Binary Logic and Gates

 Binary variables take on one of two values.

 Logical operators operate on binary values and
binary variables.
 Basic logical operators are the logic functions
AND, OR and NOT.
 Logic gates implement logic functions.
 Boolean Algebra: a useful mathematical system for
specifying and transforming logic functions.
 We study Boolean algebra as a foundation for
designing and analyzing digital systems!
Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 1
Binary Variables
 Recall that the two binary values have
different names:
• True/False
• On/Off
• Yes/No
• 1/0
 We use 1 and 0 to denote the two values.
 Variable identifier examples:
• A, B, y, z, or X1 for now
• RESET, START_IT, or ADD1 later
Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 2
Logical Operations
 The three basic logical operations are:
• AND
• OR
• NOT
 AND is denoted by a dot (·).
 OR is denoted by a plus (+).
 NOT is denoted by an overbar ( ¯ ), a single
quote mark (') after, or (~) before the
variable.
Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 3
Notation Examples
 Examples:
• Y = A  B is read “Y is equal to A AND B.”
• z = x + y is read “z is equal to x OR y.”
• X = A is read “X is equal to NOT A.”
 Note: The statement:
1 + 1 = 2 (read “one plus one equals two”)
is not the same as:
1 + 1 = 1 (read “1 or 1 equals 1”).

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 4

 Operator Definitions
 Operations are defined on the values "0"
and "1" for each operator:

AND OR NOT
0·0=0 0+0=0 0=1
0·1=0 0+1=1 1=0
1·0=0 1+0=1
1·1=1 1+1=1

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 5

 Truth Tables
 Tabular listing of the values of a function for all possible
combinations of values on its arguments
 Example: Truth tables for the basic logic operations:

AND OR NOT
X Y Z = X·Y X Y Z = X+Y X Z=X
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 6
Truth Tables – Cont’d
 Used to evaluate any logic function
 Consider F(X, Y, Z) = X Y + Y Z
X Y Z XY Y YZ F=XY+YZ
0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 0 0 1
Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 7
Logic Function Implementation
 Using Switches Switches in parallel => OR

• Inputs:
 logic 1 is switch closed
 logic 0 is switch open
• Outputs: Switches in series => AND
 logic 1 is light on
 logic 0 is light off.
• NOT input: Normally-closed switch => NOT
 logic 1 is switch open C
 logic 0 is switch closed

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 8

Logic Function Implementation – cont’d
 Example: Logic Using Switches
B C
A

 Light is on (L = 1) for
L(A, B, C, D) = A (B C + D) = A B C + A D
and off (L = 0), otherwise.
 Useful model for relay and CMOS gate circuits,
the foundation of current digital logic circuits

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 9

Logic Gates
 In the earliest computers, switches were opened
and closed by magnetic fields produced by
energizing coils in relays. The switches, in turn,
opened and closed the current paths.

 Later, vacuum tubes that open and close current

paths electronically replaced relays.

 Today, transistors are used as electronic switches

that open and close current paths.

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 10

 Logic Gate Symbols and Behavior
 Logic gates have special symbols:
X X
Z = X ·Y Z= X+ Y X Z= X
Y Y
AND gate OR gate NOT gate or
inverter
 And waveform behavior in time as follows:
X 0 0 1 1

Y 0 1 0 1

(AND) X ·Y 0 0 0 1

(OR) X+ Y 0 1 1 1

(NOT) X 1 1 0 0
Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 11
 Logic Diagrams and Expressions
Truth Table Logic Equation
XYZ F = X + Y Z
000 0 F = X +Y Z
001 1
010 0 Logic Diagram
011 0 X
100 1
Y F
101 1
110 1 Z
111 1
 Boolean equations, truth tables and logic diagrams describe the
same function!
 Truth tables are unique, but expressions and logic diagrams are
not. This gives flexibility in implementing functions.
Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 12
 Gate Delay
 In actual physical gates, if an input changes, it causes
the output to change; the output change does not
occur instantaneously.
 The delay between an input change and the output
change is the gate delay denoted by tG:

