Memory actually takes many different forms. conscious thought.

It’s what most people

We know that when we store a memory, we have in mind when they think of a memory.
are storing information. But, what that
information is and how long we retain it Implicit Memory
determines what type of memory it is. The Implicit memory is a major form of long-term
biggest categories of memory are short- memory that does not require conscious
term memory (or working memory) and thought. It allows you to do things by rote.
long-term memory, based on the amount of
time the memory is stored. Both can Autobiographical Memory
weaken due to age, or a variety of other
reasons and clinical conditions that affect Most of us have one part of life that we
memory. remember better than others. Find out if you
have a “memory bump”!
Memory Types
Memory & Morpheus
There are two major categories of memory:
long-term memory and short-term memory. Researchers have come to believe slumber
To learn more, choose from the options actively helps our brains consolidate what
below. we learn and remember. Can sleep hurt or
help memory?
Long-Term Memory
_________________________________
Long-term memory is our brain’s system for
storing, managing, and retrieving (ibang source na to hehehehe)
information. Learn more about it.
We will consider the two types of
Short-Term Memory memory, explicit memory and implicit
memory, and then the three major memory
Closely related to “working” memory, short- stages: sensory, short-term, and long-
term memory is the very short time that you term (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968). Then, in
keep something in mind before either the next section, we will consider the nature
dismissing it or transferring it to long-term of long-term memory, with a particular
memory. emphasis on the cognitive techniques we
can use to improve our memories. Our
Types of Long-Term Memory discussion will focus on the three processes
As you would imagine, long-term memories that are central to long-term
are much more complex than short-term memory: encoding, storage, and retrieval.
ones. We store different types of information
(procedures, life experiences, language,
etc.) with separate memory systems. Table 9.1 Memory Conceptualized in
Terms of Types, Stages, and Processes.
Explicit Memory
 Explicit memory
Explicit memory, or declarative memory, is a
 Implicit memory
type of long-term memory requiring As types
 test requires us to generate previously
 Sensory memory
remembered information. A multiple-choice
 Short-term memory
As stages test is an example of a recognition
 Long-term memory
memory test, a measure of explicit memory
that involves determining whether
information has been seen or learned
 Encoding
before.
 Storage
As processes  Your own experiences taking tests will
Retrieval
probably lead you to agree with the
scientific research finding that recall is more
difficult than recognition. Recall, such as
required on essay tests, involves two steps:
Explicit Memory first generating an answer and then
determining whether it seems to be the
correct one. Recognition, as on multiple-
When we assess memory by asking a choice test, only involves determining which
person to consciously remember things, we item from a list seems most correct (Haist,
are measuring explicit memory. Explicit Shimamura, & Squire, 1992). Although they
memory refers to knowledge or involve different processes, recall and
experiences that can be consciously recognition memory measures tend to be
remembered. As you can see in Figure 9.2, correlated. Students who do better on a
“Types of Memory,” there are two types of multiple-choice exam will also, by and large,
explicit do better on an essay exam (Bridgeman &
memory: episodic and semantic.Episodic Morgan, 1996).
memory refers to the firsthand experiences A third way of measuring memory is
that we have had (e.g., recollections of our known as relearning (Nelson,
high school graduation day or of the 1985). Measures of relearning (or
fantastic dinner we had in New York last savings) assess how much more quickly
year). Semantic memory refers to our information is processed or learned when it
knowledge of facts and concepts about the is studied again after it has already been
world (e.g., that the absolute value of −90 is learned but then forgotten. If you have taken
greater than the absolute value of 9 and that some French courses in the past, for
one definition of the word “affect” is “the instance, you might have forgotten most of
experience of feeling or emotion”). the vocabulary you learned. But if you were
to work on your French again, you’d learn
the vocabulary much faster the second time
around. Relearning can be a more sensitive
measure of memory than either recall or
recognition because it allows assessing
Figure 9.2 Types of Memory. memory in terms of “how much” or “how
fast” rather than simply “correct” versus
“incorrect” responses. Relearning also
Explicit memory is assessed using allows us to measure memory for
measures in which the individual being procedures like driving a car or playing a
tested must consciously attempt to piano piece, as well as memory for facts
remember the information. A recall and figures.
memory test is a measure of explicit
memory that involves bringing from memory
information that has previously been
remembered. We rely on our recall memory
when we take an essay test, because the
Implicit Memory frequently or recently. Priming refers both to
the activation of knowledge (e.g., we can
prime the concept of kindness by presenting
While explicit memory consists of the things
people with words related to kindness) and
that we can consciously report that we
to the influence of that activation on
know, implicit memory refers to knowledge behaviour (people who are primed with the
that we cannot consciously access. concept of kindness may act more kindly).
However, implicit memory is nevertheless One measure of the influence of priming
exceedingly important to us because it has on implicit memory is the word fragment
a direct effect on our behaviour. Implicit
test, in which a person is asked to fill in
memory refers to the influence of
missing letters to make words. You can try
experience on behaviour, even if the this yourself: First, try to complete the
individual is not aware of those influences. following word fragments, but work on each
As you can see in Figure 9.2, “Types of
one for only three or four seconds. Do any
Memory,” there are three general types of
words pop into mind quickly?
implicit memory: procedural memory, _ib_a_y
classical conditioning effects, and priming.
_h_s__i_n
Procedural memory refers to our often
_o_k
unexplainable knowledge of how to do _h_is_
things. When we walk from one place to Now read the following sentence
another, speak to another person in English,
carefully:
dial a cell phone, or play a video game, we
“He got his materials from the shelves,
are using procedural memory. Procedural checked them out, and then left the
memory allows us to perform complex building.”
tasks, even though we may not be able to Then try again to make words out of the
explain to others how we do them. There is word fragments.
no way to tell someone how to ride a
I think you might find that it is easier to
bicycle; a person has to learn by doing it. complete fragments 1 and 3 as “library” and
The idea of implicit memory helps explain “book,” respectively, after you read the
how infants are able to learn. The ability to sentence than it was before you read it.
crawl, walk, and talk are procedures, and
However, reading the sentence didn’t really
these skills are easily and efficiently
help you to complete fragments 2 and 4 as
developed while we are children despite the “physician” and “chaise.” This difference in
fact that as adults we have no conscious implicit memory probably occurred because
memory of having learned them. as you read the sentence, the concept of
A second type of implicit memory “library” (and perhaps “book”) was primed,
is classical conditioning effects, in
even though they were never mentioned
which we learn, often without effort or explicitly. Once a concept is primed it
awareness, to associate neutral stimuli influences our behaviours, for instance, on
(such as a sound or a light) with another
word fragment tests.
stimulus (such as food), which creates a Our everyday behaviours are influenced
naturally occurring response, such as
by priming in a wide variety of situations.
enjoyment or salivation. The memory for the Seeing an advertisement for cigarettes may
association is demonstrated when the
make us start smoking, seeing the flag of
conditioned stimulus (the sound) begins to our home country may arouse our
create the same response as the patriotism, and seeing a student from a rival
unconditioned stimulus (the food) did before
school may arouse our competitive spirit.
the learning. And these influences on our behaviours
The final type of implicit memory is known
may occur without our being aware of them.
as priming, or changes in behaviour as a
result of experiences that have happened
Research Focus: Priming Outside Awareness
Influences Behaviour

