MECHATRONICS MODULE 1

MODULE 1
Introduction to Mechatronics
Mechatronics is a Rapidly developing interdisciplinary field of engineering The field of
Mechatronics deals with the synergistic integration of Mechanical engineering, electronic
engineering, computer technology and control engineering the development of
electromechanical products. through an integrated design approach. Therefore, a mechatronics
system Requires a multi-disciplinary approach for the design, development and implementation
of its product and the entire mechatronics system is treated concurrently in an integrated
manner.

Elements of Mechatronics System

A typical mechatronics Electronics system consist of mechanical system, electrical
systems and information technology. A typical mechatronic System such as a servo motor and
humanoid robot consists of mechanical elements, actuators, sensors, controllers, signal
conditioning devices, computer and software, interfacing and power devices.
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The concept of mechatronics is to bring together the areas of technology involving

sensors and measurement systems, drives and actuation systems and analyze the behavior of
systems, microprocessor systems and control systems. a Servo Motor is a typical example for
the mechatronics system. It is a motor with sensor feedback and is used for obtaining very
complex and precise motions. The main Mechanical components in the servo motor are the
rotor and stator. The electrical components consist of field windings and rotor windings.
circuitry for power transmission. Electronic components include sensors such as optical
encoders and controller’s circuit elements other examples of mechatronics systems are

o digital cameras
o Washing machine
o ATM
o Anti-Lock Braking System
CNC machine tools
The key elements of mechatronic systems can be classified under following categories:
1. Information systems:
2. Mechanical systems;
3. Electrical systems
4. Computer systems:
5. Sensors and actuators;
6. Real-time interfacing

The following figure shows all elements in a typical mechatronics system.

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Components of a Mechatronics system

1. Actuators: Produce motion or cause some action. DC motor, Stepper motors, servomotors,
hydraulics, pneumatics
2. Sensors: detect the state of the system parameters, inputs and outputs. Switches,
Potentiometer, Strain gauge, Thermocouple, digital encoder
3. Input signal conditioning and interfacing: provide connection b/w the control circuits and the
I/P Discrete circuits, Amplifiers, Filters, A/D,D/D
4. Digital control architectures: Control the system. Logic circuits, microcontroller, PLC
5. Output signal conditioning and interfacing : provide connection b/w the control circuits and the
O/P ,D/A, D/D, Amplifiers, Power transisters.
6. Graphical Display : Provide visual feedback to users.LEDs, Digital displays, LCD, CRT
Mechatronics design approach
1.Modeling and Simulation
Physical systems are represented by a suitable model for describing the behavior
characteristics such as block diagrams. Numerical or computer simulation methods are used
for solving models. Modeling and design can be done by understanding the system and its
intended function and objectives
2. Prototyping
It is the process of replacing non-computer systems with actual hardware. Sensors
and actuators are interfaced with input and output signals and connected with the models,
resulting in partial mathematical and real models. Of the two parts, the mathematical part
provides simulated time-based response and the real part provides real time analysis. These
two parts are synchronized to understand and validate the design
3. Deployment
deployment and life cycle, this is associated with the final product, embedded software

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
1. Cost effective and Very good 1. High initial cost.
quality. 2. Skilled worker is required.
2. High degree of flexibility. 3. Fault detection s complex.
3. Greater productivity. 4. Complicated design and system
4. Higher quantity and producing
reliability.
5. Greater extent of machine
utilization.
6. Maintenance cost is less.
7. Machining of complex designs
can be done

Scope of Mechatronics systems

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1. Better design of products.

2. Better process planning.
3. Reliable and quality-oriented manufacturing.
4. Intelligent process and production control.
5. Manufacturing of complex parts.
6. More Accurate and more precision of jobs
System
A group of physical components combined to perform a specific function. A system can be
considered as a box has an input and an output
1. Measurement system can be considered as a system that is used to measure the required
parameter. The quantity being measured is given as the input and the value of the quantity is
obtained as the output.
eg: Rotational speed measurement (ip-rotation of shaft, op- Numbers)
2. control system com be considered as a device that is used to control the output of the
system to a desired value.
eg. A domestic air-conditioning system that has the temperature required the house as input
and room temperature as output. That is we can set the required temperature on the
thermostat or controller and the compressor adjusts itself to pump the refrigerant through the
evaporator so as to produce the required temperature in the house.

TEMPERATURE SENSORS
Temperature conveys the state of a mechanical system in terms of expansion or contraction of
solids, liquids or gases, change in electrical resistance of conductors, semiconductors and
thermoelectric emfs. Temperature sensors such as bimetallic strips, thermocouples,
thermistors are widely used in monitoring of manufacturing processes such as casting, molding,
metal cutting etc. The construction details and principle of working of some of the temperature
sensors are discussed in following sections.

1. Bimetallic strips
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Bimetallic strips are used as thermal switch in controlling the temperature or heat in a
manufacturing process or system. It contains two different metal strips bonded together. The
metals have different coefficients of expansion. On heating the strips bend into curved strips
with the metal with higher coefficient of expansion on the outside of the curve. Figure 2.5.1
shows a typical arrangement of a bimetallic strip used with a setting-up magnet. As the strips
bend, the soft iron comes in closer proximity of the small magnet and further touches. Then the
electric circuit completes and generates an alarm. In this way bimetallic strips help to protect
the desired application from heating above the pre-set value of temperature.
2. Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)
RTDs work on the principle that the electric resistance of a metal changes due to change
in its temperature. On heating up metals, their resistance increases and follows a linear
relationship as shown in Figure 2.5.2. The correlation is

where Rt is the resistance at temperature T (⁰C) and R0 is the temperature at 0⁰C and α is the
constant for the metal termed as temperature coefficient of resistance. The sensor is usually
made to have a resistance of 100 Ω at 0 °C
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Figure 2.5.3 shows the construction of a RTD. It has a resistor element connected to a
Wheatstone bridge. The element and the connection leads are insulated and protected by a
sheath. A small amount of current is continuously passing though the coil. As the temperature
changes the resistance of the coil changes which is detected at the Wheatstone bridge.
RTDs are used in the form of thin films, wire wound or coil. They are generally made of metals
such as platinum, nickel or nickel-copper alloys. Platinum wire held by a high-temperature
glass adhesive in a ceramic tube is used to measure the temperature in a metal furnace. Other
applications are:

• Air conditioning and refrigeration servicing

• Food Processing
• Stoves and grills
• Textile production
• Plastics processing
• Petrochemical processing
• Micro electronics
• Air, gas and liquid temperature measurement in pipes and tanks
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• Exhaust gas temperature measurement

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Most stable over time corrosion of the RTD element
Most accurate High cost
Most repeatable temperature Slowest response time
measurement Low sensitivity to small temperature
Very resistant to contamination changes
Sensitive to vibration (strains the platinum
element wire)
Somewhat fragile

3. Thermistors
Thermistors follow the principle of decrease in resistance with increasing
temperature. The material used in thermistor is generally a semiconductor material such as
a sintered metal oxide (mixtures of metal oxides, chromium, cobalt, iron, manganese and
nickel) or doped polycrystalline ceramic containing barium titanate (BaTiO 3) and other
compounds. As the temperature of semiconductor material increases the number of
electrons able to move about increases which results in more current in the material and
reduced resistance. Thermistors are rugged and small in dimensions. They exhibit nonlinear
response characteristics.

Thermistors are available in the form of a bead (pressed disc), probe or chip. Figure
2.5.4 shows the construction of a bead type thermistor. It has a small bead of dimension from
0.5 mm to 5 mm coated with ceramic or glass material. The bead is connected to an electric
circuit through two leads. To protect from the environment, the leads are contained in a
stainless steel tube
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Applications of Thermistors

• To monitor the coolant temperature and/or oil temperature inside the engine
• To monitor the temperature of an incubator
• Thermistors are used in modern digital thermostats
• To monitor the temperature of battery packs while charging
• To monitor temperature of hot ends of 3D printers
• To maintain correct temperature in the food handling and processing industry
equipment’s
• To control the operations of consumer appliances such as toasters, coffee
ADVANTAGES DISADVANATGES
High sensitivity to small temperature changes Limited temperature range
Temperature measurements become more Fragile
stable with use Lack of standards for replacement
Copper or nickel extension wires can be used

4. Thermocouple
Thermocouple works on the fact that when a junction of dissimilar metals heated, it
produces an electric potential related to temperature. As per Thomas Seebeck (1821), when
two wires composed of dissimilar metals are joined at both ends and one of the ends is
heated, then there is a continuous current which flows in the thermoelectric circuit. Figure
2.5.5 shows the schematic of thermocouple circuit. The net open circuit voltage (the
Seebeck voltage) is a function of junction temperature and composition of two metals. It is
given by,
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Generally, Chromel (90% nickel and 10% chromium)–Alumel (95% nickel, 2% manganese, 2%
aluminium and 1% silicon) are used in the manufacture of a thermocouple. Table 2.5.1 shows
the various other materials, their combinations and application temperature ranges.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTGES
Simple, rugged Least stable, least repeatable
High temp operation Low sensitivity to small temperature
Low Cost changes
No resistance lead wire problems Extension wire must be of the same
Point temp. sensing thermocouple type
Fastest response to temperature changes Wire may pick up radiated electrical noise of
not shielded
Lowest accuracy

Applications of Thermocouples

• To monitor temperatures and chemistry throughout the steel making process

• Testing temperatures associated with process plants e.g. chemical production and
petroleum refineries
• Testing of heating appliance safety
• Temperature profiling in ovens, furnaces and kilns
• Temperature measurement of gas turbine and engine exhausts
• Monitoring of temperatures throughout the production and smelting process in the
steel, iron and aluminium industry
Infrared Sensors
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An infrared sensor intercepts a portion of the infrared energy radiated by an object. Examples
are Many types Optical Pyrometers, Radiation Pyrometers, Total Radiation Pyrometers,
Automatic Infrared Thermometers, Ear Thermometers, Fibre optic Thermometers, Two-Color
Pyrometers, Infra-Snakes, and many more.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
No contact with the product required High initial cost
Response times as fast or faster than More complex – support electronics required
thermocouples Emissivity variations affect temperature
No corrosion or oxidation to affect sensor measurement accuracy
accuracy Field of view and spot size may restrict sensor
Good stability over time application
High repeatability Measuring accuracy affected by dust, smoke,
background radiation etc

Liquid flow
Liquid flow is generally measured by applying the Bernoulli’s principle of fluid flow
through a constriction. The quantity of fluid flow is computed by using the pressure drop
measured. The fluid flow volume is proportional to square root of pressure difference at the
two ends of the constriction. There are various types of fluid flow measurement devices being
used in manufacturing automation such as Orifice plate, Turbine meter etc.

