in approximately 11 hours 15 minutes.
The ground control segment of GLONASS is entirely located within former Soviet
Union territory. The Ground Control Center and Time Standards is located in Moscow
and the telemetry and tracking stations are in St. Petersburg, Ternopol, Eniseisk,
Komsomolsk-na-Amure.
The first GLONASS satellites were launched into orbit in 1982. Two Etalon geodetic
satellites were also flown in the 19,100 km GLONASS orbit to fully characterize the
gravitational field at the planned altitude and inclination. The original plans called for a
complete operational system by 1991, but the deployment of the full constellation of
satellites was not completed until late 1995 / early 1996. GLONASS was officially
declared operational on September 24, 1993 by a decree of the President of the Russian
Federation.

7. BASIS OF AIRCRAFT AVIONICS EQUIPEMENT

7.1 Aircraft HF, VHF and satellite Communication Equipments

i. Air Traffic Control System

This is a system rendered between the Air Traffic Control Institutions and the aircraft to
secure the safety and the mobility of aircraft by providing ground navigation or advice,
information about aircraft and the airport weather condition.

 VHF Cordless Telephone, HF Cordless Telephone

 Air Route Surveillance Radar (ARSR), Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR),
Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR)

ii. Air Control Communication System

This is a communication system that the airline companies use for determining aircraft
position to secure the navigation of their proprietary aircrafts.

 Cordless telephone by way of VHF, HF, and Inmarsat Satellite Communications

 Data Transmission by way of VHF and Inmarsat Satellite Communications
Avionics manual

iii. Aircraft Telephone

This is an on-board public telephone service that aircraft passengers use to communicate.
Now, the satellite communication telephone service which went via the Inmarsat
satellite.

iv. Radio Navigation System

This is a radio navigation system that the navigating aircraft uses to detect its position.

 VOR/DME, NDB, TACAN

Furthermore, the development of a satellite navigation system utilizing GPS has been in
progress.

v. Aircraft Landing System

This is a system used for navigating the aircraft by radio waves onto the airport for its
landing in safety.

 Instrument Landing System (ILS)

 Landing Navigation by iv. Radio Navigation System

Furthermore, as a satellite navigation system by GPS has been more popular, the
development of a system that utilizes it has been in progress.

vi. Aircraft-loaded Radio Equipment

There are different kinds of radio equipment loaded on the aircraft, while their two main
targets are for navigation and communication.

 Navigation Equipment
 VOP/DME, ATC Transponder, Weather Radar, Radio Altimeter, Rescue Radio,
ILS Receiver, ADF Receiver
 Communication Equipment
VHF/HF/Inmarsat Satellite Cordless Telephone, VHF/Inmarsat Satellite Data
Transmission, Aircraft Telephone
Avionics manual

7. BASIS OF AIRCRAFT AVIONICS EQUIPEMENT

7.1 Aircraft HF, VHF and satellite Communication Equipments

i. Air Traffic Control System

This is a system rendered between the Air Traffic Control Institutions and the aircraft to
secure the safety and the mobility of aircraft by providing ground navigation or advice,
information about aircraft and the airport weather condition.

 VHF Cordless Telephone, HF Cordless Telephone

 Air Route Surveillance Radar (ARSR), Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR),
Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR)

ii. Air Control Communication System

This is a communication system that the airline companies use for determining aircraft
position to secure the navigation of their proprietary aircrafts.

 Cordless telephone by way of VHF, HF, and Inmarsat Satellite Communications

 Data Transmission by way of VHF and Inmarsat Satellite Communications

iii. Aircraft Telephone

This is an on-board public telephone service that aircraft passengers use to communicate.
Now, the satellite communication telephone service which went via the Inmarsat
satellite.

iv. Radio Navigation System

This is a radio navigation system that the navigating aircraft uses to detect its position.

 VOR/DME, NDB, TACAN

Furthermore, the development of a satellite navigation system utilizing GPS has been in
progress.

v. Aircraft Landing System

This is a system used for navigating the aircraft by radio waves onto the airport for its
landing in safety.

 Instrument Landing System (ILS)

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 Landing Navigation by iv. Radio Navigation System

Furthermore, as a satellite navigation system by GPS has been more popular, the
development of a system that utilizes it has been in progress.

vi. Aircraft-loaded Radio Equipment

There are different kinds of radio equipment loaded on the aircraft, while their two main
targets are for navigation and communication.