1
Input
0
tG tG tG = 0.3 ns
1
Output
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 Time (ns)
Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 13
 Boolean Algebra
 Invented by George Boole in 1854
 An algebraic structure defined by a set B = {0, 1}, together with two
binary operators (+ and ·) and a unary operator ( )

1. X+0= X 2. X .1 = X Identity element

3. X+1 =1 4. X .0=0
5. X+X =X 6. X .X = X Idempotence
7. X+X = 1 8. X .X = 0 Complement
9. X=X Involution
10. X + Y =Y + X 11. XY = YX Commutative
12. (X + Y) + Z = X + (Y + Z) 13. (XY) Z = X(YZ) Associative
14. X(Y + Z) = XY + XZ 15. X + YZ = (X + Y) (X + Z) Distributive
16. X + Y =X . Y 17. X . Y = X + Y DeMorgan’s

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 14

Some Properties of Boolean Algebra
 Boolean Algebra is defined in general by a set B that can
have more than two values
 A two-valued Boolean algebra is also know as Switching
Algebra. The Boolean set B is restricted to 0 and 1.
Switching circuits can be represented by this algebra.
 The dual of an algebraic expression is obtained by
interchanging + and · and interchanging 0’s and 1’s.
 The identities appear in dual pairs. When there is only one
identity on a line, the identity is self-dual, i. e., the dual
expression = the original expression.
 Sometimes, the dot symbol ‘’ (AND operator) is not written
when the meaning is clear

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 15

Dual of a Boolean Expression
 Example: F = (A + C) · B + 0
dual F = (A · C + B) · 1 = A · C + B
 Example: G = X · Y + (W + Z)
dual G = (X+Y) · (W · Z) = (X+Y) · (W+Z)
 Example: H = A · B + A · C + B · C
dual H = (A+B) · (A+C) · (B+C)
 Unless it happens to be self-dual, the dual of an
expression does not equal the expression itself
 Are any of these functions self-dual? H is self-dual
(A+B)(A+C)(B+C)=(A+BC)(B+C)=AB+AC+BC
Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 16
Boolean Operator Precedence
 The order of evaluation is:
1. Parentheses
2. NOT
3. AND
4. OR
 Consequence: Parentheses appear
around OR expressions
 Example: F = A(B + C)(C + D)
Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 17
Boolean Algebraic Proof – Example 1
 A+A·B=A (Absorption Theorem)
Proof Steps Justification
A+A·B
=A·1+A·B Identity element: A · 1 = A
= A · ( 1 + B) Distributive
=A·1 1+B=1
=A Identity element

 Our primary reason for doing proofs is to learn:

• Careful and efficient use of the identities and theorems of
Boolean algebra; and
• How to choose the appropriate identity or theorem to apply
to make forward progress, irrespective of the application.

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 18

Boolean Algebraic Proof – Example 2
 AB + AC + BC = AB + AC (Consensus Theorem)
Proof Steps Justification
= AB + AC + BC
= AB + AC + 1 · BC Identity element
= AB + AC + (A + A) · BC Complement
= AB + AC + ABC + ABC Distributive
= AB + ABC + AC + ACB Commutative
= AB · 1 + ABC + AC · 1 + ACB Identity element
= AB (1+C) + AC (1 + B) Distributive
= AB . 1 + AC . 1 1+X = 1
= AB + AC Identity element
Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 19
 Useful Theorems
 Minimization  Minimization (dual)
XY+XY=Y (X+Y)(X+Y) = Y

 Absorption  Absorption (dual)

X+XY=X X · (X + Y) = X

 Simplification  Simplification (dual)

X+XY=X+Y X · (X + Y) = X · Y

 DeMorgan’s  DeMorgan’s (dual)

 X+Y=X·Y  X·Y=X+Y
Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 20
Truth Table to Verify DeMorgan’s