One of the most important characteristics

of implicit memories is that they are
frequently formed and used automatically, Figure 9.3
without much effort or awareness on our Research Results. Bargh, Chen, and
part. In one demonstration of the Burrows found that priming words
automaticity and influence of priming associated with the elderly made people
effects, John Bargh and his colleagues walk more slowly (1996).
(Bargh, Chen, & Burrows, 1996) conducted To determine if these priming effects
a study in which they showed occurred out of the awareness of the
undergraduate students lists of five participants, Bargh and his colleagues
scrambled words, each of which they were asked still another group of students to
to make into a sentence. Furthermore, for complete the priming task and then to
half of the research participants, the words indicate whether they thought the words
were related to stereotypes of the elderly. they had used to make the sentences had
These participants saw words such as the any relationship to each other, or could
following: possibly have influenced their behaviour in
any way. These students had no awareness
in Victoria retired live people of the possibility that the words might have
bingo man the forgetful plays been related to the elderly or could have
influenced their behaviour.
The other half of the research participants
also made sentences, but from words that
had nothing to do with elderly stereotypes. Stages of Memory: Sensory, Short-Term,
The purpose of this task was to prime
and Long-Term Memory
stereotypes of elderly people in memory for
some of the participants but not for others.
Another way of understanding memory is to
The experimenters then assessed think about it in terms of stages that
whether the priming of elderly stereotypes describe the length of time that information
would have any effect on the students’ remains available to us. According to this
behaviour — and indeed it did. When the approach (see Figure 9.4, “Memory
research participant had gathered all of his Duration”), information begins in sensory
or her belongings, thinking that the memory, moves to short-term memory, and
experiment was over, the experimenter eventually moves to long-term memory. But
thanked him or her for participating and not all information makes it through all three
gave directions to the closest elevator. stages; most of it is forgotten. Whether the
Then, without the participants knowing it, information moves from shorter-duration
the experimenters recorded the amount of memory into longer-duration memory or
time that the participant spent walking from whether it is lost from memory entirely
the doorway of the experimental room depends on how the information is attended
toward the elevator. As you can see in to and processed.
Figure 9.3, “Research Results.” participants
who had made sentences using words
related to elderly stereotypes took on the
behaviours of the elderly — they walked
significantly more slowly as they left the
experimental room.
Figure 9.4 Memory Duration. Memory can
characterized in terms of stages — the in his next experiment, he first showed the
length of time that information remains same letters, but then after the display had
available to us. been removed, he signaled to the
Sensory Memory participants to report the letters from either
Sensory memory refers to the brief storage the first, second, or third row. In this
of sensory information. Sensory memory is condition, the participants now reported
a memory buffer that lasts only very briefly almost all the letters in that row. This finding
and then, unless it is attended to and confirmed Sperling’s hunch: participants
passed on for more processing, is forgotten. had access to all of the letters in their iconic
The purpose of sensory memory is to give memories, and if the task was short enough,
the brain some time to process the incoming they were able to report on the part of the
sensations, and to allow us to see the world display he asked them to. The “short
as an unbroken stream of events rather enough” is the length of iconic memory,
than as individual pieces. which turns out to be about 250
Visual sensory memory is known milliseconds (¼ of a second).
as iconic memory. Iconic memory was first Auditory sensory memory is known
studied by the psychologist George Sperling as echoic memory. In contrast to iconic
(1960). In his research, Sperling showed memories, which decay very rapidly, echoic
participants a display of letters in rows, memories can last as long as four seconds
similar to that shown in Figure 9.5, (Cowan, Lichty, & Grove, 1990). This is
“Measuring Iconic Memory.” However, the convenient as it allows you — among other
display lasted only about 50 milliseconds things — to remember the words that you
(1/20 of a second). Then, Sperling gave his said at the beginning of a long sentence
participants a recall test in which they were when you get to the end of it, and to take
asked to name all the letters that they could notes on your psychology professor’s most
remember. On average, the participants recent statement even after he or she has
could remember only about one-quarter of finished saying it.
the letters that they had seen. In some people iconic memory seems to
last longer, a phenomenon known
as eidetic imagery (or photographic
memory) in which people can report details
of an image over long periods of time.
These people, who often suffer from
psychological disorders such as autism,
claim that they can “see” an image long
after it has been presented, and can often
Figure 9.5 Measuring Iconic Memory. report accurately on that image. There is
Sperling showed his participants displays also some evidence for eidetic memories in
such as this one for only 1/20th of a second. hearing; some people report that their
He found that when he cued the participants echoic memories persist for unusually long
to report one of the three rows of letters, periods of time. The composer Wolfgang
they could do it, even if the cue was given Amadeus Mozart may have possessed
shortly after the display had been removed. eidetic memory for music, because even
The research demonstrated the existence of when he was very young and had not yet
iconic memory. had a great deal of musical training, he
could listen to long compositions and then
play them back almost perfectly (Solomon,
Sperling reasoned that the participants had
1995).
seen all the letters but could remember
them only very briefly, making it impossible
for them to report them all. To test this idea, Short-Term Memory
Most of the information that gets into
sensory memory is forgotten, but
information that we turn our attention to, Is 6 × 2 − 1 = 8? (Answer YES OR NO)
with the goal of remembering it, may pass Then remember “U”
into short-term memory. Short-term
memory (STM) is the place where small
amounts of information can be temporarily
kept for more than a few seconds but
usually for less than one minute (Baddeley, Is 2 × 3 − 3 = 0? (Answer YES OR NO)
Vallar, & Shallice, 1990). Information in Then remember “Q”
short-term memory is not stored
permanently but rather becomes available
for us to process, and the processes that we
use to make sense of, modify, interpret, and To successfully accomplish the task, you