 Navigation Equipment
 VOP/DME, ATC Transponder, Weather Radar, Radio Altimeter, Rescue Radio,
ILS Receiver, ADF Receiver
 Communication Equipment
VHF/HF/Inmarsat Satellite Cordless Telephone, VHF/Inmarsat Satellite Data
Transmission, Aircraft Telephone

7.2 Radio direction finder (Radio compass)

7.2.1 Operation

Radio Direction Finding works by comparing the signal strength of a

directional antenna pointing in different directions. At first, this system was used by land
and marine-based radio operators, using a simple rotatable loop antenna linked to a
degree indicator. This system was later adopted for both ships and aircraft, and was
widely used in the 1930s and 1940s. On pre-World War II aircraft, RDF antennas are
easy to identify as the circular loops mounted above or below the fuselage. Later loop
antenna designs were enclosed in an aerodynamic, teardrop-shaped fairing. In ships and
small boats, RDF receivers first employed large metal loop antennas, similar to aircraft,
but usually mounted atop a portable battery-powered receiver.
Avionics manual

Fig: radio compass

In use, the RDF operator would first tune the receiver to the correct frequency, then
manually turn the loop, either listening or watching an S meter to determine the direction
of the null (the direction at which a given signal is weakest) of a long wave (LW)
or medium wave (AM) broadcast beacon or station (listening for the null is easier than
listening for a peak signal, and normally produces a more accurate result). This null was
symmetrical, and thus identified both the correct degree heading marked on the radio's
compass rose as well as its 180-degree opposite. While this information provided a
baseline from the station to the ship or aircraft, the navigator still needed to know
beforehand if he was to the east or west of the station in order to avoid plotting a course
180-degrees in the wrong direction. By taking bearings to two or more broadcast stations
and plotting the intersecting bearings, the navigator could locate the relative position of
his ship or aircraft.

Radio transmitters for air and sea navigation are known as beacons and are the radio
equivalent to a lighthouse. The transmitter sends a Morse Code transmission on a Long
wave (150 – 400 kHz) or Medium wave (520 – 1720 kHz) frequency incorporating the
station's identifier that is used to confirm the station and its operational status. Since
these radio signals are broadcast in all directions (omni-directional) during the day, the
signal itself does not include direction information, and these beacons are therefore
referred to as non-directional beacons, or NDBs.

7.3 ADF (Automatic Direction Finder)

ADF (Automatic Direction Finder) is the radio signals in the low to medium frequency
band of 190 Khz. to 1750 Khz. It was widely used today. It has the major advantage over
VOR navigation in the reception is not limited to line of sight distance. The ADF signals
follow the curvature of the earth. The maximum of distance is depend on the power of
the beacon. The ADF can receives on both AM radio station and NDB (Non-Directional
Avionics manual

Beacon). Commercial AM radio stations broadcast on 540 to 1620 Khz. Non-Directional

Beacon operate in the frequency band of 190 to 535 Khz.

7.3.1 ADF Component

ADF Receiver : pilot can tune the station desired and to select the mode of operation.
The signal is received, amplified, and converted to audible voice or morse code
transmission and powers the bearing indicator.

Control Box (Digital Readout Type) : Most modern aircraft has this type of control in the
cockpit . In this equipment the frequency tuned is displayed as digital readout. ADF
automatically determines bearing to selected station and it on the RMI.

Antenna : The aircraft consist of two antennas. The two antennas are called LOOP
antenna and SENSE antenna. The ADF receives signals on both loop and sense antennas.
The loop antenna in common use today is a small flat antenna without moving parts.
Within the antenna are several coils spaced at various angles. The loop antenna sense the
direction of the station by the strength of the signal on each coil but cannot determine
whether the bearing is TO or FROM the station. The sense antenna provides this latter
information.

Bearing Indicator : displays the bearing to station relative to the nose of the aircraft.
Relative Bearing is the angle formed by the line drawn through the center line of the
aircraft and a line drawn from the aircraft to the radio station.
Magnetic Bearing is the angle formed by a line drawn from aircraft to the radio station
and a line drawn from the aircraft to magnetic north (Bearing to station).
Magnetic Bearing = Magnetic Heading + Relative Bearing.
Avionics manual

7.3.2 Operation

ADF operate in the low and medium frequency bands. By tuning to NDB station or
commercial AM radio stations. NDB frequency and identification information may be
obtained from aeronautical charts and Airport Facility Directory. The ADF has automatic
direction seeking qualities which result in the bearing indicator always pointing to the
station to which it is tuned. The easiest and perhaps the most common method of using
ADF , is to " home " to the station . Since the ADF pointer always points to the station ,
the pilot can simply head the airplane so that the pointer is on the 0 (zero) degree or nose
position when using a fixed card ADF . The station will be directly ahead of the airplane.
Since there is almost always some wind at altitude and you will be allowing for drif,
meaning that your heading will be different from your track. Off track , if the aircraft is
left of track, the head of the needle will point right of the nose. If the aircraft is right of
track, the head of the needle will point left of the nose.