1. Orifice plate

Figure 2.4.11 shows a schematic of Orifice plate device. It has a disc with a hole
at its centre, through which the fluid flows. The pressure difference is measured
between a point equal to the diameter of the tube upstream and a point equal to the
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half the diameter downstream. Orifice plate is inexpensive and simple in construction
with no moving parts. It exhibits nonlinear behaviour and does not work with slurries. It
has accuracy of ± 1.5%.
2. Turbine meter

Turbine flow meter has an accuracy of ±0.3%. It has a multi blade rotor mounted
centrally in the pipe along which the flow is to be measured. Figure 2.4.12 shows the
typical arrangement of the rotor and a magnetic pick up coil. The fluid flow rotates the
rotor. Accordingly, the magnetic pick up coil counts the number of magnetic pulses
generated due to the distortion of magnetic field by the rotor blades. The angular
velocity is proportional to the number of pulses and fluid flow is proportional to angular
velocity.

Fluid pressure sensors

Chemical, petroleum, power industry often need to monitor fluid pressure. Various
types of instruments such as diaphragms, capsules, and bellows are used to monitor the fluid
pressure. Specially designed strain gauges doped in diaphragms are generally used to measure
the inlet manifold pressure in applications such as automobiles.
1. Strain gauges on a diaphragm
A typical arrangement of strain gauges on a diaphragm is shown in figure 2.4.6.
Application of pressurized fluid displaces the diaphragm. This displacement is measured by the
stain gauges in terms of radial and/or lateral strains. These strain gauges are connected to form
the arms of a Wheatstone bridge.
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Capsule is formed by combining two corrugated diaphragms. It has enhanced sensitivity

in comparison with that of diaphragms. Figure 2.4.7 shows a schematic of a Capsule and a
Bellow. A stack of capsules is called as ‘Bellows’. Bellows with a LVDT sensor measures the fluid
pressure in terms of change in resultant voltage across the secondary coils of LVDT. Figure 2.4.8
shows a typical arrangement of the same.
2. Piezoelectric sensor
Piezoelectric sensor is used for the measurement of pressure, acceleration and dynamic-
forces such as oscillation, impact, or high speed compression or tension. It contains
piezoelectric ionic crystal materials such as Quartz (Figure 2.4.10). On application of force or
pressure these materials get stretched or compressed. During this process, the charge over the
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material changes and redistributes. One face of the material becomes positively charged and
the other negatively charged.

The net charge q on the surface is proportional to the amount x by which the charges
have been displaced. The displacement is proportion to force. Therefore, we can write,

Displacement sensor
The factors to be considered while selecting sensors for displacement are
• The accuracy required.
• The resolution required.
• The size of the displacement.
• Displacement type (linear or angular).
• The cost and material made.

1. Potentiometer Sensors
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Figures shows the construction of a rotary and linear type potentiometer sensor employed to
measure the linear displacement. The potentiometer can be of linear or angular type. It works
on the principle of conversion of mechanical displacement into an electrical signal. The sensor
has a resistive element and a sliding contact (wiper). The slider moves along this conductive
body, acting as a movable electric contact.

The object of whose displacement is to be measured is connected to the slider by using

• a rotating shaft (for angular displacement)
• a moving rod (for linear displacement)
• a cable that is kept stretched during operation
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the resistive element is a wire wound track or conductive plastic. The track comprises of
large number of closely packed turns of a resistive wire. Conductive plastic is made up of
plastic resin embedded with the carbon powder.
During the sensing operation, a voltage Vs is applied across the resistive element. A voltage
divider circuit is formed when slider comes into contact with the wire. The output voltage (VA)
is measured as shown in the figure 2.2.2. The output voltage is proportional to the
displacement of the slider over the wire. Then the output parameter displacement is calibrated
against the output voltage VA.

Rotary potentiometer

In the rotary potentiometer, the slider moves in a circular path along a resistance element, the
rotational information is converted into information in the form of a potential difference.
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The output of the rotary transducer is proportional to the angular movement.

• It also consists of a wiper (slider) which has contact with a resistive element. when the
wiper moves, the resistance between the wiper and the end leads of the device changes
proportional to the angular displacement.
• The resister element is a circular wire-wound track which may be single turn or helical
turn.
Applications of potentiometer
These sensors are primarily used in the control systems with a feedback loop to ensure
that the moving member or component reaches its commanded position. These are typically
used on machine-tool controls, elevators, liquid-level assemblies, forklift trucks, automobile
throttle controls. In manufacturing, these are used in control of injection moulding machines,
woodworking machinery, printing, spraying, robotics, etc. These are also used in computer-
controlled monitoring of sports equipment.
Advantages Disadvantages

Less expensive Slow dynamic response

High output Low resolution
High electrical efficiency Early wear of the wiper is possible
Operation is simple
Rugged construction

2. Strain Gauges
The strain in an element is a ratio of change in length in the direction of applied load to the
original length of an element. The strain changes the resistance R of the element. Therefore, we
can say,

∆R/R α ε;

∆R/R = G ε (2.2.5)

where G is the constant of proportionality and is called as gauge factor. In general, the
value of G is considered in between 2 to 4 and the resistances are taken of the order of 100 Ω.
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Resistance strain gauge follows the principle of change in resistance as per the equation
2.2.5. It comprises of a pattern of resistive foil arranged as shown in Figure 2.2.3. These foils
are made of Constantan alloy (copper-nickel 55-45% alloy) and are bonded to a backing
material plastic (ployimide), epoxy or glass fibre reinforced epoxy. The strain gauges are
secured to the workpiece by using epoxy or Cyanoacrylate cement Eastman 910 SL. As the
workpiece undergoes change in its shape due to external loading, the resistance of strain
gauge element changes. This change in resistance can be detected by a using a Wheatstone’s
resistance bridge as shown in Figure 2.2.4. In the balanced bridge we can have a relation,
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R2/ R1 = Rx / R3 (2.2.6)
where Rx is resistance of strain gauge element, R2 is balancing/adjustable resistor, R1
and R3 are known constant value resistors. The measured deformation or displacement by the
stain gauge is calibrated against change in resistance of adjustable resistor R2 which makes the
voltage across nodes A and B equal to zero.
Applications of strain gauges
Strain gauges are widely used in experimental stress analysis and diagnosis on machines
and failure analysis. They are basically used for multi-axial stress fatigue testing, proof testing,
residual stress and vibration measurement, torque measurement, bending and deflection
measurement, compression and tension measurement and strain measurement.
Strain gauges are primarily used as sensors for machine tools and safety in automotives. In
particular, they are employed for force measurement in machine tools, hydraulic or pneumatic
press and as impact sensors in aerospace vehicles.

Position sensor
Photo electric sensor
Photo emitting devices such as Light emitting diodes (LEDs) and photosensitive devices such as
photo diodes and photo transistors are used in combination to work as proximity sensing
devices. Figure 2.3.7 shows two typical arrangements of LEDs and photo diodes to detect the
objects breaking the beam and reflecting light.

Proximity sensors
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A proximity sensor is a sensor able to detect the presence of nearby objects without any
physical contact. Proximity sensors can have a high reliability and long functional life because of
the absence of mechanical parts and lack of physical contact between the sensor and the
sensed object. A proximity sensor often emits an electromagnetic field or a beam
of electromagnetic radiation (infrared, for instance), and looks for changes in the field or return
signal. The object being sensed is often referred to as the proximity sensor's target. Different
proximity sensor targets demand different sensors. For example, a capacitive proximity
sensor or photoelectric sensor might be suitable for a plastic target; an inductive proximity
sensor always requires a metal target.

1. Eddy current proximity sensor

2. Inductive proximity switch
3. Capacitive element based sensor
Capacitive sensor is of non-contact type sensor and is primarily used to measure the linear
displacements from few millimetres to hundreds of millimetres. It comprises of three plates,
with the upper pair forming one capacitor and the lower pair another. The linear displacement
might take in two forms:
a. one of the plates is moved by the displacement so that the plate separation changes
b. area of overlap changes due to the displacement.
Figure 2.2.5 shows the schematic of three-plate capacitive element sensor and displacement
measurement of a mechanical element connected to the plate 2.

Applications of capacitive element sensors

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• Feed hopper level monitoring

• Small vessel pump control
• Grease level monitoring
• Level control of liquids
• Metrology applications
o to measure shape errors in the part being produced
o to analyze and optimize the rotation of spindles in various machine
o tools such as surface grinders, lathes, milling machines, and air bearing spindles
by measuring errors in the machine tools themselves
o Assembly line testing
o to test assembled parts for uniformity, thickness or other design
o features
o to detect the presence or absence of a certain component, such as glue etc.

4. Ultrasonic sensor
Ultrasonic transducers or ultrasonic sensors are a type of acoustic sensor divided into three
broad categories: transmitters, receivers and transceivers. Transmitters convert electrical
signals into ultrasound, receivers convert ultrasound into electrical signals, and transceivers can
both transmit and receive ultrasound.
In a similar way to radar and sonar, ultrasonic transducers are used in systems which
evaluate targets by interpreting the reflected signals. For example, by measuring the time
between sending a signal and receiving an echo the distance of an object can be calculated.
Passive ultrasonic sensors are basically microphones that detect ultrasonic noise that is present
under certain conditions.

5. Magnetic Proximity Sensors

Magnetic proximity sensors are non-contact proximity devices that are used to detect magnetic
objects (e.g. permanent magnets). They sense the presence of a magnetic object, commonly
referred to as the target. The target, characterized by its magnetic field, triggers the switching
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process when it enters the detection range of the sensor. The switch may be a reed switch or
the device could operate due to inductive, variable reluctance, magneto resistive or hall effect
operating principles.

RESOLVERS AND SYNCHROS

Machine tool and robotics manufactures have increasingly turned into resolvers and
synchro’s to provide accurate angular rotational information. These devices excel in demanding
factory applications requiring small size, long-term reliability, absolute position measurement,
high accuracy and low noise operation. A diagram of a typical synchro and resolver is shown in
figure Both synchro’s and resolvers employ single winding rotors that revolve inside fixed
stators. In the case of a simple synchro, the stator has three windings oriented 120° apart and
electrically connected in a Y-connection. Resolvers differ from synchro in that their stators have
only two windings oriented at 90° Because synchro have three stator coils in a 120° orientation,
they are more difficult to manufacture than resolvers and are therefore costlier. Today synchro
finds decreasing use, except in certain military and avionic retrofit applications. Modem
resolvers, in contrast, are available in a brushless form that employ a transformer to couple the
rotor signals from the stator to the rotor. The primary winding of this transformer resides on
the stator, and the secondary on the rotor. Other resolvers use more traditional brushes or slip
rings to couple the signal into the rotor winding. Brushless resolvers are more rugged than
synchro because there are no brushes to break or dislodge, and the life of a brushless resolver
is limited only by its bearings.