X+Y=X·Y X·Y=X+Y
X Y X·Y X+Y X Y X+Y X · Y X·Y X+Y
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
 Generalized DeMorgan’s Theorem:
X1 + X2 + … + Xn = X1 · X2 · … · Xn
X1 · X2 · … · Xn = X1 + X2 + … + Xn
Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 21
 Complementing Functions
 Use DeMorgan's Theorem:
1. Interchange AND and OR operators
2. Complement each constant and literal
 Example: Complement F = xy z + x y z
F = (x + y + z)(x + y + z)
 Example: Complement G = (a + bc)d + e
G = (a (b + c) + d) e
Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 22
Expression Simplification
 An application of Boolean algebra
 Simplify to contain the smallest number of
literals (variables that may or may not be
complemented)
A B + ACD + A BD + AC D + A BCD
= AB + ABCD + A C D + A C D + A B D
= AB + AB(CD) + A C (D + D) + A B D
= AB + A C + A B D = B(A + AD) +AC
= B (A + D) + A C (has only 5 literals)
Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 23
 Canonical Forms
 Minterms and Maxterms

 Sum-of-Minterm (SOM) Canonical Form

 Product-of-Maxterm (POM) Canonical Form

 Representation of Complements of Functions

 Conversions between Representations

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 24

Minterms
 Minterms are AND terms with every variable
present in either true or complemented form.
 Given that each binary variable may appear normal
(e.g., x) or complemented (e.g., x), there are 2 n
minterms for n variables.
 Example: Two variables (X and Y) produce
2 x 2 = 4 combinations:
XY (both normal)
X Y (X normal, Y complemented)
XY (X complemented, Y normal)
X Y (both complemented)
 Thus there are four minterms of two variables.
Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 25
Maxterms
 Maxterms are OR terms with every variable in
true or complemented form.
 Given that each binary variable may appear
normal (e.g., x) or complemented (e.g., x), there
are 2n maxterms for n variables.
 Example: Two variables (X and Y) produce
2 x 2 = 4 combinations:
X + Y (both normal)
X + Y (x normal, y complemented)
X + Y (x complemented, y normal)
X + Y (both complemented)
Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 26
Minterms & Maxterms for 2 variables
 Two variable minterms and maxterms.
x y Index Minterm Maxterm
0 0 0 m0 = x y M0 = x + y
0 1 1 m1 = x y M1 = x + y
1 0 2 m2 = x y M2 = x + y
1 1 3 m3 = x y M3 = x + y
 The minterm mi should evaluate to 1 for each
combination of x and y.
 The maxterm is the complement of the minterm
Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 27
Minterms & Maxterms for 3 variables
x y z Index Minterm Maxterm
0 0 0 0 m0 = x y z M0 = x + y + z
0 0 1 1 m1 = x y z M1 = x + y + z
0 1 0 2 m2 = x y z M2 = x + y + z
0 1 1 3 m3 = x y z M3 = x + y + z
1 0 0 4 m4 = x y z M4 = x + y + z
1 0 1 5 m5 = x y z M5 = x + y + z
1 1 0 6 m6 = x y z M6 = x + y + z
1 1 1 7 m7 = x y z M7 = x + y + z
Maxterm Mi is the complement of minterm mi
Mi = mi and mi = Mi
Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 28
 Purpose of the Index
 Minterms and Maxterms are designated with an index
 The index number corresponds to a binary pattern
 The index for the minterm or maxterm, expressed as a binary
number, is used to determine whether the variable is shown
in the true or complemented form
 For Minterms:
• ‘1’ means the variable is “Not Complemented” and
• ‘0’ means the variable is “Complemented”.
 For Maxterms:
• ‘0’ means the variable is “Not Complemented” and
• ‘1’ means the variable is “Complemented”.