store information in STM are known have to answer each of the math problems
as working memory. correctly and at the same time remember
Although it is called memory, working the letter that follows the task. Then, after
memory is not a store of memory like STM the six questions, you must list the letters
but rather a set of memory procedures or that appeared in each of the trials in the
operations. Imagine, for instance, that you correct order (in this case S, R, P, T, U, Q).
are asked to participate in a task such as To accomplish this difficult task you need
this one, which is a measure of working to use a variety of skills. You clearly need to
memory (Unsworth & Engle, 2007). Each of use STM, as you must keep the letters in
the following questions appears individually storage until you are asked to list them. But
on a computer screen and then disappears you also need a way to make the best use
after you answer the question: of your available attention and processing.
For instance, you might decide to use a
strategy of repeat the letters twice, then
Is 10 × 2 − 5 = 15? (Answer YES OR NO) quickly solve the next problem, and then
Then remember “S” repeat the letters twice again including the
new one. Keeping this strategy (or others
like it) going is the role of working
memory’s central executive — the part of
working memory that directs attention and
Is 12 ÷ 6 − 2 = 1? (Answer YES OR NO) processing. The central executive will make
Then remember “R” use of whatever strategies seem to be best
for the given task. For instance, the central
executive will direct the rehearsal process,
and at the same time direct the visual cortex
to form an image of the list of letters in
Is 10 × 2 = 5? (Answer YES OR NO) Then
memory. You can see that although STM is
remember “P”
involved, the processes that we use to
operate on the material in memory are also
critical.
Short-term memory is limited in both the
Is 8 ÷ 2 − 1 = 1? (Answer YES OR NO) length and the amount of information it can
Then remember “T” hold. Peterson and Peterson (1959) found
that when people were asked to remember
a list of three-letter strings and then were
immediately asked to perform a distracting
task (counting backward by threes), the
material was quickly forgotten (see Figure then you started having trouble. I bet you
9.6, “STM Decay”), such that by 18 seconds missed some of the numbers in the last
it was virtually gone. three rows, and did pretty poorly on the last
one.
The digit span of most adults is between
five and nine digits, with an average of
about seven. The cognitive psychologist
George Miller (1956) referred to “seven plus
or minus two” pieces of information as the
magic number in short-term memory. But if
we can only hold a maximum of about nine
digits in short-term memory, then how can
we remember larger amounts of information
than this? For instance, how can we ever
remember a 10-digit phone number long
Figure 9.6 STM Decay. Researchers found enough to dial it?
that information that was not rehearsed One way we are able to expand our
decayed quickly from memory. ability to remember things in STM is by
using a memory technique
One way to prevent the decay of information called chunking. Chunking is the process of
from short-term memory is to use working organizing information into smaller
memory to rehearse it. Maintenance groupings (chunks), thereby increasing the
rehearsal is the process of repeating number of items that can be held in STM.
information mentally or out loud with the For instance, try to remember this string of
goal of keeping it in memory. We engage in 12 letters:
maintenance rehearsal to keep something XOFCBANNCVTM
that we want to remember (e.g., a person’s You probably won’t do that well because
name, email address, or phone number) in the number of letters is more than the magic
mind long enough to write it down, use it, or number of seven.
potentially transfer it to long-term memory. Now try again with this one:
If we continue to rehearse information, it CTVCBCTSNHBO
will stay in STM until we stop rehearsing it, Would it help you if I pointed out that the
but there is also a capacity limit to STM. Try material in this string could be chunked into
reading each of the following rows of four sets of three letters each? I think it
numbers, one row at a time, at a rate of would, because then rather than
about one number each second. Then when remembering 12 letters, you would only
you have finished each row, close your eyes have to remember the names of four
and write down as many of the numbers as television stations. In this case, chunking
you can remember. changes the number of items you have to
019 remember from 12 to only four.
3586 Experts rely on chunking to help them
10295 process complex information. Herbert
861059 Simon and William Chase (1973) showed
1029384 chess masters and chess novices various
75674834 positions of pieces on a chessboard for a
657874104 few seconds each. The experts did a lot
6550423897 better than the novices in remembering the
If you are like the average person, you positions because they were able to see the
will have found that on this test of working “big picture.” They didn’t have to remember
memory, known as a digit span test, you did the position of each of the pieces
pretty well up to about the fourth line, and individually, but chunked the pieces into
 several larger layouts. But when the an exact replica of what we have
researchers showed both groups random experienced.
chess positions — positions that would be  Explicit memory refers to experiences that
very unlikely to occur in real games — both can be intentionally and consciously
groups did equally poorly, because in this remembered, and it is measured using
situation the experts lost their ability to recall, recognition, and relearning. Explicit
organize the layouts (see Figure 9.7, memory includes episodic and semantic
“Possible and Impossible Chess Positions”). memories.
The same occurs for basketball. Basketball  Measures of relearning (also known as
players recall actual basketball positions “savings”) assess how much more quickly
much better than do nonplayers, but only information is learned when it is studied
when the positions make sense in terms of again after it has already been learned but
what is happening on the court, or what is then forgotten.
likely to happen in the near future, and thus  Implicit memory refers to the influence of
can be chunked into bigger units (Didierjean experience on behaviour, even if the
& Marmèche, 2005). individual is not aware of those influences.
The three types of implicit memory are
procedural memory, classical
conditioning, and priming.
 Information processing begins in sensory
memory, moves to short-term memory,
Figure 9.7 and eventually moves to long-term
Possible and Impossible Chess Positions. memory.
Experience matters: Experienced chess  Maintenance rehearsal and chunking are
players are able to recall the positions of the used to keep information in short-term
game on the right much better than are memory.
those who are chess novices. But the  The capacity of long-term memory is
experts do no better than the novices in large, and there is no known limit to what
remembering the positions on the left, which we can remember.
cannot occur in a real game.