Resolver Synchro

Types of resolver
• Receiver resolvers
• Differential resolvers
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• The term vibration relates with the displacement, velocity and acceleration. So
vibrations can be measured by using the transducers which are sensitive to
displacement, velocity and acceleration.
• A vibration is measured by its frequency and amplitude.
• Every vibrating body/element has mass and frequency of vibration is a function of this
mass.
• The amplitude of vibration is a function of this mass.
An accelerometer is a vibration measuring device which uses a piezo resistive or capacitive
effect for measurement

• Strain Gauge Accelerometer

Basic Principle of Strain Gauge Accelerometer
When a cantilever beam attached with a mass at its free end is subjected to vibration,
vibrational displacement of the mass takes place. Depending on the displacement of the mass,
the beam deflects and hence the beam is strained. The resulting strain is proportional to the
vibration displacement of the mass and hence the vibration/acceleration being measured when
calibrated.

Description of Strain Gauge Accelerometer

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Operation of Strain Gauge Accelerometer

• The accelerometer is fitted on to the structure whose acceleration is to be measured.
• Due to the vibration, vibrational displacement of the mass occurs, causing the cantilever
beam to be strained.
• Hence the strain gauges mounted on the cantilever beam are also strained and due to
this their resistance change.
• Hence a measure of this change in resistance of the strain gauge becomes a measure of
the extent to which the cantilever beam is strained.
• But the resulting strain of the cantilever beam is proportional to the
vibration/acceleration and hence a measure of the change in resistance of the strain
gauges becomes a measure of vibration/acceleration.
• The leads of the strain gauges are connected to a wheat stone bridge whose output is
calibrated in terms of vibration/acceleration.

Module 1: Model Questions and Answers

1. Define the terms stability and resolution
Resolution
Resolution is the smallest detectable incremental change of input parameter that can be
detected in the output signal. Resolution can be expressed either as a proportion of the full-
scale reading or in absolute terms. For example, if a LVDT sensor measures a displacement up
to 20 mm and it provides an output as a number between 1 and 100 then the resolution of the
sensor device is 0.2 mm.
Stability
Stability is the ability of a sensor device to give same output when used to measure a
constant input over a period of time. The term ‘drift’ is used to indicate the change in output
that occurs over a period of time. It is expressed as the percentage of full range output.
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2. Explain types of control systems.

A control system can be thought of as a black box which is used to control its output to some
particular value or particular sequence of values.

The primary objective of any control system is to maintain the response of a process at a
desired value.
Two types: open loop and closed loop
OPEN LOOP SYSTEM
Any system which does not automatically correct the variation in its output is called an open
loop system. That is the output has no effect on its input.

Eg: fan regulator, which regulates the speed of fan with various settings.
CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM
A system in which the controlling action or input is somehow dependent on the output or
changes in output is called closed loop system. To have dependence of input on the output,
such system uses the feedback property. Feedback is a property of the system by which it
permits the output to be compared with the reference input to generate the error signal based
on which the appropriate controlling action can be decided

Eg:
1.The action of a man walking from a starting point to destination point along a prescribed path
is an example for closed loop feedback control systems. Here the reference input is prescribed
path. The eye performs the function of sensor. Brain compares the actual path of movement
with prescribed path and generates an error signal. Then it amplifies the error signal and
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transmits a control signal to the legs to correct the actual path of movement to the desired
path
2.maintain the level at a desired value by controlling the inflow rate by adjusting valve opening

The control system compares the desired level (set point) with the present level
(controlled variable). The present level is obtained by a sensor (here Level Sensor). If any
difference (error) between set point and controlled variable, the controller takes the necessary
action to increase or decrease the valve opening.
3. Describe optical encoders

• An optical encoder is a device, that converts motion or any movement into a sequence
of encoded pulsed digital signals by modulating(coding) the continuous optical signals
from a light source received by a photo detector through a slotted disk containing coded
patterns called track.
• By counting or decoding these bits and the pulses can be converted into relative or
absolute position measurements. The number of pulses being proportional to the
position of the disk.
• Optical encoder is a suitable transducer for the measurement of angular position.
• Optical encoders are mainly used to measure the angular or linear
displacement,position,velocity,acceleration and direction of movement of rotors
FOUR MAIN PARTS
• Light source
• Code disk
• Light detector
• Signal conditioner
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4. Explain the working of incremental and absolute encoder or Differentiate

between absolute and incremental encoders or Describe the working of an
incremental rotary encoder to sense angular displacement and rotation speed
of a shaft or Illustrate the configuration of grey coded absolute encoder

Ans
An encoder is a device, circuit, transducer, software program, algorithm or person that
converts information from one format or code to another, for the purposes of standardization,
speed or compression

Incremental encoder

It comprises of a disc with three concentric tracks of equally spaced holes. Three light
sensors are employed to detect the light passing thru the holes. These sensors produce electric
pulses which give the angular displacement of the mechanical element e.g. shaft on which the
Optical encoder is mounted. The inner track has just one hole which is used locate the ‘home’
position of the disc. The holes on the middle track offset from the holes of the outer track by
one-half of the width of the hole. This arrangement provides the direction of rotation to be
determined. When the disc rotates in clockwise direction, the pulses in the outer track lead
those in the inner; in counter clockwise direction they lag behind. The resolution can be
determined by the number of holes on disc. With 100 holes in one revolution, the resolution
would be,
360⁰/100 = 3.6⁰
Absolute encoder
Fig shows the basic form of an absolute encoder for the measurement of angular
displacement This gives an output in the form of a binary number of several digits, each such
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number representing a particular angular position. The rotating disc has three concentric circles
of slots and three sensors to detect the light pulses. The slots are arranged in such a way that
the sequential output from the sensors is a number in the binary code. Typical encoders tend
to have up to 10 or 12 tracks. The number of bits in the binary number will be equal to the
number of tracks. Thus with 10 tracks there will be 10 bits and so the number of positions
that can be detected is 210 , i.e. 1024, a resolution of 360/1024 = 0.350

Gray coded encoder

The normal form of binary code is generally not used because changing from one binary
number to the next can result in more than one bit changing and if, through some
misalignment, one of the bits changes fractionally before the others then an intermediate
binary number is momentarily indicated and so can lead to false counting. To overcome this the
gray code is generally used. Fig 3.11 shows the tracks with normal binary code and the Gray
code. With this code only one bit changes in moving from one number to the next. An absolute
encoder with 7 tracks on its code disc, each track will give one of bits in the binary number and
thus we have 27 position specified, i.e. 128

5. Explain the methods of high temperature measurement.

A body at higher temperatures emits electromagnetic radiation. The rate at which energy is
emitted depends on surface temperature and surface conditions. The thermal radiation from a
body is composed of wavelengths forming an energy distribution.
MECHATRONICS MODULE 1

Principles of radiation pyrometer

Temperature measurement is based on the measurement of radiation either directly by a senso
r or by comparing with the radiation of a body of known temperature. The radiation pyrometer
is a non contact type of temperature measurement.

The optical pyrometer is designed to respond narrow band of wavelengths that fall within
the visible range of the electro‐magnetic spectrum.

6. Explain the working of LVDT

The LVDT is a rugged electromagnetic transducer used to measure linear displacement.

• A movable magnetic core provides a variable coupling between windings.
• The secondary coils are connected in series configuration and are equally positioned
with respect to the primary coil.
• When the core is centrally located, the emfs generated in the secondary coils are equal
and opposite and the net output voltage is zero.

If the core is displaced from the central position, more in secondary coil 1 than in coil 2,
then more emf is generated in one coil i.e. coil 1 than the other, and there is a resultant voltage
from the coils. If the magnetic core is further displaced, then the value of resultant voltage
MECHATRONICS MODULE 1

increases in proportion with the displacement. With the help of signal processing devices such
as low pass filters and demodulators, precise displacement can be measured by using LVDT
sensors

• It has a high range, up to 1 m.

• Friction is less and hence less is the wear problem.
• It has low hysteresis.
• The power consumption is less.
• It has infinite resolution.
• The output is highly linear and accurate

7. Explain about sensor and transducer and differentiate between them?

SENSOR
A sensor is an element in a measurement system that acquires a physical parameter and
changes it into a signal The Sensing element is in contact with the object of process and
provides the output, which depends upon the variation in the process, or experience a change
which relates to the process variable being monitored. The sensor is used to measure physical
quantities such as position, force, distance, strain, vibration, temperature and acceleration
eg: thermocouple senses the change in temperature.
The word TRANSDUCER is used in relation with the conversion of energy from one form to
another and hence, a transducer provides the means of conversion between two physical
variables, which is representative of a given process. The process variables such as
temperature, strain etc. are not electrical in nature. In most instrumentations, the information
is normally processed electronically. Some method of Conversion is required so as to enable the
control system to work effectively.
Eg: An accelerometer provides output voltage that is proportional to the mechanical motion of
the object.
The term transducer is often used synonymously with sensors. However, the word
'transducer is used for the sensing element only and the sensor is used for sensing element plus
any associated signal conditioning circuits.
Passive transducers: Output energy is supplied entirely or almost entirely by its input signal
Eg: Resistive. Inductive, Capacitive transducers
Active transducers: self-generating eg. Tachogenerators, thermocouples, photovoltaic cells.
Explain static characteristics of transducers and their effects on the measured variable
Characteristic Parameters Used in sensors or transducers
Static characteristics.
MECHATRONICS MODULE 1

The static characteristics of an instrument are considered for instruments that are used
to measure unvarying process conditions. All the static performance characteristics are
obtained by one form or another of a process called calibration.
1.Range: It is the difference between the minimum and maximum values of a quantity, for
which an instrument is designed to Measure the parameters
For example, a load Cell may have the range varying from l0 to 100 KN
2. Span: It is the difference between the maximum and minimum values of a quantity to be
measured.
Span = Max value of input - Min value of input.
Taking the above example of 10 to 100 kN range, the Span is given by 100 -10= 90kN
3. Error: The deviation of the true value from the derived value is called error
Error = Measured value - True value.
4. Accuracy: It may be defined as the ability of an instrument to respond to a true value of a
measured variable under the reference conditions. It refers to how closely the measured value
agrees with the true value.
5. Precision: it is defined as the degree of exactness for which an instrument is designed or
intended to perform. It refers to the repeatability or consistency of measurements when the
measurements are carried out under identical conditions at short interval of time. It can also be
defined as the ability of the instrument to reproduce a group of Measurements of the Same
measured quantity under the same conditions.
6. Sensitivity: is defined as the ratio of the magnitude of the output signal to the magnitude of
the input signal.it denotes the smallest change the measured variable to which the instrument
responds.
Sensitivity = Output/input
If the input-output relation is linear, the sensitivity will be constant for all values of the input if
the instrument has non-linear static characteristics the sensitivity of the instrument depends on
the value of the input quantity
Nonlinearity
MECHATRONICS MODULE 1