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 29

 Standard Order
 All variables should be present in a minterm or
maxterm and should be listed in the same order
(usually alphabetically)
 Example: For variables a, b, c:
• Maxterms (a + b + c), (a + b + c) are in standard order
• However, (b + a + c) is NOT in standard order
(a + c) does NOT contain all variables
• Minterms (a b c) and (a b c) are in standard order
• However, (b a c) is not in standard order
(a c) does not contain all variables
Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 30
 Sum-Of-Minterm (SOM)
 Sum-Of-Minterm (SOM) canonical form:
Sum of minterms of entries that evaluate to ‘1’
x y z F Minterm
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 m1 = x y z
0 1 0 0 Focus on the
0 1 1 0 ‘1’ entries
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1 m6 = x y z
1 1 1 1 m7 = x y z

F = m1 + m6 + m7 = ∑ (1, 6, 7) = x y z + x y z + x y z
Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 31
Sum-Of-Minterm Examples
 F(a, b, c, d) = ∑(2, 3, 6, 10, 11)
 F(a, b, c, d) = m2 + m3 + m6 + m10 + m11
abcd+abcd+abcd+abcd+abcd
 G(a, b, c, d) = ∑(0, 1, 12, 15)
 G(a, b, c, d) = m0 + m1 + m12 + m15
abcd+abcd+abcd+abcd

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 32

 Product-Of-Maxterm (POM)
 Product-Of-Maxterm (POM) canonical form:
Product of maxterms of entries that evaluate to ‘0’
x y z F Maxterm
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0 M2 = (x + y + z) Focus on the
0 1 1 1 ‘0’ entries
1 0 0 0 M4 = (x + y + z)
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 M6 = (x + y + z)
1 1 1 1

F = M2·M4·M6 = ∏ (2, 4, 6) = (x+y+z) (x+y+z) (x+y+z)

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 33
Product-Of-Maxterm Examples
 F(a, b, c, d) = ∏(1, 3, 6, 11)
 F(a, b, c, d) = M1 · M3 · M6 · M11
(a+b+c+d) (a+b+c+d) (a+b+c+d) (a+b+c+d)
 G(a, b, c, d) = ∏(0, 4, 12, 15)
 G(a, b, c, d) = M0 · M4 · M12 · M15
(a+b+c+d) (a+b+c+d) (a+b+c+d) (a+b+c+d)

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 34

 Observations
 We can implement any function by "ORing" the minterms
corresponding to the ‘1’ entries in the function table. A
minterm evaluates to ‘1’ for its corresponding entry.
 We can implement any function by "ANDing" the maxterms
corresponding to ‘0’ entries in the function table. A maxterm
evaluates to ‘0’ for its corresponding entry.
 The same Boolean function can be expressed in two
canonical ways: Sum-of-Minterms (SOM) and Product-of-
Maxterms (POM).
 If a Boolean function has fewer ‘1’ entries then the SOM
canonical form will contain fewer literals than POM.
However, if it has fewer ‘0’ entries then the POM form will
have fewer literals than SOM.
Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 35
Converting to Sum-of-Minterms Form
 A function that is not in the Sum-of-Minterms form
can be converted to that form by means of a truth table
 Consider F = y + x z
x y z F Minterm F = ∑(0, 1, 2, 4, 5) =
0 0 0 1 m0 = x y z
0 0 1 1 m1 = x y z m0 + m1 + m2 + m4 + m5 =
0 1 0 1 m2 = x y z
0 1 1 0 xyz+xyz+xyz+
1 0 0 1 m4 = x y z
xyz+xyz
1 0 1 1 m5 = x y z
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 0

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 36

Converting to Product-of-Maxterms Form
 A function that is not in the Product-of-Minterms form
can be converted to that form by means of a truth table
 Consider again: F = y + x z
x y z F Minterm F = ∏(3, 6, 7) =
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 1 M 3 · M 6 · M7 =
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0 M3 = (x+y+z) (x+y+z) (x+y+z) (x+y+z)
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 M6 = (x+y+z)
1 1 1 0 M7 = (x+y+z)

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 37

Conversions Between Canonical Forms
x y z F Minterm Maxterm
0 0 0 0 M0 = (x + y + z)
0 0 1 1 m1 = x y z
0 1 0 1 m2 = x y z
0 1 1 1 m3 = x y z
1 0 0 0 M4 = (x + y + z)
1 0 1 1 m5 = x y z
1 1 0 0 M6 = (x + y + z)
1 1 1 1 m7 = x y z