For fixed compass card , if you are not fly Homing and you want to fly heading at some
degrees. You must use the formular MB = MH + RB to find out what degree the ADF
pointer should be on. Today , the fixed card indicator is very unsatisfactory for every day
use which can still be found on aircraft panels but not many planes that pilot actually
uses it due to it has easier type of indicator.

For rotatable compass card, it was a big step over the fixed card indicator. The pilot can
Avionics manual

rotate the compass card with the heading knob to display the aircraft MH " straight up " .
Then the ADF needle will directly indicate the magnetic bearing to the NDB station.

For Single needle Radio Magnetic Indicator , the compasscard is a directional gyro and it
rotates automatically as the aircraft turns and provide continuous heading . It is
accurately indicates the magnetic heading and the magnetic bearing to the beacon. This
instrument is a “hands off " instrument.

For dual needle Radio Magnetic Indicator, it is give the pilot information the same as the
single needle such as aircraft heading and magnetic bearing to the NDB . The seacond
indicator will point to VOR station. This help pilot to check the location of the aircraft at
that time.

7.4 Radio-magnetic indicator (RMI)

Fig: An aircraft RMI

A radio-magnetic indicator (RMI) is an alternate ADF display providing more

information than a standard ADF. While the ADF shows relative angle of the transmitter
with respect to the aircraft, an RMI display incorporates a compass card, actuated by the
aircraft's compass system, and permits the operator to read the magnetic bearing to or
from the transmitting station, without resorting to arithmetic.

Most RMI incorporate two direction needles. Often one needle (thicker or double-barred)
is connected to an ADF and the other (generally the thin, single-barred needle) is
connected to a VOR. Using multiple indicators a navigator can accurately fix the
position of their aircraft without requiring station passage. There is great variation
Avionics manual

between models and the operator must take care that their selection displays information
from the appropriate ADF and VOR.

7.5 The horizontal situation indicator

The horizontal situation indicator (commonly called the HSI) is an aircraft instrument
normally mounted below the artificial horizon in place of a conventional heading
indicator. It combines a heading indicator with a VOR/ILS display, reducing pilot
workload by lessening the number of elements in the pilot's instrument scan to the six
basic flight instruments. Among other advantages, the HSI offers freedom from the
confusion of reverse sensing on a localizer backcourse approach. On a front course
approach, the HSI needle is set to the inbound track; on a back course approach, the HSI
needle is set to the outbound rather than the inbound track, causing needle deflection that
mimics a front course approach instead of displaying the normal reverse sensing.

Fig: horizontal situational indicator

The HSI is also used on spacecraft like the Space Shuttle.

Avionics manual

On the HSI, the airplane is represented by a schematic figure in the center of the
instrument - the VOR/ILS display is shown in relation to this figure. The heading
indicator is usually slaved to a remote compass, and the HSI is frequently interconnected
with an autopilot capable of executing an approach by following the localizer and glide
slope.

On a conventional VOR indicator, left/right and to/from must be interpreted in the

context of the selected course. When an HSIis tuned to a VOR station, left and right
always mean left and right and TO/FROM is indicated by a simple triangular arrowhead
pointing to the VOR. If the arrowhead points to the same side as the course selector
arrow, it means TO, and if it points behind to the side opposite the course selector, it
means FROM. The HSI illustrated here is a type designed for smaller airplanes, and is
the size of a standard 3-1/4 inch instrument. Airline and jet aircraft HSIs are larger and
may include more display elements. The most modern HSI displays are electronic and
often integrated with electronic flight director systems into so-called "glass cockpit"
systems.

7.6 SSR transponder

The Secondary Surveillance Radar operates on the coded reply sent from the airborne
radio beacon Transponder in response to an interrogation sent from the ground station.
Usually, on a radar station the PSR and SSR antennas are co-located and scan
synchronized, and both Radars are used in conjunction to develop the total air traffic
situation display.

The SSR was developed from the military Identification-Friend-or-Foe (IFF) system, in
which an airborne radio beacon Transponder responds to ground radar interrogations
with coded replies. These replies, displayed as short lines on the display, allow the
controllers to identify the various targets by having each one send back a different code.