The nonlinearity indicates the maximum deviation of the actual measured curve of a
sensor from the ideal curve. Figure 2.1.1 shows a somewhat exaggerated relationship between
the ideal, or least squares fit, line and the actual measured or calibration line. Linearity is often
specified in terms of percentage of nonlinearity, which is defined as:
Nonlinearity (%) = Maximum deviation in input ⁄ Maximum full scale input
The static nonlinearity defined by Equation above, is dependent upon environmental factors,
including temperature, vibration, acoustic noise level, and humidity. Therefore, it is important
to know under what conditions the specification is valid. There are three methods to find out
non linearity
• end range value
• best straight line for all values
• best straight line, through zero point

7. Hysteresis: Hysteresis defines the difference in the output for a given input when the value is
approached from the opposite direction. In mechanical terms hysteresis means that both the
loading and unloading curves do not coincide: figure shows the hysteresis effect on output and
input graph.
MECHATRONICS MODULE 1

As shown in the figure, we can obtain two different values of output for the same value
of input under increasing and decreasing conditions. The difference between these two output
values is called hysteresis error.
8.Reproducibility and Repeatability
Repeatability may be defined as the closeness of agreement among the number of
consecutive Measurements of the output for some value of Input under the Same operating
conditions. It is used to describe the ability of the instrument to produce the output for
repeated applications of the same input value. It may be specified in terms of units for given
period of time.
Reproducibility may be defined as the closeness of agreement among the repeated
measurements of the output for the same value of input under the same operating conditions
over a period of time.
9. Dead zone: Largest range of values of a measured variable to which the instrument does not
respond
7. Explain the dynamic characteristics of transducers and their effects on performance of the
transducer.
Dynamic characteristics
In many practical cases, the parameters to be measured are time varying, that is, they
are dynamic in nature. Thus, the output of an instrument is also time varying. The behaviour of
an instrument under Such time-varying input-output conditions is called dynamic response of
an instrument
Dynamic quantities are of two types
1.Steady-state periodic: An output whose magnitude has a definite repeating time cycle
2.Transient:An output whose magnitude does not repeat with time.
The system response of 1st order and 2nd order can be described by following Specified
parameters
MECHATRONICS MODULE 1

The reason first and second order systems are stressed in introductory control system
courses is because many real-world systems are approximated with first and second order
transfer functions thus making the control system design easier.
1. Overshoot: The max amount by which the moving parts move beyond the steady state is
called overshoot
2.Time constant: It is measure of inertia of transducer the Measure of how fast a transducer
reacts to change in its input. Bigger the time constant the slower its reaction to a changing
input.
3. Response time: it is defined as the rapidity with which a measurement system responds to a
change in the measured quantity or the time at which the transducer gives an output
corresponding to some specified percentage.
4 Rise time: This is the time taken for the output to me to some specified Some percentage of
steady-state output. That is, it is the time taken for the output to rise from 10% to 90% or 95%
of the steady state value
5.Setting time. This is the time taken for the output to settle within some percentage
6.Types of input The parameter which determines the behaviour of any system is known as the
input function.
The various types of inputs are:
• step input
• impulse input
• Sinusoidal input
• Ramp input

Types of sensors
Types of sensors
• Active and Passive Sensors
1) Active sensors: Require an external source of power (excitation voltage) that provides
the majority of the output power of the signal
2) Passive sensors: The output power is almost entirely provided by the measured signal
without an excitation voltage
• Digital vs. Analog Sensors
1) Digital sensors: The signal produced or reflected by the sensor is binary
2) Analog sensors: The signal produced by the sensor is continuous and proportional
to the measurand
• Null and Deflection Methods
1) Deflection: The signal produces some physical (deflection) effect closely
related to the measured quantity and transduced to be observable
MECHATRONICS MODULE 1

2) Null: The signal produced by the sensor is counteracted to minimize the

deflection. That opposing effect necessary to maintain a zero deflection should
be proportional to the signal of the measurand

8. What is a Coriolis’s flow meter?

Mass Flow Meter
also known as an inertial flow meter or a Coriolis flow meter, is a device that measures
mass flow rate of a fluid traveling through a tube

The mass flow rate is the mass of the fluid traveling past a fixed point per unit time. A
Mass Flow Meter operating on the "Coriolis principle" contains a vibrating tube in which a fluid
flow causes changes in frequency, phase shift or amplitude. The sensor signal is fed into the
integrally mounted pc-board. The resulting output signal is strictly proportional to the real mass
flow rate, whereas thermal mass flow meters are dependent of the physical properties of the
fluid. Coriolis mass flow measurement is fast and very accurate.

9. Describe the working of an acoustic emission sensing system. List any three
applications
Acoustic emission (AE) is the phenomenon of radiation of acoustic (elastic) waves in solids
that occurs when a material undergoes irreversible changes in its internal structure, for
example as a result of crack formation or plastic deformation due to aging, temperature
gradients or external mechanical forces. In particular, AE is occurring during the processes of
mechanical loading of materials and structures accompanied by structural changes that
generate local sources of elastic waves. The AE method is used to detect frequencies in the
ultrasonic range (several tens of kHz to several MHz).
Applications: product testing, tool monitoring, safety monitoring
The AE method offers the following advantages.
• Can observe the progress of plastic deformation and microscopic collapse in real time.
MECHATRONICS MODULE 1

• Can locate a flaw by using several AE sensors.

10.Sketch the scheme of a piezoelectric vibration sensor. Describe it’s working.

A piezoelectric accelerometer is an accelerometer that employs the piezoelectric effect of
certain materials to measure dynamic changes in mechanical variables (e.g., acceleration, vibration, and
mechanical shock). When a physical force is exerted on the accelerometer, the seismic mass loads the
piezoelectric element according to Newton's second law of motion (F = m a). The force exerted on the
piezoelectric material can be observed in the change in the electrostatic force or voltage generated by
the piezoelectric material.

11.Explain the principle, construction and working of Position sensors.

Displacement sensors are concerned with the measurement of amount by which some
object has been moved. Position sensors are concerned with the determination of position
sensor are used to determine when an object has moved to within some critical distance of
some object with reference to some reference point. Proximity sensors are a form of the
sensor. They are used to sense the proximity of an object relative to another object. They
usually provide an on or off signal indicating the presence or absence of an object.
• Hall effect sensor
• Inductive sensor
• Capacitance sensor: refer note
• Eddy current sensor
MECHATRONICS MODULE 1
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MECHATRONICS MODULE 1

12.Briefly explain any one type of flow sensor: Refer note

13.Describe about resolvers and Synchros. Explain how rotary position can be
sensed using Synchros: refer note
14.Differentiate between RTD and thermocouple: refer note
 1

MODULE 2

Syllabus

Actuators: Hydraulic and Pneumatic actuators - Directional control valves, pressure

control valves, process control valves, Rotary actuators, Development of simple hydraulic
and pneumatic circuits using standard Symbols.

Introduction

Both pneumatics and hydraulics are applications of fluid power. Pneumatics uses an
easily compressible gas such as air or suitable pure gas while hydraulics uses relatively
incompressible liquid media such as oil. Most industrial pneumatic applications use
pressures of about 80 to 100 pounds per square inch (550 to 690 kPa). Hydraulics
applications commonly use from 1,000 to 5,000 psi (6.9 to 34.5 MPa), but specialized
applications may exceed 10,000 psi (69 MPa)

Pneumatic systems
Most pneumatic circuits run at low power usually around 2 to 3 horsepower. Two
main advantages of air-operated circuits are their low initial cost and design simplicity.
Because air systems operate at relatively low pressure, the components can be made of
relatively inexpensive material -- often by mass production processes such as plastic
injection moulding, or zinc or aluminium die-casting. Either process cuts secondary
machining operations and cost.
Air-driven machines are usually quieter than their hydraulic counterparts. This is
mainly because the power source (the air compressor) is installed remotely from the
machine in an enclosure that helps contain its noise.
Air-operated systems are always cleaner than hydraulic systems because
atmospheric air is the force transmitter.
Hydraulic systems
A hydraulic system circulates the same fluid repeatedly from a fixed reservoir that is
part of the prime mover. The fluid is an almost non-compressible liquid, so the actuators it
drives can be controlled to very accurate positions, speeds, or forces. Most hydraulic
systems use mineral oil for the operating media but other fluids such as water, ethylene
glycol, or synthetic types are not uncommon.
The main disadvantage of hydraulics is increased first cost because a power unit is
part of the machine. Another disadvantage could be that hydraulic systems are usually more
complex and require maintenance personnel with higher skills.
Examples of pneumatic systems
Air brakes on buses and trucks Air brakes on trains
Air compressors Air engines for pneumatically powered vehicles
Compressed-air engine compressed-air vehicles
HVAC control systems Inflatable structures
 2

Pipe organ Electro-pneumatic action

Tubular-pneumatic action Player piano
Pneumatic actuator Pneumatic air guns
Pneumatic cylinder Pneumatic motor
Pneumatic tire Pressure regulator
Pressure sensor Pressure switch

Examples of hydraulic systems

Earth moving machines - TLB, Excavator, Dump Truck
Automotive-Power steering, Brakes, Cam phasing valves, suspension.
Heavy duty robot arms
Aircraft landing gear
Some shock-dampers
Basic Components of a Hydraulic System
Hydraulic systems are power-transmitting assemblies employing pressurized liquid
as a fluid for transmitting energy from an energy-generating source to an energy-using point
to accomplish useful work. Figure 1.1 shows a simple circuit of a hydraulic system with basic
components.

Figure 1.1 Components of a hydraulic system

Functions of the components shown in Fig. 1.1 are as follows:
1. The hydraulic actuator is a device used to convert the fluid power into mechanical power
to do useful work. The actuator may be of the linear type (e.g., hydraulic cylinder) or rotary
type(e.g., hydraulic motor) to provide linear or rotary motion, respectively.
2. The hydraulic pump is used to force the fluid from the reservoir to rest of the hydraulic
circuit by converting mechanical energy into hydraulic energy.
 3

3. Valves are used to control the direction, pressure and flow rate of a fluid flowing through
the circuit.
4. External power supply (motor) is required to drive the pump.
5. Reservoir is used to hold the hydraulic liquid, usually hydraulic oil.
6. Piping system carries the hydraulic oil from one place to another.
7. Filters are used to remove any foreign particles so as keep the fluid system clean and
efficient, as well as avoid damage to the actuator and valves.
8. Pressure regulator regulates (i.e., maintains) the required level of pressure in the
hydraulic fluid.