Memory is the faculty of the brain by

If information makes it past short term-
memory it may enter long-term memory which data or information is encoded,
(LTM), memory storage that can hold stored, and retrieved when needed. It is the
information for days, months, and years. retention of information over time for the
The capacity of long-term memory is large, purpose of influencing future action.
and there is no known limit to what we can
remember (Wang, Liu, & Wang, Memory is often understood as
2003). Although we may forget at least an informational processing system with
some information after we learn it, other explicit and implicit functioning that is made
things will stay with us forever. In the next
up of a sensory processor, short-
section we will discuss the principles of
long-term memory. term (or working) memory, and long-term
Key Takeaways memory.[9] This can be related to
the neuron. The sensory processor allows
 Memory refers to the ability to store and information from the outside world to be
retrieve information over time. sensed in the form of chemical and physical
 For some things our memory is very good, stimuli and attended to various levels of
but our active cognitive processing of focus and intent. Working memory serves
information ensures that memory is never
as an encoding and retrieval processor. the hippocampus. Finally, the retrieval of
Information in the form of stimuli is encoded information from long-term memory can be
in accordance with explicit or implicit disrupted because of decay within long-term
functions by the working memory processor. memory. Normal functioning, decay over
The working memory also retrieves time, and brain damage all affect the
information from previously stored material. accuracy and capacity of the memory.
Finally, the function of long-term memory is
to store data through various categorical Sensory memory[edit]
models or systems. Main article: Sensory memory
Declarative, or explicit, memory is the Sensory memory holds sensory information
conscious storage and recollection of data. less than one second after an item is
Under declarative memory perceived. The ability to look at an item and
resides semantic and episodic memory. remember what it looked like with just a split
Semantic memory refers to memory that is second of observation, or memorization, is
encoded with specific meaning, while
the example of sensory memory. It is out of
episodic memory refers to information that cognitive control and is an automatic
is encoded along a spatial and temporal response. With very short presentations,
plane. Declarative memory is usually the participants often report that they seem to
primary process thought of when
"see" more than they can actually report.
referencing memory. Non-declarative, or The first experiments exploring this form of
implicit, memory is the unconscious storage sensory memory were precisely conducted
and recollection of information. An example by George Sperling (1963)[20] using the
of a non-declarative process would be the
"partial report paradigm". Subjects were
unconscious learning or retrieval of presented with a grid of 12 letters, arranged
information by way of procedural memory, into three rows of four. After a brief
or a priming phenomenon. Priming is the presentation, subjects were then played
process of subliminally arousing specific either a high, medium or low tone, cuing
responses from memory and shows that not
them which of the rows to report. Based on
all memory is consciously these partial report experiments, Sperling
activated, whereas procedural memory is was able to show that the capacity of
the slow and gradual learning of skills that sensory memory was approximately 12
often occurs without conscious attention to items, but that it degraded very quickly
learning. (within a few hundred milliseconds).
Memory is not a perfect processor, and is Because this form of memory degrades so
affected by many factors. The ways by quickly, participants would see the display
which information is encoded, stored, and but be unable to report all of the items (12 in
retrieved can all be corrupted. The amount the "whole report" procedure) before they
of attention given new stimuli can diminish decayed. This type of memory cannot be
the amount of information that becomes prolonged via rehearsal.
encoded for storage. Also, the storage Three types of sensory memories
process can become corrupted by physical exist. Iconic memory is a fast decaying store
damage to areas of the brain that are of visual information; a type of sensory
associated with memory storage, such as
memory that briefly stores an image which information, and to a lesser extent a visual
has been perceived for a small code. Conrad (1964)[24] found that test
duration. Echoic memory is a fast decaying subjects had more difficulty recalling
store of auditory information, another type of collections of letters that were acoustically
sensory memory that briefly stores sounds similar (e.g. E, P, D). Confusion with
that have been perceived for short recalling acoustically similar letters rather
durations.[21] Haptic memory is a type of than visually similar letters implies that the
sensory memory that represents a database letters were encoded acoustically. Conrad's
for touch stimuli. (1964) study, however, deals with the
encoding of written text; thus, while memory
Short-term memory[edit] of written language may rely on acoustic
components, generalisations to all forms of
Main article: Short-term memory
memory cannot be made.
Short-term memory is also known
as working memory. Short-term memory Long-term memory[edit]
allows recall for a period of several seconds Main article: Long-term memory
to a minute without rehearsal. Its capacity is
also very limited: George A. Miller (1956),
when working at Bell Laboratories,
conducted experiments showing that the
store of short-term memory was 7±2 items
(the title of his famous paper, "The magical
number 7±2"). Modern estimates of the
capacity of short-term memory are lower,
typically of the order of 4–5
items;[22] however, memory capacity can
be increased through a process
called chunking.[23] For example, in
recalling a ten-digit telephone number, a
person could chunk the digits into three
groups: first, the area code (such as 123),
then a three-digit chunk (456) and lastly a
four-digit chunk (7890). This method of
remembering telephone numbers is far
more effective than attempting to remember
a string of 10 digits; this is because we are Olin Levi Warner, Memory (1896). Library of
able to chunk the information into Congress Thomas Jefferson Building,
meaningful groups of numbers. This may be Washington, D.C.
reflected in some countries in the tendency
The storage in sensory memory and short-
to display telephone numbers as several
term memory generally has a strictly limited
chunks of two to four numbers.
capacity and duration, which means that
Short-term memory is believed to rely information is not retained indefinitely. By
mostly on an acoustic code for storing contrast, long-term memory can store much
larger quantities of information for
potentially unlimited duration (sometimes a his hippocampi. More recent examination of
whole life span). Its capacity is his brain, post-mortem, shows that the
immeasurable. For example, given a hippocampus was more intact than first
random seven-digit number, one may thought, throwing theories drawn from the
remember it for only a few seconds before initial data into question. The hippocampus
forgetting, suggesting it was stored in short- may be involved in changing neural
term memory. On the other hand, one can connections for a period of three months or
remember telephone numbers for many more after the initial learning.
years through repetition; this information is
said to be stored in long-term memory. Research has suggested that long-term
memory storage in humans may be
While short-term memory encodes maintained by DNA methylation,[28] and
information acoustically, long-term memory the 'prion' gene.[29][30]
encodes it semantically: Baddeley
(1966)[25] discovered that, after 20 minutes, Multi-store model[edit]
test subjects had the most difficulty recalling
See also: Memory consolidation
a collection of words that had similar
meanings (e.g. big, large, great, huge) long-
term. Another part of long-term memory is
episodic memory, "which attempts to
capture information such as 'what', 'when'
and 'where'".[26] With episodic memory,
individuals are able to recall specific events
such as birthday parties and weddings. The multi-store model (also known
as Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model) was
Short-term memory is supported by first described in 1968
transient patterns of neuronal by Atkinson and Shiffrin.
communication, dependent on regions of
the frontal lobe (especially The multi-store model has been criticised
dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) and for being too simplistic. For instance, long-
the parietal lobe. Long-term memory, on the term memory is believed to be actually
other hand, is maintained by more stable made up of multiple subcomponents, such
and permanent changes in neural as episodic and procedural memory. It also
connections widely spread throughout the proposes that rehearsal is the only
brain. The hippocampus is essential (for mechanism by which information eventually
learning new information) to the reaches long-term storage, but evidence
consolidation of information from short-term shows us capable of remembering things
to long-term memory, although it does not without rehearsal.
seem to store information itself. It was
thought that without the hippocampus new The model also shows all the memory
memories were unable to be stored into stores as being a single unit whereas
research into this shows differently. For
long-term memory and that there would be
a very short attention span, as first gleaned example, short-term memory can be broken
from patient Henry Molaison[27] after what up into different units such as visual
was thought to be the full removal of both information and acoustic information. In a
study by Zlonoga and Gerber (1986), The phonological loop stores auditory
patient 'KF' demonstrated certain deviations information by silently rehearsing sounds or
from the Atkinson–Shiffrin model. Patient words in a continuous loop: the articulatory
KF was brain damaged, displaying process (for example the repetition of a
difficulties regarding short-term memory. telephone number over and over again). A
Recognition of sounds such as spoken short list of data is easier to remember.
numbers, letters, words and easily
identifiable noises (such as doorbells and The visuospatial sketchpad stores visual
cats meowing) were all impacted. Visual and spatial information. It is engaged when
short-term memory was unaffected, performing spatial tasks (such as judging
suggesting a dichotomy between visual and distances) or visual ones (such as counting
audial memory.[31] the windows on a house or imagining
images).
Working memory[edit]
The episodic buffer is dedicated to linking
Main article: Working memory information across domains to form
integrated units of visual, spatial, and verbal
information and chronological ordering (e.g.,
the memory of a story or a movie scene).
The episodic buffer is also assumed to have
links to long-term memory and semantical
meaning.