The desired code can be manually selected by the pilot on the Transponder control head
in, or automatically set by an encoding altimeter or altitude digitizer for reporting the
Aircraft's altitude in Mode "C" operation. Since the reply signal from the airborne
Transponder is stronger than the reflected PSR signal, it will reinforce the "blip" on the
display to provide positive aircraft identification.
Avionics manual

7.6.1SSR Transponder Modes

Mode A interrogations are sent to request the specified aircraft identification code. Mode
C is used to request altitude reporting together with identification. The coded reply signal
is composed of a series of pulses. In Mode A operation, the number of pulses generated
in a reply signal is determined by setting the four octal (0 to 7) digit code switches on the
Transponder to the assigned identification code. This allowes for 4'096 different
identification codes. Certain transponder codes are reserved for special applications to
activate an alert on the controller's console:
7500 indicates that a hijack is in process

 7600 reports a communication radio failure

 7700 indicates an emergency condition

Replies to Mode C interrogations generate pulses that correspond to the aircraft's

altitude. The received altitude information is then displayed directly on the controller's
console. Altitude information is not selected by the code switches of the transponder, but
is obtained directly from an encoding altimeter.

7.7 Flight Data Recorder (FDR)

Flight recorders comprise two systems, a flight data recorder (FDR) and a cockpit voice
recorder (CVR). Sometimes, both FDR and CVR functions are combined into a single
unit (ICAO Definition: Combination recorders). Combination recorders need to meet the
flight recorder equipage requirements as specifically indicated in ICAO Annex 6 -
Operation of Aircraft.

7.7.1 ICAO Requirements

According to the provisions in ICAO Annex 6 - Operation of Aircraft, Vol 1 and Vol. III,
a Type I FDR shall record a number of parameters the parameters required to determine
accurately the aeroplane flight path, speed, attitude, engine power, configuration and
operation. Types II and IIA FDRs shall record the parameters required to determine
accurately the aeroplane flight path, speed, attitude, engine power and configuration of
lift and drag devices.

7.7.2 Objectives
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The recorder is installed in the most crash survivable part of the aircraft, usually the tail
section. The data collected in the FDR system can help investigators determine whether
an accident was caused by pilot error, by an external event (such as windshear), or by an
airplane system problem. Furthermore, these data have contributed to airplane system
design improvements and the ability to predict potential difficulties as airplanes age. An
example of the latter is using FDR data to monitor the condition of a high-hours engine.
Evaluating the data could be useful in making a decision to replace the engine before a
failure occurs.

7.7.3 Principles of Operation

The FDR onboard the aircraft records many different operating conditions of the flight.
By regulation, newly manufactured aircraft must monitor at least eighty-eight important
parameters such as time, altitude, airspeed, heading, and aircraft attitude. In addition,
some FDRs can record the status of more than 1,000 other in-flight characteristics that
can aid in the investigation. The items monitored can be anything from flap position to
auto-pilot mode or even smoke alarms. It is required by regulations that on an annual
basis an FDR verification check (readout) is performed in order to verify that all
mandatory parameters are recorded.

 Magnetic Tape - The introduction of the CVR in the late 1960s and DFDRs in
the early 1970s made magnetic tape the recording medium of choice until the
introduction of solid-state flight recorders in the late 1980s. There were a variety of
tapes and tape transports used by the various recorder manufacturers. The most
widely used tapes were mylar, kapton, and metallic. The tape transports were even
more varied, using designs such as coplaner reel to reel, coaxial reel-to-reel, endless
loop reel packs and endless loop random storage. Tape CVRs record four channels of
audio for 30 minutes, and the DFDR records 25 hours of data. CVRs and FDRs
record over the oldest data with the newest data in an endless loop-recording
recording pattern.
 Digital Recording - Most DFDRs require a flight data acquisition unit (FDAU)
to provide an interface between the various sensors and the DFDR. The FDAU
converts analog signals from the sensors to digital signals that are then multiplexed
into a serial data stream suitable for recording by the DFDR. Industry standards
dictated the format of the data stream, which for the vast majority of tape-based
Avionics manual

DFDRs is 64 12-bit data words per second. The recording capacity of the tape DFDR
is limited by the length of tape that can be crash-protected and the data frame format.
The capacity of the tape DFDRs was adequate for the first generation of wide-body
transports, but was quickly exceeded when aircraft like the Boeing 767 and Airbus
A320 with digital avionics were introduced.
 Solid State Technology - The introduction of solid-state flight recorders in the
late 1980s marked the most significant advance in evolution of flight recorder
technology. The use of solid-state memory devices in flight recorders has expanded
recording capacity, enhanced crash/fire survivability, and improved recorder
reliability. It is now possible to have 2-hour audio CVRs and DFDRs that can record
up to 256 12-bit data words per second, or 4 times the capacity of magnetic tape
DFDRs.