The piping shown in Fig. 1.1 is of closed-loop type with fluid transferred from the
storage tank to one side of the piston and returned back from the other side of the piston to
the tank. Fluid is drawn from the tank by a pump that produces fluid flow at the required
level of pressure. If the fluid pressure exceeds the required level, then the excess fluid
returns back to the reservoir and remains there until the pressure acquires the required
level.
Cylinder movement is controlled by a three-position change over a control valve.
1. When the piston of the valve is changed to upper position, the pipe pressure line is
connected to port A and thus the load is raised.
2. When the position of the valve is changed to lower position, the pipe pressure line is
connected to port B and thus the load is lowered.
3. When the valve is at centre position, it locks the fluid into the cylinder (thereby holding it
in position) and dead-ends the fluid line (causing all the pump output fluid to return to tank
via the pressure relief)
 4

Figure 1.2 Components of a hydraulic system (shown using symbols).

Basic Components of a Pneumatic System

A pneumatic system carries power by employing compressed gas, generally air, as a
fluid for transmitting energy from an energy-generating source to an energy-using point to
accomplish useful work. Figure 1.3 shows a simple circuit of a pneumatic system with basic
components.

Figure 1.3 Components of a pneumatic system.

The functions of various components shown in Fig. 1.3 are as follows:
 5

1. The pneumatic actuator converts the fluid power into mechanical power to perform
useful work.
2. The compressor is used to compress the fresh air drawn from the atmosphere.
3. The storage reservoir is used to store a given volume of compressed air.
4. The valves are used to control the direction, flow rate and pressure of compressed air.
5. External power supply (motor) is used to drive the compressor.
6. The piping system carries the pressurized air from one location to another.

Air is drawn from the atmosphere through an air filter and raised to required
pressure by an air compressor. As the pressure rises, the temperature also rises; hence, an
air cooler is provided to cool the air with some preliminary treatment to remove the
moisture. The treated pressurized air then needs to get stored to maintain the pressure.
With the storage reservoir, a pressure switch is fitted to start and stop the electric motor
when pressure falls and reaches the required level, respectively. The three-position change
over the valve delivering air to the cylinder operates in a way similar to its hydraulic circuit
Comparison between a hydraulic and a pneumatic system
S. No. Hydraulic System Pneumatic System
1. It employs a pressurized liquid as a fluid It employs a compressed gas, usually
air, as a fluid
2. An oil hydraulic system operates at A pneumatic system usually operates at
pressures up to 700 bar 5–10 bar
3. Generally designed as closed system Usually designed as open system
4. The system slows down when leakage Leakage does not affect the system
occurs much
5. Valve operations are difficult Valve operations are easy
6. Heavier in weight Lighter in weight
7. Pumps are used to provide Compressors are used to provide
pressurized liquids compressed gases
8. The system is unsafe to fire hazards The system is free from fire hazards
9. Automatic lubrication is provided Special arrangements for lubrication
are needed
 6

Actuators: Hydraulic and Pneumatic actuators

Hydraulic pumps
Pumps are used to supply the high pressure that the mechatronic system requires.
Three types are most commonly used: (a) the gear pump; (b) the vane pump; and (c) the
piston pump.
The gear pump
Gear pumps are used in hydraulic systems. For a clockwise rotation of the upper gear
as shown in Figure 10.2, fluid is carried between the gear teeth in the same direction from
the inlet to the high-pressure discharge side of the pump.
The meshing teeth seal the fluid and prevent it from returning to the low-pressure side. This
type of pump is cheap but becomes troublesome at high operating speeds and pressures.
The vane pump
Vane pumps are used in hydraulic systems. When the rotor rotates in a counter
clockwise direction as shown in Figure 10.3, a large amount of fluid is carried from the inlet
to the outlet. This results from the eccentricity of the center of the rotor with respect to
that of the housing. The net flow of fluid is a function of the eccentricity and when it is
varied, the vane pump can then be used as a variable-delivery pump.
The axial piston pump
The pistons are parallel to and located in the rotor, which is axially driven by the
shaft.

Figure 10.2 Gear pump.

Figure 10.3 Vane pump.

 7

Figure 10.4 Axial piston pump.

LINEAR ACTUATORS
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Pneumatic compressors
Pneumatic power can be supported with the aid of compressors such as the
centrifugal, the axial-flow and the positive-displacement types.
The centrifugal compressor
In centrifugal compressors, shown in Figure 10.5, air enters the eye or center of the
impeller; centrifugal effect throws the air into the volute where it goes to the diffuser.
The axial compressor
In axial compressors, shown in Figure 10.6, the annular inlet area is much greater
than that of the eye of the centrifugal type. Hence it delivers more flow. The blades are
attached to the tapered rotor.

Figure 10.5 Centrifugal compressor (pneumatic).

Figure 10.6 Axial compressor

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Directional control valves can be classified in a number of ways:

1. According to type of construction:
• Poppet valves
• Spool valves
2. According to number of working ports:
• Two- way valves
• Three – way valves
• Four- way valves.
3. According to number of Switching position:
• Two – position
• Three - position
4. According to Actuating mechanism:
• Manual actuation
• Mechanical actuation
• Solenoid (Electrical) actuation
• Hydraulic (Pilot) actuation
• Pneumatic actuation
• Indirect actuation
The designation of the directional control valve refers to the number of working
ports and the number of switching positions.
Thus a valve with 2 service ports and 2 switching positions is designated as 2 / 2 way
valve.

Fig 4.1. 2 /2 valve symbol Fig 4.2. 3 / 2 valve symbol Fig 4.3. 4 / 2 valve symbol
A valve with 3 service ports and 2 position is designated as 4 / 3-way valve. A valve with 4
service ports and 2 position is designated as 4 / 2 valve.
Poppet Valves
Directional poppet valves consist of a housing bore in which one or more suitably
formed seating elements (moveable) in the form of balls, cones are situated. When the
operating pressure increases the valve becomes more tightly seated in this design.
 18

2. Spool valves:
The spool valve consists of a spool which is a cylindrical member that has large-
diameter lands machined to slide in a very close- fitting bore of the valve body. The spool
valves are sealed along the clearance between the moving spool and the housing. The
degree of sealing depends on the size of the gap, the viscosity of the fluid and especially on
the level of pressure.
Two-way valve (2/ 2 DCV):
The simplest type of directional control valve is a check valve which is a two-way
valve because it contains two ports. These valves are also called as on-off valves because
they allow the fluid flow in only in one direction and the valve is normally closed. Two – way
valves is usually the spool or poppet design with the poppet design more common and are
available as normally opened or normally closed valves. They are usually actuated by pilot
(Hydraulic actuation) but manual, mechanical, solenoid actuated design are also available.
Figure 4.7 above shows Spool type 2 / 2 DCV manually actuated. In Fig 4.7 a) the port P is
blocked by the action of spring as the valve is unactuated (absence of hand force). Hence
the flow from port P to A is blocked. When actuated (Presence of hand force) the valve is
opened, thereby connecting port P to A.
 19

Three – way valve

A directional control valve primary function is alternatively to pressurize and exhaust
one working port is called three-way valve. Generally, these valves are used to operate
single- acting cylinders. Three-way directional valves are available for manual, mechanical,
pilot, solenoid actuation. These valves may be two-position, or three -position. Most
commonly they have only two positions, but in some cases a neutral position may be
needed. These valves are normally closed valves ( i.e the pump port is blocked when the
valve is not operating ). The three-way valve ports are inlet from the pump, working ports,
and exhaust to tank
 20

Four - way DCV

These valves are generally used to operate cylinders and fluid motors in both directions
hydraulically.
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:
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Pressure Reducing Valve:

Pressure reducing valve is used to limit its outlet pressure. Reducing valves are used
for the operation of branch circuits, where pressure may vary from the main system
pressures. The pressure reducing valve is normally an open type valve. Figure 4.32 shows
the pressure reducing valve. The valve consists of a spring chamber (control chamber) with
an adjustable spring to set the pressure as required by the system. A small opening is
provided in the control chamber to drain the oil that may be collected due to leakage,
thereby preventing the failure of valve. A free flow passage is provided through the valve
from inlet to secondary outlet until a signal from the outlet side tends to throttle the
passage through the valve. The valve operates on principle that pilot pressure from the
controlled pressure side opposes an adjustable bias spring normally holding the valve open.
When the two forces are equal, the pressure downstream is controlled at the pressure
setting. Thus, it can be visualized that if the spring has greater force, the valves open wider
and if the controlled pressure has greater force, the valves moves towards the spring and
throttles the flow.
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Development of simple hydraulic and pneumatic circuits using standard Symbols

A Hydraulic circuit is a group of components such as pumps, actuators, and control
valves so arranged that they will perform a useful task. When analysing or designing a
hydraulic circuit, the following three important considerations must be taken into account:
1. Safety of operation
2. Performance of desired function
3. Efficiency of operation
Control of a Single- Acting Cylinder

Fig 5.2. Control of Single -Acting Hydraulic Cylinder

C = Single acting cylinder P = Pump, E = Electric Motor, T = Tank, F = Filter, R = Relief Valve, D
=2-position, 3 way DCV Manually operated and spring return
Figure 5.2 shows a two- position, three ways, manually operated, spring offset directional
control valve (DCV) used to control the operation of a single – acting cylinder. In the spring
offset mode, full pump flow goes the tank via the pressure relief valve. The spring in the rod
end of the cylinder retracts the piston as oil from the blank end ‘A’ drains back to the rank.
When the valve is manually actuated the pump flow goes to the cylinder blank end ‘A’ via
DCV 1 position. This extends the cylinder. At full extension, pump flow goes through the
relief valve. Deactivation of the DCV allows the cylinder to retract as the DCV shift into its
spring – offset mode
 33

Control of Double -Acting Cylinder

Double –Acting cylinders can be extended and retracted hydraulically. Thus, an output force
can be applied in two directions.

Fig 5.4. Control of Double -acting hydraulic cylinder.

C = Double acting cylinder, P = Pump, E = Electric Motor, T = Tank, F = Filter, R = Relief Valve,
D =3 position 4-way Tandem Center Manually operated and Spring Centered DCV
Figure 5.4 shows a circuit used to control a double – acting hydraulic cylinder. When
the four-way valve is in Centered configuration, the cylinder is hydraulically locked as the
ports A and B is blocked. The pump flow is unloaded back to the tank at essentially
atmospheric pressure. When the four-way valve is actuated into the 1st position, the
cylinder is extended against its load force F load as oil flows to the blank end of the cylinder
from port P through port A. Also, oil in the rod end of the cylinder is free to flow back to the
tank via the four way valve from port B through port T. Note that the cylinder would not
extend if this oil were not allowed to leave the rod end of the cylinder. When the four way
valve is actuated into the 2st position , the cylinder is retracts against as oil flows to the rod
end of the cylinder from port P through port B. Oil in the blank end of the cylinder is
returned to the tank from port A to port T. At the end of the stroke, there is no system
demand for oil. Thus, the pump flow goes through the relief valve at its pressure- level
 34

setting unless the four- way valve is deactivated. In any event the system is protected from
any cylinder overloads.
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ADAPTIVE CONTROLLERS (AC) FOR MACINE TO0LS
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Electrical drives

Electric drives are mostly used in position and speed control systems. The motors can be
classified into two groups namely DC motors and AC motors (Fig. 4.1.3). In this session
we shall study the operation, construction, advantages and limitations of DC and AC
motors.