The working memory model explains many

practical observations, such as why it is
easier to do two different tasks (one verbal
and one visual) than two similar tasks (e.g.,
The working memory model two visual), and the aforementioned word-
length effect. Working memory is also the
In 1974 Baddeley and Hitch proposed a premise for what allows us to do everyday
"working memory model" that replaced the activities involving thought. It is the section
general concept of short-term memory with of memory where we carry out thought
an active maintenance of information in the processes and use them to learn and
short-term storage. In this model, working reason about topics.[32]
memory consists of three basic stores: the
central executive, the phonological loop and Types[edit]
the visuo-spatial sketchpad. In 2000 this
Researchers distinguish
model was expanded with the multimodal
between recognition and recall memory.
episodic buffer (Baddeley's model of
Recognition memory tasks require
working memory).[32]
individuals to indicate whether they have
The central executive essentially acts as an encountered a stimulus (such as a picture
attention sensory store. It channels or a word) before. Recall memory tasks
information to the three component require participants to retrieve previously
processes: the phonological loop, the visuo- learned information. For example,
spatial sketchpad, and the episodic buffer. individuals might be asked to produce a
series of actions they have seen before or more personal memories, such as the
to say a list of words they have heard sensations, emotions, and personal
before. associations of a particular place or time.
Episodic memories often reflect the "firsts"
By information type[edit] in life such as a first kiss, first day of school
Topographic memory involves the ability to or first time winning a championship. These
orient oneself in space, to recognize and are key events in one's life that can be
follow an itinerary, or to recognize familiar remembered clearly. Autobiographical
places.[33] Getting lost when traveling alone memory – memory for particular events
is an example of the failure of topographic within one's own life – is generally viewed
memory.[34] as either equivalent to, or a subset of,
episodic memory. Visual memory is part of
Flashbulb memories are clear episodic memory preserving some characteristics of
memories of unique and highly emotional our senses pertaining to visual experience.
events.[35] People remembering where they One is able to place in memory information
were or what they were doing when they that resembles objects, places, animals or
first heard the news of President people in sort of a mental image. Visual
Kennedy's assassination,[36] the Sydney memory can result in priming and it is
Siege or of 9/11 are examples of flashbulb assumed some kind of perceptual
memories. representational system underlies this
phenomenon.[citation needed]
Anderson (1976)[37] divides long-term
memory into declarative Procedural[edit]
(explicit) and procedural (implicit) memories.
In contrast, procedural memory (or implicit
Declarative[edit] memory) is not based on the conscious
recall of information, but on implicit learning.
Main article: Declarative memory It can best be summarized as remembering
how to do something. Procedural memory is
Declarative
primarily employed in learning motor
memory requires conscious recall, in that
skills and should be considered a subset of
some conscious process must call back the
implicit memory. It is revealed when one
information. It is sometimes called explicit
does better in a given task due only to
memory, since it consists of information that
repetition – no new explicit memories have
is explicitly stored and retrieved.
been formed, but one
Declarative memory can be further sub- is unconsciously accessing aspects of those
divided into semantic memory, concerning previous experiences. Procedural memory
principles and facts taken independent of involved in motor learning depends on
context; and episodic memory, concerning the cerebellum and basal ganglia.
information specific to a particular context,
A characteristic of procedural memory is
such as a time and place. Semantic
that the things remembered are
memory allows the encoding of
automatically translated into actions, and
abstract knowledge about the world, such
thus sometimes difficult to describe. Some
as "Paris is the capital of France". Episodic
memory, on the other hand, is used for
examples of procedural memory include the deferred and elicited imitation techniques
ability to ride a bike or tie shoelaces.[38] have been used to assess infants' recall
memory.
By temporal direction[edit]
Techniques used to assess infants'
Another major way to distinguish different recognition memory include the following:
memory functions is whether the content to
be remembered is in the past, retrospective Visual paired comparison procedure (relies
memory, or in the future, prospective on habituation): infants are first presented
memory. Thus, retrospective memory as a with pairs of visual stimuli, such as two
category includes semantic, episodic and black-and-white photos of human faces, for
autobiographical memory. In contrast, a fixed amount of time; then, after being
prospective memory is memory for future familiarized with the two photos, they are
intentions, or remembering to presented with the "familiar" photo and a
remember (Winograd, 1988). Prospective new photo. The time spent looking at each
memory can be further broken down into photo is recorded. Looking longer at the
event- and time-based prospective new photo indicates that they remember the
remembering. Time-based prospective "familiar" one. Studies using this procedure
memories are triggered by a time-cue, such have found that 5- to 6-month-olds can
as going to the doctor (action) at 4pm (cue). retain information for as long as fourteen
Event-based prospective memories are days.[39]
intentions triggered by cues, such as
remembering to post a letter (action) after Operant conditioning technique: infants are
seeing a mailbox (cue). Cues do not need to placed in a crib and a ribbon that is
be related to the action (as the connected to a mobile overhead is tied to
mailbox/letter example), and lists, sticky- one of their feet. Infants notice that when
notes, knotted handkerchiefs, or string they kick their foot the mobile moves – the
around the finger all exemplify cues that rate of kicking increases dramatically within
people use as strategies to enhance minutes. Studies using this technique have
prospective memory. revealed that infants' memory substantially
improves over the first 18-months. Whereas
Study techniques[edit] 2- to 3-month-olds can retain an operant
response (such as activating the mobile by
To assess infants[edit] kicking their foot) for a week, 6-month-olds
Infants do not have the language ability to can retain it for two weeks, and 18-month-
report on their memories and so verbal olds can retain a similar operant response
reports cannot be used to assess very for as long as 13 weeks.[40][41][42]
young children's memory. Throughout the Techniques used to assess infants' recall
years, however, researchers have adapted memory include the following:
and developed a number of measures for
assessing both infants' recognition memory Deferred imitation technique: an
and their recall experimenter shows infants a unique
memory. Habituation and operant sequence of actions (such as using a stick
conditioning techniques have been used to to push a button on a box) and then, after a
assess infants' recognition memory and the delay, asks the infants to imitate the actions.
Studies using deferred imitation have shown Recognition – subjects are asked to
that 14-month-olds' memories for the remember a list of words or pictures, after
sequence of actions can last for as long as which point they are asked to identify the
four months.[43] previously presented words or pictures from
among a list of alternatives that were not
Elicited imitation technique: is very similar to presented in the original list.[50] This is
the deferred imitation technique; the similar to multiple choice assessments.
difference is that infants are allowed to
imitate the actions before the delay. Studies Detection paradigm – individuals are shown
using the elicited imitation technique have a number of objects and color samples
shown that 20-month-olds can recall the during a certain period of time. They are
action sequences twelve months then tested on their visual ability to
later.[44][45] remember as much as they can by looking
at testers and pointing out whether the
To assess older children and adults[edit] testers are similar to the sample, or if any
change is present.
Researchers use a variety of tasks to
assess older children and adults' memory. Savings method – compares the speed of
Some examples are: originally learning to the speed of relearning
it. The amount of time saved measures
Paired associate learning – when one
learns to associate one specific word with memory.[51]
another. For example, when given a word Implicit-memory tasks – information is
such as "safe" one must learn to say drawn from memory without conscious
another specific word, such as "green". This realization.
is stimulus and response.[46][47]
Failures[edit]
Free recall – during this task a subject
would be asked to study a list of words and
then later they will be asked to recall or
write down as many words that they can
remember, similar to free response
questions.[48] Earlier items are affected by
retroactive interference (RI), which means
the longer the list, the greater the
interference, and the less likelihood that
they are recalled. On the other hand, items
that have been presented lastly suffer little
RI, but suffer a great deal from proactive
interference (PI), which means the longer
the delay in recall, the more likely that the
items will be lost.[49]

Cued recall – one is given significant hints

about the information. This is similar to fill in
the blank assessments used in classrooms.
The garden of oblivion, illustration potentiation and long-term depression.
by Ephraim Moses Lilien. However, this has been questioned on
computational as well as neurophysiological
Transience – memories degrade with the grounds by the cognitive scientist Charles
passing of time. This occurs in the storage R. Gallistel and others.[53][54][55]
stage of memory, after the information has
been stored and before it is retrieved. This In general, the more emotionally charged an
can happen in sensory, short-term, and event or experience is, the better it is
long-term storage. It follows a general remembered; this phenomenon is known as
pattern where the information is rapidly the memory enhancement effect. Patients
forgotten during the first couple of days or with amygdala damage, however, do not
years, followed by small losses in later days show a memory enhancement
or years. effect.[56][57]

Absent-mindedness – Memory failure due to Hebb distinguished between short-term and