3.1. DC motors

A DC motor is a device that converts direct current (electrical energy) into rotation of an
element (mechanical energy). These motors can further be classified into brushed DC
motor and brush-less DC motors.

3.1.1 Brush type DC motor

A typical brushed motor consists of an armature coil, slip rings divided into two parts, a
pair of brushes and horse shoes electromagnet as shown in Fig. 4.1.4. A simple DC
motor has two field poles namely a north pole and a south pole. The magnetic lines of
force extend across the opening between the poles from north to south. The coil is
wound around a soft iron core and is placed in between the magnet poles. These
electromagnets receive electricity from an outside power source. The coil ends are
connected to split rings. The carbon brushes are in contact with the split rings. The
brushes are connected to a DC source. Here the split rings rotate with the coil while the
brushes remain stationary.
 Fig. 4.1.4 Brushed DC motor

The working is based on the principle that when a current-carrying conductor is placed in
a magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force whose direction is given by Fleming's
left-hand rule.
A direct current in a set of windings creates a magnetic field. This field produces a force
which turns the armature. This force is called torque. This torque will cause the armature
to turn until its magnetic field is aligned with the external field. Once aligned the
direction of the current in the windings on the armature reverses, thereby reversing the
polarity of the rotor's electromagnetic field. A torque is once again exerted on the rotor,
and it continues spinning. The change in direction of current is facilitated by the split ring
commutator. The main purpose of the commutator is to overturn the direction of the
electric current in the armature. The commutator also aids in the transmission of current
between the armature and the power source. The brushes remain stationary, but they are
in contact with the armature at the commutator, which rotates with the armature such that
at every 180° of rotation, the current in the armature is reversed.
3.1.2 Brushless DC motor

Fig. 4.1.5 Brushless DC motor

A brushless DC motor has a rotor with permanent magnets and a stator with windings.
The rotor can be of ceramic permanent magnet type. The brushes and commutator are
eliminated and the windings are connected to the control electronics. The control
electronics replace the commutator and brushes and energize the stator sequentially. Here
the conductor is fixed and the magnet moves (Fig. 4.1.5).
The current supplied to the stator is based on the position of rotor. It is switched in
sequence using transistors. The position of the rotor is sensed by Hall effect sensors. Thus
a continuous rotation is obtained.
Advantages of brushless DC motor:
• More precise due to computer control
• More efficient
• No sparking due to absence of brushes
• Less electrical noise
• No brushes to wear out
• Electromagnets are situated on the stator hence easy to cool
• Motor can operate at speeds above 10,000 rpm under loaded and unloaded conditions
• Responsiveness and quick acceleration due to low rotor inertia

Disadvantages of brushless DC motor:

• Higher initial cost
• Complex due to presence of computer controller
• Brushless DC motor also requires additional system wiring in order to power the
electronic commutation circuitry

AC motors
AC motors convert AC current into the rotation of a mechanical element (mechanical
energy). As in the case of DC motor, a current is passed through the coil, generating a
torque on the coil. Typical components include a stator and a rotor. The armature of rotor
is a magnet unlike DC motors and the stator is formed by electromagnets similar to DC
motors. The main limitation of AC motors over DC motors is that speed is more difficult
to control in AC motors. To overcome this limitation, AC motors are equipped with
variable frequency drives but the improved speed control comes together with a reduced
power quality.

Fig. 4.1.6 AC motor working principle

The working principle of AC motor is shown in fig. 4.1.6. Consider the rotor to be a
permanent magnet. Current flowing through conductors energizes the magnets and
develops N and S poles. The strength of electromagnets depends on current. First half
cycle current flows in one direction and in the second half cycle it flows in opposite
direction. As AC voltage changes the poles alternate.
AC motors can be classified into synchronous motors and induction motors.

Synchronous motor

Fig. 4.1.7 Synchronous AC motor

A synchronous motor is an AC motor which runs at constant speed fixed by frequency of

the system. It requires direct current (DC) for excitation and has low starting torque, and
hence is suited for applications that start with a low load. It has two basic electrical parts
namely stator and rotor as shown in fig. 4.1.7. The stator consists of a group of individual
wounded electro-magnets arranged in such a way that they form a hollow cylinder. The
stator produces a rotating magnetic field that is proportional to the frequency supplied.
The rotor is the rotating electrical component. It also consists of a group of permanent
magnets arranged around a cylinder, with the poles facing toward the stator poles. The
rotor is mounted on the motor shaft. The main difference between the synchronous motor
and the induction motor is that the rotor of the synchronous motor travels at the same
speed as the rotating magnet.The stator is given a three phase supply and as the polar-
ity of the stator progressively change the magnetic field rotates, the rotor will follow
and rotate with the magnetic field of the stator. If a synchronous motor loses lock with
the line frequency it will stall. It cannot start by itself, hence has to be started by an aux-
iliary motor.
3.2.2 Induction motor

Induction motors are quite commonly used in industrial automation. In the synchronous
motor the stator poles are wound with coils and rotor is permanent magnet and is
supplied with current to create fixed polarity poles. In case of induction motor, the stator
is similar to synchronous motor with windings but the rotors’ construction is different.

Fig. 4.1.8 Induction motor rotor

Rotor of an induction motor can be of two types:

• A squirrel-cage rotor consists of thick conducting bars embedded in parallel slots.
The bars can be of copper or aluminum. These bars are fitted at both ends by
means end rings as shown in figure 4.1.8.
• A wound rotor has a three-phase, double-layer, distributed winding. The rotor is
wound for as many numbers of poles as the stator. The three phases are wired
internally and the other ends are connected to slip-rings mounted on a shaft with
brushes resting on them.

Induction motors can be classified into two types:

• Single-phase induction motor: It has one stator winding and a squirrel cage rotor.
It operates with a single-phase power supply and requires a device to start the
motor.
• Three-phase induction motor: The rotating magnetic field is produced by the
balanced three-phase power supply. These motors can have squirrel cage or
wound rotors and are self-starting.

In an induction motor there is no external power supply to rotor. It works on the principle
of induction. When a conductor is moved through an existing magnetic field the relative
motion of the two causes an electric current to flow in the conductor. In an induction
motor the current flow in the rotor is not caused by any direct connection of the
conductors to a voltage source, but rather by the influence of the rotor conductors cutting
across the lines of flux produced by the stator magnetic fields. The induced current which
is produced in the rotor results in a magnetic field around the rotor. The magnetic field
around each rotor conductor will cause the rotor conductor to act like the permanent
magnet. As the magnetic field of the stator rotates, due to the effect of the three-phase AC
power supply, the induced magnetic field of the rotor will be attracted and will follow the
rotation. However, to produce torque, an induction motor must suffer from slip. Slip is
the result of the induced field in the rotor windings lagging behind the rotating magnetic
field in the stator windings. The slip is given by,
𝑆𝑦𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 − 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
𝑆=
𝑆𝑦𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
∗ 100% (4.1.4)
Advantages of AC induction motors
• It has a simple design, low initial cost, rugged construction almost unbreakable
• The operation is simple with less maintenance (as there are no brushes)
• The efficiency of these motors is very high, as there are no frictional losses, with
reasonably good power factor
• The control gear for the starting purpose of these motors is minimum and thus simple
and reliable operation

Disadvantages of AC induction motors

• The speed control of these motors is at the expense of their efficiency
• As the load on the motor increases, the speed decreases
• The starting torque is inferior when compared to DC motors
 Drives and Mechanisms
Stepper motors and Servo motors

1. Stepper motor
A stepper motor is a pulse-driven motor that changes the angular position of the rotor in
steps. Due to this nature of a stepper motor, it is widely used in low cost, open loop
position control systems.
Types of stepper motors:
• Permanent Magnet
o Employ permanent magnet
o Low speed, relatively high torque
• Variable Reluctance
o Does not have permanent magnet
o Low torque

1.1 Variable Reluctance Motor

Figure 4.2.1 shows the construction of Variable Reluctance motor. The cylindrical rotor
is made of soft steel and has four poles as shown in Fig.4.2.1. It has four rotor teeth, 90⁰
apart and six stator poles, 60⁰ apart. Electromagnetic field is produced by activating the
stator coils in sequence. It attracts the metal rotor. When the windings are energized in a
reoccurring sequence of 2, 3, 1, and so on, the motor will rotate in a 30⁰ step angle. In the
non-energized condition, there is no magnetic flux in the air gap, as the stator is an
electromagnet and the rotor is a piece of soft iron; hence, there is no detent torque. This
type of stepper motor is called a variable reluctance stepper.

Fig. 4.2.1 Variable reluctance stepper motor

 1.2 Permanent magnet (PM) stepper motor
In this type of motor, the rotor is a permanent magnet. Unlike the other stepping motors,
the PM motor rotor has no teeth and is designed to be magnetized at a right angle to its
axis. Figure 4.2.2 shows a simple, 90⁰ PM motor with four phases (A-D). Applying
current to each phase in sequence will cause the rotor to rotate by adjusting to the
changing magnetic fields. Although it operates at fairly low speed, the PM motor has a
relatively high torque characteristic. These are low cost motors with typical step angle
ranging between 7.5⁰ to 15⁰.

Fig. 4.2.2 Permanent magnet stepper

Hybrid stepper motor

Hybrid stepping motors combine a permanent magnet and a rotor with metal teeth to provide features of
the variable reluctance and permanent magnet motors together. The number of rotor pole pairs is equal
to the number of teeth on one of the rotor’s parts. The hybrid motor stator has teeth creating more poles
than the main poles windings (Fig. 4.2.3).
 Fig. 3 Hybrid stepper motor

Rotation of a hybrid stepping motor is produced in the similar fashion as a permanent magnet
stepping motor, by energizing individual windings in a positive or negative direction. When a
winding is energized, north and south poles are created, depending on the polarity of the current
flowing. These generated poles attract the permanent poles of the rotor and also the finer metal teeth
present on rotor. The rotor moves one step to align the offset magnetized rotor teeth to the corre-
sponding energized windings. Hybrid motors are more expensive than motors with permanent
magnets,but they use smaller steps,have greater torque and maximum speed. Step angle of a stepper
motor is given by

Advantages of stepper motors

• Low cost
• Ruggedness
• Simplicity of construction
• Low maintenance
• Less likely to stall or slip
• Will work in any environment
• Excellent start-stop and reversing responses

Disadvantages of stepper motors

• Low torque capacity compared to DC motors
• Limited speed
• During overloading, the synchronization will be broken. Vibration and noise
occur when running at high speed.