the lack of attention. Attention plays a key long-term memory. He postulated that any
role in storing information into long-term memory that stayed in short-term storage
memory; without proper attention, the for a long enough time would be
information might not be stored, making it consolidated into a long-term memory. Later
impossible to be retrieved later. research showed this to be false. Research
has shown that direct injections
Physiology[edit] of cortisol or epinephrine help the storage of
Brain areas involved in the neuroanatomy of recent experiences. This is also true for
stimulation of the amygdala. This proves
memory such as the hippocampus,
the amygdala, the striatum, or that excitement enhances memory by the
the mammillary bodies are thought to be stimulation of hormones that affect the
involved in specific types of memory. For amygdala. Excessive or prolonged stress
example, the hippocampus is believed to be (with prolonged cortisol) may hurt memory
involved in spatial learning and declarative storage. Patients with amygdalar damage
learning, while the amygdala is thought to are no more likely to remember emotionally
be involved in emotional memory.[52] charged words than nonemotionally
charged ones. The hippocampus is
Damage to certain areas in patients and important for explicit memory. The
animal models and subsequent memory hippocampus is also important for memory
deficits is a primary source of information. consolidation. The hippocampus receives
However, rather than implicating a specific input from different parts of the cortex and
area, it could be that damage to adjacent sends its output out to different parts of the
areas, or to a pathway traveling through the brain also. The input comes from secondary
area is actually responsible for the observed and tertiary sensory areas that have
deficit. Further, it is not sufficient to describe processed the information a lot already.
memory, and its counterpart, learning, as Hippocampal damage may also
solely dependent on specific brain regions. cause memory loss and problems with
Learning and memory are usually attributed memory storage.[58] This memory loss
to changes in neuronal synapses, thought to includes retrograde amnesia which is the
be mediated by long-term
loss of memory for events that occurred acquisition, it is likely that different brain
shortly before the time of brain damage.[51] areas support different memory systems
and that they are in mutual relationships in
Cognitive neuroscience[edit] neuronal networks: "components of memory
Cognitive neuroscientists consider memory representation are distributed widely across
as the retention, reactivation, and different parts of the brain as mediated by
reconstruction of the experience- multiple neocortical circuits".[59]
independent internal representation. The Encoding. Encoding of working
term of internal representation implies that memory involves the spiking of individual
such definition of memory contains two neurons induced by sensory input, which
components: the expression of memory at persists even after the sensory input
the behavioral or conscious level, and the disappears (Jensen and Lisman 2005;
underpinning physical neural changes Fransen et al. 2002). Encoding of episodic
(Dudai 2007). The latter component is also memory involves persistent changes in
called engram or memory traces (Semon molecular structures that alter synaptic
1904). Some neuroscientists and transmission between neurons. Examples of
psychologists mistakenly equate the such structural changes include long-term
concept of engram and memory, broadly potentiation (LTP) or spike-timing-
conceiving all persisting after-effects of dependent plasticity (STDP). The persistent
experiences as memory; others argue spiking in working memory can enhance the
against this notion that memory does not synaptic and cellular changes in the
exist until it is revealed in behavior or encoding of episodic memory (Jensen and
thought (Moscovitch 2007). Lisman 2005).
One question that is crucial in cognitive Working memory. Recent functional imaging
neuroscience is how information and mental studies detected working memory signals in
experiences are coded and represented in both medial temporal lobe (MTL), a brain
the brain. Scientists have gained much area strongly associated with long-term
knowledge about the neuronal codes from memory, and prefrontal cortex (Ranganath
the studies of plasticity, but most of such et al. 2005), suggesting a strong
research has been focused on simple relationship between working memory and
learning in simple neuronal circuits; it is long-term memory. However, the
considerably less clear about the neuronal substantially more working memory signals
changes involved in more complex seen in the prefrontal lobe suggest that this
examples of memory, particularly area play a more important role in working
declarative memory that requires the memory than MTL (Suzuki 2007).
storage of facts and events (Byrne
2007). Convergence-divergence Consolidation and reconsolidation. Short-
zones might be the neural networks where term memory (STM) is temporary and
memories are stored and retrieved. subject to disruption, while long-term
Considering that there are several kinds of memory (LTM), once consolidated, is
memory, depending on types of represented persistent and stable. Consolidation of STM
knowledge, underlying mechanisms, into LTM at the molecular level presumably
processes functions and modes of involves two processes: synaptic
consolidation and system consolidation. The research now indicates that infants as
former involves a protein synthesis process young as 6-months can recall information
in the medial temporal lobe (MTL), whereas after a 24-hour delay.[63] Furthermore,
the latter transforms the MTL-dependent research has revealed that as infants grow
memory into an MTL-independent memory older they can store information for longer
over months to years (Ledoux 2007). In periods of time; 6-month-olds can recall
recent years, such traditional consolidation information after a 24-hour period, 9-month-
dogma has been re-evaluated as a result of olds after up to five weeks, and 20-month-
the studies on reconsolidation. These olds after as long as twelve months.[64] In
studies showed that prevention addition, studies have shown that with age,
after retrieval affects subsequent retrieval of infants can store information faster.
the memory (Sara 2000). New studies have Whereas 14-month-olds can recall a three-
shown that post-retrieval treatment with step sequence after being exposed to it
protein synthesis inhibitors and many other once, 6-month-olds need approximately six
compounds can lead to an amnestic state exposures in order to be able to remember
(Nadel et al. 2000b; Alberini 2005; Dudai it.[43][63]
2006). These findings on reconsolidation fit
with the behavioral evidence that retrieved Although 6-month-olds can recall
memory is not a carbon copy of the initial information over the short-term, they have
experiences, and memories are updated difficulty recalling the temporal order of
during retrieval. information. It is only by 9 months of age
that infants can recall the actions of a two-
Genetics[edit] step sequence in the correct temporal order
– that is, recalling step 1 and then step
Study of the genetics of human memory is 2.[65][66] In other words, when asked to
in its infancy. A notable initial success was imitate a two-step action sequence (such as
the association of APOE with memory putting a toy car in the base and pushing in
dysfunction in Alzheimer's Disease. The the plunger to make the toy roll to the other
search for genes associated with normally end), 9-month-olds tend to imitate the
varying memory continues. One of the first actions of the sequence in the correct order
candidates for normal variation in memory is (step 1 and then step 2). Younger infants (6-
the protein KIBRA,[60] which appears to be month-olds) can only recall one step of a
associated with the rate at which material is two-step sequence.[63] Researchers have
forgotten over a delay period. There has suggested that these age differences are
been some evidence that memories are probably due to the fact that the dentate
stored in the nucleus of neurons.[61][non- gyrus of the hippocampus and the frontal
primary source needed] components of the neural network are not
In infancy[edit] fully developed at the age of 6-
months.[44][67][68]
For the inability of adults to retrieve early
memories, see Childhood amnesia. In fact, the term 'infantile amnesia' refers to
the phenomenon of accelerated forgetting
Up until the mid-1980s it was assumed that during infancy. Importantly, infantile
infants could not encode, retain, and amnesia is not unique to humans, and
retrieve information.[62] A growing body of preclinical research (using rodent models)
provides insight into the precise the promoters of those genes with reduced
neurobiology of this phenomenon. A review expression. It was suggested that DNA
of the literature from behavioral damage may reduce the expression of
neuroscientist Dr Jee Hyun Kim suggests selectively vulnerable genes involved in
that accelerated forgetting during early life is memory and learning.[72]
at least partly due to rapid growth of the
brain during this period.[69] Disorders[edit]