2. Servomotor
Servomotors are special electromechanical devices that produce precise degrees of rotation. A servo
motor is a DC or AC or brushless DC motor combined with a position sensing device. Servomotors
are also called control motors as they are involved in controlling a mechanical system. The servomo-
tors are used in a closed-loop servo system as shown in Figure 4.2.4. A reference input is sent to the
servo amplifier, which controls the speed of the servomotor. A feedback device is mounted on the ma-
chine, which is either an encoder or resolver. This device changes mechanical motion into electrical
signals and is used as a feedback. This feedback is sent to the error detector, which compares the ac-
tual operation with that of the reference input. If there is an error, that error is fed directly to the ampli-
fier, which will be used to make necessary corrections in control action. In many servo systems, both
(4.2.1)
 Fig. 4.2.4 Servo system block diagram

2.1 DC servomotors

DC operated servomotors are usually respond to error signal abruptly and accelerate the
load quickly. A DC servo motor is actually an assembly of four separate components,
namely:

• DC motor
• gear assembly
• position-sensing device
• control circuit
2.2. AC servo motor
In this type of motor, the magnetic force is generated by a permanent magnet and current
which further produce the torque. It has no brushes so there is little noise/vibration. This
motor provides high precision control with the help of high resolution encoder. The stator
is composed of a core and a winding. The rotor part comprises of shaft, rotor core and a
permanent magnet.

Digital encoder can be of optical or magnetic type. It gives digital signals, which are in
proportion of rotation of the shaft. The details about optical encoder have already
discussed in Lecture 3 of Module 2.

Advantages of servo motors

• Provides high intermittent torque, high torque to inertia ratio, and high speeds
• Work well for velocity control
• Available in all sizes
• Quiet in operation
• Smoother rotation at lower speeds

Disadvantages of servo motors

• More expensive than stepper motors
• Require tuning of control loop parameters
• Not suitable for hazardous environments or in vacuum
• Excessive current can result in partial demagnetization of DC type servo motor
Harmonic Drive:

For speed reduction, standard gear transmission gives sliding friction and backlash.
Moreover, it takes more space. Harmonic drive due to its natural preloading eliminates
backlash and greatly reduces tooth wear. Harmonic drives are suitable for robot drives due
to their smooth and efficient action. The harmonic drive as shown in figure is made up of
three major elements: the circular spline, the wave generator and the flex spline. The circular
spline is a rigid ring with gear teeth machined on the inside diameter. The flex spline is a
flexible ring with the teeth cut on its outside diameter. The flex spline has fewer teeth (say 2
teeth less) than the circular spline. The wave generator is elliptical and is given input motion.
The wave generator is assembled into the flex spline the entire assembly of. Wave generator
and flex spline is placed into the circular spline such that the outer tooth of flex spline is in
mesh with the internal teeth of circular spline
SENSORS IN ROBOTS
Range finders or Range sensors

The distance between the object and the robot hand is measured using the range
sensors Within it is range of operation. The calculation of the distance is by visual
processing. Range sensors find use in robot navigation and avoidance of the obstacles in the
path. The - location and the general shape characteristics of the part in the work envelope
of the robot S done by special applications for the range sensors. There are several
approaches like, triangulation method, structured lighting approach and time-of flight
range finders etc. In these cases, the source of illumination can be light source, laser beam
or based on ultrasonic.
 This is the simplest of the techniques, which is easily demonstrated in the Figure. The
object is swept over by a narrow beam of sharp light. The sensor focussed on a small spot of
the object surface detects the reflected beam of light. If ‘ϴ’ is the angle made by the
illuminating source and b is the distance between source and the sensor, the distance c of
the sensor on the robot is given as

Structured Lighting Approach:

This approach consists of projecting a light pattern the distortion of the pattern to
calculate the range. A pattern in use today is a sheet of light generated narrow slit.As
illustrated in. Figure, the intersection of the sheet with objects in the work space yields a
light stripe which is viewed through a television camera displaced a distance B from the light
source. The stripe pattern is easily analysed by a computer to obtain range information. For
example, an inflection indicates a change of surface, and a break corresponds to a gap
between surfaces.

Specific range values are computed by first calibrating the system. One of the simplest
arrangements is shown in Figure, which represents a top view of Figure. In this, arrangement,
the light source and camera are placed at the same height, and the sheet of light is
perpendicular to the line joining the origin of the light sheet and the center of the camera
lens. We call the vertical plane containing this line the reference plane. Clearly, the reference
plane is perpendicular to the sheet of light, and any vertical flat surface that intersects the
sheet Will produce a vertical stripe of light in which every point will have the same
perpendicular distance to the reference plane. - The objective of. the arrangement shown in
Figure. is to position the camera so that every such vertical stripe also appears vertical in the
image plane. In this way, every point, the same column in the image will be known to have
the same distance to the reference plane.
Based on their working principle there are two types of range finders

1. ULTRASONIC RANGE FINDER 2. LIGNT BASED RANGE FINDER

Ultrasonic Range Finder

Ultrasonic distance-measuring devices use a wide band frequency from a transducer, sending out
narrow beams of sound waves which bounce off an object. The return signal is picked up by a hand-
held receiver. Ultrasonic transducers are transducers that convert ultrasound waves to electrical
signals or vice versa.

Ultrasonic Range Finder transducers can both sense and transmit. These devices work on a principle
similar to that of transducers used

• in radar and sonar systems, which evaluate attributes of a target by interpreting the echoes
from radio or sound waves, respectively.

• Active ultrasonic sensors generate high-frequency sound waves and evaluate the echo which is
received back by the sensor, measuring the time interval between sending the signal and receiving
the echo to determine the distance to an object.

• Passive ultrasonic sensors are basically microphones that detect ultrasonic noise that is present
under certain conditions, convert it to an electrical signal, and report it to a computer.

Accuracy may affected by,

• Position of the receiver

• Out side sound waves/noise
• Noise generated by wind

Applications:-

• surveying,
• navigation,
• correcting aim of a projectile weapon for distance

light based range finder : (refer laser range finder)

Tactile sensors

In general, tactile sensors are used to sense the contact of fingertips of a robot with an
object. They are also used in manufacturing of ‘touch display’ screens of visual display units
(VDUs) of CNC machine tools. Figure 2.4.9 shows the construction of piezo-electric
polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) based tactile sensor. It has two PVDF layers separated by a
soft film which transmits the vibrations. An alternating current is applied to lower PVDF layer
which generates vibrations due to reverse piezoelectric effect. These vibrations are transmitted
to the upper PVDF layer via soft film. These vibrations cause alternating voltage across the
upper PVDF layer. When some pressure is applied on the upper PVDF layer the vibrations gets
affected and the output voltage changes. This triggers a switch or an action in robots or touch
displays.
KMEA ENGINEERING COLLEGE 10/23/2019

MODULE-VI
Robotic vision system - Image acquisition:Vidicon,
charge coupled device (CCD) and charge injection
device (CID) cameras. Image processing techniques:
histogram processing: sliding, stretching, equalization
and thresholding
Case studies of Mechatronics systems: Automatic
camera, bar code reader, pick and place robot,
automatic car park barrier system, automobile engine
management system.

KMEA 1

Robotic vision system

• Robot vision (machine vision) may be defined as the process of
extracting,characterising and interpreting information from images
of a three dimensional world.
• In human vision system, eyes senses the images and brain analyses
the information and takes action on the basis of analysis.
• Similarly in robotic vision system, visual sensing of information is
done after forming an image of the object and information is
analyzed to make a useful decision about its content.
• Robotic vision (machine vision )system thus needs both visual
sensing and interpretive capabilities.
• Image sensing device may consists of vidicon camera or a charge
coupled device(CCD) camera or charge injection device (CID)
camera.

KMEA 2

ABINS ALI 1
KMEA ENGINEERING COLLEGE 10/23/2019

• Image sensing device receives light through a lens system and

converts this light into electrical signals.
• Micro-computers are used to refine and analyze these electrical
signals to provide an interpretation of the object.
• Machine vision system is ideally suited for in-process gauging and
provides timely corrective actions to control the process.
• Machine vision systems are used for functions like gauging of
dimensions, identification of shapes, measurement of distances,
determining orientation of parts, quantifying motion, detecting
surface shading etc.
• A big advantage of machine vision systems is that they can be
designed to operate for wavelength in ultraviolet and infrared
ranges to which human eye is insensitive.
• It is a noncontact measuring technique and thus suited for fragile
work pieces and which would distort under measuring force and
would get contaminated by touch.

KMEA 3

Steps of machine vision process

• The machine vision system involves following four basic steps :
(i) Image formation
(ii)Processing of image in a form suitable for analysis by computer
(iii)Defining and analyzing the characteristics of image
(iv)Interpretation of image and decision making.

KMEA 4

ABINS ALI 2
KMEA ENGINEERING COLLEGE 10/23/2019

(i) Image Acquisition (Image Formation)

•Image acquisition is the creation of digital images,
typically from a physical scene.
•The first link in the vision chain is the camera. It
plays the role of robotic eye or the sensor.
•The visual information is converted in to electric
signals in the camera and when sampled spatially
and quantized ,these signals give a digital image in
real time by a process is called digitizing.

KMEA 5

• Lighting for camera: Back lighting is suited when a image is required to obtain
maximum image contrast. Front lighting is used when
certain key features on the surface of the object are to be
inspected.

Back lighting Front lighting

• An image sensor like vidicon camera, CCD or CID camera is used to generate the
electronic signal representing the image.
• The image sensor collects light from the scene through a lens and using a photosensitive
target, converts it into electronic signal.
• Most image sensors generate signals representing two-dimensional arrays (scans of the
entire image).

KMEA 6

ABINS ALI 3
KMEA ENGINEERING COLLEGE 10/23/2019

Vidicon camera

KMEA 7

Advantages Disadvantages
• Is more reliable. • Doesn't break the image in Pixel as CCD camera.
• Low cost. • Analog output.
• More flexible. • Imposes constraints on System designer
• Grid and pixel shape can be Varied.