Aging[edit] Main article: Memory disorder

Main article: Memory and aging Much of the current knowledge of memory
has come from studying memory disorders,
One of the key concerns of older adults is particularly amnesia. Loss of memory is
the experience of memory loss, especially known as amnesia. Amnesia can result from
as it is one of the hallmark symptoms extensive damage to: (a) the regions of the
of Alzheimer's disease. However, memory medial temporal lobe, such as the
loss is qualitatively different in hippocampus, dentate gyrus, subiculum,
normal aging from the kind of memory loss amygdala, the parahippocampal, entorhinal,
associated with a diagnosis of Alzheimer's and perirhinal cortices[73] or the (b) midline
(Budson & Price, 2005). Research has diencephalic region, specifically the
revealed that individuals' performance on dorsomedial nucleus of the thalamus and
memory tasks that rely on frontal regions the mammillary bodies of the
declines with age. Older adults tend to hypothalamus.[74] There are many sorts of
exhibit deficits on tasks that involve knowing amnesia, and by studying their different
the temporal order in which they learned forms, it has become possible to observe
information;[70] source memory tasks that apparent defects in individual sub-systems
require them to remember the specific of the brain's memory systems, and thus
circumstances or context in which they hypothesize their function in the normally
learned information;[71] and prospective working brain. Other neurological disorders
memory tasks that involve remembering to such as Alzheimer's
perform an act at a future time. Older adults disease and Parkinson's disease[75] can
can manage their problems with prospective also affect memory and
memory by using appointment books, for cognition. Hyperthymesia, or hyperthymesic
example. syndrome, is a disorder that affects an
individual's autobiographical memory,
Gene transcription profiles were determined essentially meaning that they cannot forget
for the human frontal cortex of individuals small details that otherwise would not be
from age 26 to 106 years. Numerous genes stored.[76] Korsakoff's syndrome, also
were identified with reduced expression known as Korsakoff's psychosis, amnesic-
after age 40, and especially after age confabulatory syndrome, is an organic brain
70.[72] Genes that play central roles in disease that adversely affects memory by
memory and learning were among those widespread loss or shrinkage of neurons
showing the most significant reduction with within the prefrontal cortex.[51]
age. There was also a marked increase
in DNA damage, likely oxidative damage, in
While not a disorder, a and male university students participated in
common temporary failure of word retrieval either a stress test or a control group. Those
from memory is the tip-of-the- randomly assigned to the stress test group
tongue phenomenon. Sufferers of Anomic had a hand immersed in ice cold water (the
aphasia (also called Nominal aphasia or reputable SECPT or 'Socially Evaluated
Anomia), however, do experience the tip-of- Cold Pressor Test') for up to three minutes,
the-tongue phenomenon on an ongoing while being monitored and videotaped. Both
basis due to damage to the frontal and the stress and control groups were then
parietal lobes of the brain. presented with 32 words to memorize.
Twenty-four hours later, both groups were
Influencing factors[edit] tested to see how many words they could
remember (free recall) as well as how many
Interference can hamper memorization and
retrieval. There is retroactive interference, they could recognize from a larger list of
when learning new information makes it words (recognition performance). The
results showed a clear impairment of
harder to recall old
information[77] and proactive interference, memory performance in the stress test
where prior learning disrupts recall of new group, who recalled 30% fewer words than
information. Although interference can lead the control group. The researchers suggest
to forgetting, it is important to keep in mind that stress experienced during learning
that there are situations when old distracts people by diverting their attention
information can facilitate learning of new during the memory encoding process.
information. Knowing Latin, for instance, However, memory performance can be
can help an individual learn a related enhanced when material is linked to the
language such as French – this learning context, even when learning occurs
phenomenon is known as positive under stress. A separate study by cognitive
transfer.[78] psychologists Schwabe and Wolf shows
Stress[edit] that when retention testing is done in a
context similar to or congruent with the
Stress has a significant effect on memory original learning task (i.e., in the same
formation and learning. In response to room), memory impairment and the
stressful situations, the brain releases detrimental effects of stress on learning can
hormones and neurotransmitters (ex. be attenuated.[81] Seventy-two healthy
glucocorticoids and catecholamines) which female and male university students,
affect memory encoding processes in the randomly assigned to the SECPT stress
hippocampus. Behavioural research on test or to a control group, were asked to
animals shows that chronic stress produces remember the locations of 15 pairs of
adrenal hormones which impact the picture cards – a computerized version of
hippocampal structure in the brains of the card game "Concentration" or
rats.[79] An experimental study by German "Memory". The room in which the
cognitive psychologists L. Schwabe and O. experiment took place was infused with the
Wolf demonstrates how learning under scent of vanilla, as odour is a strong cue for
stress also decreases memory recall in memory. Retention testing took place the
humans.[80] In this study, 48 healthy female following day, either in the same room with
the vanilla scent again present, or in a memories where a person moves an
different room without the fragrance. The unbearable memory to the unconscious
memory performance of subjects who mind.[51] This directly relates to traumatic
experienced stress during the object- events in one's past such as kidnappings,
location task decreased significantly when being prisoners of war or sexual abuse as a
they were tested in an unfamiliar room child.
without the vanilla scent (an incongruent
context); however, the memory performance The more long term the exposure to stress
of stressed subjects showed no impairment is, the more impact it may have. However,
when they were tested in the original room short term exposure to stress also causes
with the vanilla scent (a congruent context). impairment in memory by interfering with
All participants in the experiment, both the function of the hippocampus. Research
stressed and unstressed, performed faster shows that subjects placed in a stressful
when the learning and retrieval contexts situation for a short amount of time still have
were similar.[82] blood glucocorticoid levels that have
increased drastically when measured after
This research on the effects of stress on the exposure is completed. When subjects
memory may have practical implications for are asked to complete a learning task after
education, for eyewitness testimony and for short term exposure they often have
psychotherapy: students may perform better difficulties. Prenatal stress also hinders the
when tested in their regular classroom ability to learn and memorize by disrupting
rather than an exam room, eyewitnesses the development of the hippocampus and
may recall details better at the scene of an can lead to unestablished long term
event than in a courtroom, and persons potentiation in the offspring of severely
suffering from post-traumatic stress may stressed parents. Although the stress is
improve when helped to situate applied prenatally, the offspring show
their memories of a traumatic event in an increased levels of glucocorticoids when
appropriate context. they are subjected to stress later on in
life.[83]
Stressful life experiences may be a cause of
memory loss as a person Sleep[edit]
ages. Glucocorticoids that are released
during stress, damage neurons that are Making memories occurs through a three-
located in the hippocampal region of the step process, which can be enhanced
brain. Therefore, the more stressful by sleep. The three steps are as follows:
situations that someone encounters, the Acquisition which is the process of storage
more susceptible they are to memory loss and retrieval of new information in memory
later on. The CA1 neurons found in the
hippocampus are destroyed due to Consolidation
glucocorticoids decreasing the release of
glucose and the reuptake of glutamate. This Recall
high level of extracellular glutamate allows
Sleep affects memory consolidation. During
calcium to enter NMDA receptors which in
sleep, the neural connections in the brain
return kills neurons. Stressful life
are strengthened. This enhances the brain's
experiences can also cause repression of
abilities to stabilize and retain memories. underlying the induction and maintenance of
There have been several studies which memory are very dynamic and comprise
show that sleep improves the retention of distinct phases covering a time window from
memory, as memories are enhanced seconds to even a lifetime.[87] In fact,
through active consolidation. System research has revealed that our memories
consolidation takes place during slow-wave are constructed: "current hypotheses
sleep (SWS).[84] This process implicates suggest that constructive processes allow
that memories are reactivated during sleep, individuals to simulate and imagine future
but that the process doesn't enhance every episodes, happenings, and scenarios. Since
memory. It also implicates that qualitative the future is not an exact repetition of the
changes are made to the memories when past, simulation of future episodes requires
they are transferred to long-term store a complex system that can draw on the past
during sleep. During sleep, the in a manner that flexibly extracts and
hippocampus replays the events of the day recombines elements of previous