KMEA 8

ABINS ALI 4
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• Used in closed circuit television systems, can be used for machine

vision systems.
• In it, an image is formed by focusing the incoming light through a
series of lenses on a transparent conductor coated with a photo
resistive material.
• Photo resistive material is composed of a large number of tiny
photo resistive elements.
• The resistance of elements decreases with increasing illumination.
• Once the image forms on the photo conductor, a charge is
accumulated which is the function of intensity of the impinging light
over a specified time.
• The charge built up is read by scanning the photo sensitive layer by
focused electron beam by electron gun, creating a video signal that
represents the varying amounts of light in the image.
• It provides a great deal of information of a scene at very fast
speeds. However they tend to distort their image due to their
construction and are subject to image burn-in on the photo
conductive surface.
• These are also susceptible to damage
KMEA
by shock and vibration 9

Solid state camera(Digital camera)

• These are commonly used in machine vision systems.
• These employ charge coupled device(CCD) or charge injected device (CID)image sensors.
• They contain matrix or linear array of small, accurately spaced photo sensitive elements
fabricated on silicon chips using integrated circuit technology.
• Each detector converts the light falling on it through the camera lens, in to analog electric
signal corresponding to light intensity.
• The entire image is thus broken down in to an array of individual picture elements(pixels).
• Solid state cameras are smaller, rugged and their sensors do not wear out with use.
• They exhibit less image distortion because of accurate placement of the photo detectors.
• CCD and CID differ primarily in how the voltages are extracted from the sensors

CCD IMAGE CID IMAGE

KMEA 10

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KMEA 11

• A CCD is a mosaic of tiny light sensitive detectors called pixels or 'photosites'.

• The pixels are arranged as a flat rectangular surface onto which an image is projected using a
camera or telescope lens.
• Each pixel accumulates an electrical charge depending on the amount of light falling upon it.
• When an image is captured, the electrical charge from each pixel is measured
and converted to a number (digitized) by the electronic circuits within the camera.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• More sensitive at low light. • Since silicon processing is still new
• Produces better image even in extreme variation in science, so there seems to be variation
brightness in light sensitivity from pixel to pixel.
• Small size
• Longer life
• Less power consumption
KMEA 12

ABINS ALI 6
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KMEA 13

CID camera

• In CID , array of photosensitive capacitor elements are arranged.

• Each pixel of the CID image sensor is arranged over two intersecting
capacitors.
• After the intensity of the light is read, it is stored on the sensor.
• Unlike Charge Coupled Device (CCD) cameras which transfer collected
charge out of the pixel during readout (and hence erase the image stored
on the sensor), charge does not transfer from site to site in the CID array.
• Instead, a displacement current proportional to the stored signal charge is
read when charge "packets" are shifted between capacitors within
individually selected pixels.
• Since the image stays on the sensor, a displacement current equal to the
signal on the sensor is created.
• The displacement current is read when the charge is shifted between
capacitors, and is then amplified and converted to a voltage.
• This voltage is the camera output which is created as a video signal. Since
the image is still on the CID image sensor, this image is non-destructive.
• Allows accurate exposure even in low light scenarios

KMEA 14

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(ii) Image Processing:

• An image is an array or a matrix of square pixels(picture elements)
arranged in columns and rows.
• Images are obtained using various image acquisition devices like
cameras.
• The series of voltage levels available on detectors representing light
intensities over the area of the image.
• An analog to digital converter is used to convert analog voltage of
each detector into digital value.
• After acquiring the images they are stored in computer memory as
digitized image.

KMEA 15

• Acquired images will be having errors during their acquisition .

• If we remove these errors we will get clear images.
• The removal of errors for making the image more bright and clear
is done by image processing.
• A camera may typically form an image 30 times per sec.
• At each time interval the entire image has to be captured and frozen
for processing by an image processor.
• Image processing is a method to convert an image in to digital
form and perform some operations on it,inorder to get an
enhanced image or to extract some useful information from it.

KMEA 16

ABINS ALI 8
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• If voltage level for each pixel is given either 0 or 1 value depending

on some threshold value, it is called Binary System.
• On the other hand Gray scale system assigns up to 256 different
values depending on intensity to each pixel. Thus in addition to black
and white (binary system), many different shades of gray can be
distinguished. This thus permits comparison of objects on the basis
of surface characteristics like texture, color, orientation, etc., all of
which produce subtle variations in light intensity distributions.
• Gray scale systems are used in applications requiring higher degree
of image refinement.
• For simple inspection tasks, binary system may serve the purpose.
• It may be appreciated that gray-scale system requires huge storage
processing capability It is, therefore, essential that some means be
used to reduce the amount of data to be processed.

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Binary image Gray scale image

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Histogram Processing:
• Histogram is a graphical representation showing a visual
impression of the distribution of data. It is nothing but a graph that
shows frequency of occurrence of data.
• The histogram of a digital image with gray levels in the range [0, L-
1] is a discrete function h(rk) = nk, where rk is the k th gray level and
nk is the number of pixels in the image having gray level rk.
L=maximum value of gray level (eg.256).
Important types of histogram processing are:
• Histogram equalization
• Contrast Stretching or Histogram stretching
• Histogram sliding
• Histogram Thresholding

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i)Histogram equalization:
Histogram equalization is a technique for adjusting image
intensities to enhance contrast by equalizing all the pixel values
of an image.it results a high contrast image.

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ii)
Contrast Stretching or Histogram stretching
• Contrast stretching aims to increase (expand) the dynamic
range of an image. It transforms the gray levels in the range
(0,1…L-1) by a piecewise linear function.

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iv)Histogram sliding:
• In histogram sliding, we just simply shift a complete
histogram rightwards or leftwards. Due to shifting
or sliding of histogram towards right or left, a clear
change can be seen in the image.
• We can Increase brightness using histogram sliding
• Histogram of this image has been shown below.
• In order to bright it, we will slide its histogram
towards right, or towards whiter portion.
• By applying desired sliding transformation in order
to change the brightness, the histogram of the image
shifted towards right or left
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• The image and its histogram is shown below.

• Lets compare these two images and their histograms to see that what change have
to got.

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iii)Histogram Thresholding:
• It is a type of Image Segmentation
• Segmentation divides an image into its constituent regions or
objects.
• The goal of segmentation is to simplify and/or change the
representation of an image into something that is more
meaningful and easier to analyze.
• Image thresholding is a simple, yet effective, way of
partitioning an image into a foreground and background
• Thresholding is a limited case of contrast stretching, it
produces a two-level (binary) image.
• Thresholding is a non-linear operation that converts a gray-
scale image into a binary image where the two levels are
assigned to pixels that are below or above the specified
threshold value.
• Thresholding creates binary images from grey-level ones by
turning all pixels below some threshold to zero and all pixels
above that threshold to one.
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(iii) Image Analysis:

• Digital image of the object formed is analyzed in the central
processing unit of the system to draw conclusions and make
decisions.
• Analysis is done by describing and measuring the properties of
several image features which may belong to either regions of the
image or the image as a whole.
• Analysis is carried for describing the position of the object, its
geometric configuration, distribution of light intensity over its
visible surface, etc.
• Three important tasks performed by machine vision systems are :
measuring the distance of an object from a vision system camera,
determining object orientation, and defining object position.
• The distance of an object from a vision system camera can be
determined by stadimetry or by triangulation technique.
• The object orientation can be determined by the methods of
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(iv) Image Interpretation:

• Image interpretation involves identification of an object based on

recognition of its image.
• Various conclusions are drawn by comparing the results of the
analysis with a pre stored set of standard criteria.
• In a binary system, the image is segmented or windowed on the
basis of clustering of white and black pixels. Then all groups of
black pixels within each segment (called blocks) and groups of
white pixels (called holes) are counted and total quantity is
compared with expected numbers to determine how closely the real
image matches the standard image.
• The complex images can be interpreted by use of gray-scale
interpretation technique and by the use of various algorithms.

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CASE STUDIES OF
MECHATRONICS SYSTEMS
1. Pick and Place robot

2. Automatic Car Park System

3. Engine management system

4. Automatic Camera

5. Bar Code reader

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1. Pick and Place robot

• The basic form of robot unit.

• The robot has three axes and these three axes allows motion to occurs.

These movements are accomplished by the use of pneumatic cylinders operated by solenoid
controlled valves with limit switches.

The following movements are required for this robot.

• Clockwise and Anti-clockwise rotation of the robot unit on its base.
• Horizontal linear movement of the arm to extend or contraction.
• Up and down movement of the arm and Open or close movement of the gripper.
• micro controller used to control the solenoid values and hence the movements of the robot unit
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2. Automatic Car Park System

• Consider the coin-operated car park system with barriers.

• The main requirement of the system is that, the in-barrier is to be opened to allow
the car inside if correct money (coin) is inserted in the collection box

• the out barrier is to be opened to allow the car outside, if the car is detected at the
car park side of the barrier

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3. Engine management system

• Engine management system is now-a-days, used in many of the modem cars such as
Benz, Mitsubishi and Toyota etc.

• these cars includes many electronic control systems such as microcontrollers for the control of
various engine factors.

• The main objective of the system being to ensure that the engine is operated at its
Optimum settings. The engine management system of a car is responsible for managing the ignition and
fueling requirements of the engine. The power and speed of the engine are controlled by varying the
ignition timing and the Air-fuel mixture. In modem cars, this is done by micro processor.

• To control the ignition delay, the crank shaft drives a distribution which makes electrical contacts for each
spark plug in turn and a timing wheel. This timing wheel generates pulses to indicate the crankshaft
position. The microprocessor then adjusts the timing at which high voltage pulses are sent to
the distributor so that they occur at right moments of time.

• To control the amount of air-fuel mixture entering into a cylinder during the suction stroke, the
microprocessor varies the time for which a solenoid is activated to the inlet valve on the basis of inputs
received by the engine temperature and the throttle position
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• The amount of fuel to be injected into the air stream can be determined
on input from a sensor of the mass rate of air or computed from other
measurements

• The microprocessor then gives as output to control of fuel inject valve.

The system hence consists of number of sensor for observing vehicle
speed, Engine temperature, oil and fuel pressure, air flow etc.

• these sensors supplies input signals to the micro processor after

suitable signal conditioning

• provides output signals via drivers to actuate corresponding actuators.

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• Engine Temperature Sensor:

• The engine temperature sensor is used to sense the temperature
of the engine. It is usually a thermistor or a thermocouple. The
thermocouple consists of a bimetallic
strip or a thermistor whose resistance changes when there is a va
riation in temperature of the engine.

• Hot wire Anemometer:

• Hotwire Anemometer is used as a mass air flow rate sensor in
which a heated wire gets cooled when air passes across it. The
amount of coding depends on the mass flow rate.

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• Oxygen Sensor:

• The oxygen sensor is usually a closed end tube made of zirconium oxide with porous
platinum electrodes on the inner and outer surfaces. When the temperature is
above300°C, the sensor becomes permeable to oxygen ions so that melt age will be
produced between the electrodes.

• The various drivers such as fuel injection drivers, ignition coil driver’s solenoid drivers
and are used to actuate actuators according to the signal by various sensors. Analog
signals are converted into digital signals by using ADC and are sensed by various
sensors which in turn sent to the micro controller.

• The microcontroller compares these input values with the set points stored in its
memory and it issues control signals to the corresponding our drivers. The output
signals are converted into analogue signal by using DAC.

• The transient protection circuit prevents any sudden surge a rise or far in the
power supply in the power supply to the micro controller. A +12V voltage regulator is
used to supply the dc voltage required for the microcontroller operation.
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