for the neocortex. The neocortex then experiences – a constructive rather than a
reviews and processes memories, which reproductive system."[59] People can
moves them into long-term memory. When construct their memories when they encode
one does not get enough sleep it makes it them and/or when they recall them. To
more difficult to learn as these neural illustrate, consider a classic study
connections are not as strong, resulting in a conducted by Elizabeth Loftus and John
lower retention rate of memories. Sleep Palmer (1974)[88] in which people were
deprivation makes it harder to focus, instructed to watch a film of a traffic
resulting in inefficient accident and then asked about what they
learning.[84] Furthermore, some studies saw. The researchers found that the people
have shown that sleep deprivation can lead who were asked, "How fast were the cars
to false memories as the memories are not going when they smashed into each other?"
properly transferred to long-term memory. gave higher estimates than those who were
One of the primary functions of sleep is asked, "How fast were the cars going when
thought to be the improvement of the they hit each other?" Furthermore, when
consolidation of information, as several asked a week later whether they had seen
studies have demonstrated that memory broken glass in the film, those who had
depends on getting sufficient sleep between been asked the question
training and test.[85] Additionally, data with smashed were twice more likely to
obtained from neuroimaging studies have report that they had seen broken glass than
shown activation patterns in the sleeping those who had been asked the question
brain that mirror those recorded during the with hit. There was no broken glass
learning of tasks from the previous depicted in the film. Thus, the wording of the
day,[85] suggesting that new memories may questions distorted viewers' memories of
be solidified through such rehearsal.[86] the event. Importantly, the wording of the
question led people to construct different
Construction for general manipulation[edit] memories of the event – those who were
Although people often think that memory asked the question with smashed recalled a
operates like recording equipment, it is not more serious car accident than they had
the case. The molecular mechanisms actually seen. The findings of this
experiment were replicated around the formation in humans, and in treating PTSD
world, and researchers consistently and schizophrenia.[92][93]
demonstrated that when people were
provided with misleading information they Improving[edit]
tended to misremember, a phenomenon Main article: Improving memory
known as the misinformation effect.[89]
A UCLA research study published in the
Research has revealed that asking June 2008 issue of the American Journal of
individuals to repeatedly imagine actions Geriatric Psychiatry found that people can
that they have never performed or events improve cognitive function and brain
that they have never experienced could efficiency through simple lifestyle changes
result in false memories. For instance, Goff such as incorporating memory
and Roediger[90] (1998) asked participants exercises, healthy eating, physical
to imagine that they performed an act (e.g., fitness and stress reduction into their daily
break a toothpick) and then later asked lives. This study examined 17 subjects,
them whether they had done such a thing.
(average age 53) with normal memory
Findings revealed that those participants performance. Eight subjects were asked to
who repeatedly imagined performing such follow a "brain healthy" diet, relaxation,
an act were more likely to think that they physical, and mental exercise (brain teasers
had actually performed that act during the
and verbal memory training techniques).
first session of the experiment. Similarly, After 14 days, they showed greater word
Garry and her colleagues (1996)[91] asked fluency (not memory) compared to their
college students to report how certain they baseline performance. No long-term follow-
were that they experienced a number of
up was conducted; it is therefore unclear if
events as children (e.g., broke a window this intervention has lasting effects on
with their hand) and then two weeks later memory.[94]
asked them to imagine four of those events.
The researchers found that one-fourth of the There are a loosely associated group of
students asked to imagine the four events mnemonic principles and techniques that
reported that they had actually experienced can be used to vastly improve memory
such events as children. That is, when known as the art of memory.
asked to imagine the events they were more
confident that they experienced the events. The International Longevity Center released
in 2001 a report[95] which includes in pages
Research reported in 2013 revealed that it 14–16 recommendations for keeping the
is possible to artificially stimulate prior mind in good functionality until advanced
memories and artificially implant false age. Some of the recommendations are to
memories in mice. Using optogenetics, a stay intellectually active through learning,
team of RIKEN-MIT scientists caused the training or reading, to keep physically active
mice to incorrectly associate a benign so to promote blood circulation to the brain,
environment with a prior unpleasant to socialize, to reduce stress, to keep sleep
experience from different surroundings. time regular, to avoid depression or
Some scientists believe that the study may emotional instability and to observe good
have implications in studying false memory nutrition.
Memorization is a method of learning that have evolved the ability to obtain meat for
allows an individual to recall information sustenance, likely due to the lack of
verbatim. Rote learning is the method most nitrogen in the soil.[98] This is done by two
often used. Methods of memorizing things trap-forming leaf tips that snap shut once
have been the subject of much discussion triggered by a potential prey. On each lobe,
over the years with some writers, such three triggers hairs await stimulation. In
as Cosmos Rossellius using order to maximize the benefit to cost ratio,
visual alphabets. The spacing effect shows the plant enables a rudimentary form of
that an individual is more likely to remember memory in which two trigger hairs must be
a list of items when rehearsal is spaced stimulated within 30 seconds in order to
over an extended period of time. In contrast result in trap closure.[98] This system
to this is cramming: an intensive ensures that the trap only closes when
memorization in a short period of time. the potential prey is within grasp.
spacing effect is exploited to improve
memory in spaced repetition flashcard The time lapse between trigger hair
training. Also relevant is the Zeigarnik stimulations suggests that the plant can
effect which states that people remember remember an initial stimulus long enough
uncompleted or interrupted tasks better than for a second stimulus to initiate trap closure.
completed ones. The so-called Method of This memory isn't encoded in a brain, as
loci uses spatial memory to memorize non- plants lack this specialized organ. Rather,
spatial information.[96] information is stored in the form of
cytoplasmic calcium levels. The first trigger
In plants[edit] causes a subthreshold cytoplasmic calcium
influx.[98] This initial trigger isn't enough to
Plants lack a specialized organ devoted to activate trap closure, and so a subsequent
memory retention, and so plant memory has stimulus allows for a secondary influx of
been a controversial topic in recent years. calcium. The latter calcium rise
New advances in the field have identified superimposes on the initial one, creating an
the presence of neurotransmitters in plants, action potential that passes threshold,
adding to the hypothesis that plants are resulting in trap closure.[98] Researchers, to
capable of remembering.[97] Action prove that an electrical threshold must be
potentials, a physiological response met to stimulate trap closure, excited a
characteristic of neurons, have been shown single trigger hair with a constant
to have an influence on plants as well, mechanical stimulus using Ag/AgCl
including in wound responses electrodes.[99] The trap closed after only a
and photosynthesis.[97] In addition to these few seconds. This experiment gave
homologous features of memory systems in evidence to demonstrate that the electrical
both plants and animals, plants have also threshold, not necessarily the number of
been observed to encode, store and retrieve trigger hair stimulations, was the
basic short-term memories. contributing factor in Venus Fly Trap
One of the most well-studied plants to show memory. It has been shown that trap
rudimentary memory is the Venus flytrap. closure can be blocked using uncouplers
Native to the subtropical wetlands of the and inhibitors of voltage-gated
eastern United States, Venus Fly Traps channels.[99] After trap closure, these
 electrical signals stimulate glandular  22Further reading
production of jasmonic acid and hydrolases,  23External links
allowing for digestion of the prey.[100]

The field of plant neurobiology has gained a

large amount of interest over the past
decade, leading to an influx of research
regarding plant memory. Although the
Venus flytrap is one of the more highly
studied, many other plants exhibit the
capacity to remember, including the Mimosa
pudica through an experiment conducted by
Monica Gagliano and colleagues in
2013. As the field expands, it is likely that
we will learn more about the capacity of a
plant to remember.

Contents

 1Sensory memory
 2Short-term memory
 3Long-term memory
o 3.1Multi-store model
o 3.2Working memory
 4Types
o 4.1By information type
 4.1.1Declarative
 4.1.2Procedural
o 4.2By temporal direction
 5Study techniques
o 5.1To assess infants
o 5.2To assess older children and adults
 6Failures
 7Physiology
 8Cognitive neuroscience
 9Genetics
 10In infancy
 11Aging
 12Disorders
 13Influencing factors
 14Stress
 15Sleep
 16Construction for general manipulation
 17Improving
 18In plants
 19See also
 20Notes
 21References