F = m1+m2+m3+m5+m7 = ∑(1, 2, 3, 5, 7) =
xyz+xyz+xyz+xyz+xyz
F = M0 · M4 · M6 = ∏(0, 4, 6) =(x+y+z)(x+y+z)(x+y+z)
Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 38
Algebraic Conversion to Sum-of-Minterms

 Expand all terms first to explicitly list all minterms

 AND any term missing a variable v with (v + v)
 Example 1: f = x + x y (2 variables)
f = x (y + y) + x y
f=xy+xy+xy
f = m3 + m2 + m0 = ∑(0, 2, 3)
 Example 2: g = a + b c (3 variables)
g = a (b + b)(c + c) + (a + a) b c
g=abc+abc+abc+abc+abc+abc
g=abc+abc+abc+abc+abc
g = m1 + m4 + m5 + m6 + m7 = ∑ (1, 4, 5, 6, 7)
Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 39
Algebraic Conversion to Product-of-Maxterms

 Expand all terms first to explicitly list all maxterms

 OR any term missing a variable v with v · v
 Example 1: f = x + x y (2 variables)
Apply 2nd distributive law:
f = (x + x) (x + y) = 1 · (x + y) = (x + y) = M1
 Example 2: g = a c + b c + a b (3 variables)
g = (a c + b c + a) (a c + b c + b) (distributive)
g = (c + b c + a) (a c + c + b) (x + x y = x + y)
g = (c + b + a) (a + c + b) (x + x y = x + y)
g = (a + b + c) (a + b + c) = M5 . M2 = ∏ (2, 5)
Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 40
Function Complements
 The complement of a function expressed as a sum
of minterms is constructed by selecting the
minterms missing in the sum-of-minterms
canonical form
 Alternatively, the complement of a function
expressed by a Sum of Minterms form is simply
the Product of Maxterms with the same indices
 Example: Given F(x, y, z) = ∑ (1, 3, 5, 7)
F(x, y, z) = ∑ (0, 2, 4, 6)
F(x, y, z) = ∏ (1, 3, 5, 7)
Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 41
 Summary of Minterms and Maxterms
 There are 2n minterms and maxterms for Boolean
functions with n variables.
 Minterms and maxterms are indexed from 0 to 2 n – 1
 Any Boolean function can be expressed as a logical
sum of minterms and as a logical product of maxterms
 The complement of a function contains those minterms
not included in the original function
 The complement of a sum-of-minterms is a product-of-
maxterms with the same indices

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 42

Standard Forms
 Standard Sum-of-Products (SOP) form:
equations are written as an OR of AND terms
 Standard Product-of-Sums (POS) form:
equations are written as an AND of OR terms
 Examples:
• SOP: A B C + A B C + B
• POS: (A + B) · (A+ B + C )· C
 These “mixed” forms are neither SOP nor POS
• (A B + C) (A + C)
• A B C + A C (A + B)

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 43

 Standard Sum-of-Products (SOP)
 A sum of minterms form for n variables can be
written down directly from a truth table.
• Implementation of this form is a two-level network
of gates such that:
• The first level consists of n-input AND gates
• The second level is a single OR gate
 This form often can be simplified so that the
corresponding circuit is simpler.

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 44

Standard Sum-of-Products (SOP)
 A Simplification Example:
F( A, B, C) = S (1,4,5,6,7)
 Writing the minterm expression:
F = A B C + A B C + A B C + ABC + ABC
 Simplifying:
F = A B C + A (B C + B C + B C + B C)
F = A B C + A (B (C + C) + B (C + C))
F = A B C + A (B + B)
F=ABC+A
F=BC+A
 Simplified F contains 3 literals compared to 15
Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 45
AND/OR Two-Level Implementation
 The two implementations for F are shown below
A
B
C A
A F
B B
C C
A
B F
C It is quite
A apparent which
B
C is simpler!
A
B
C

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 46

SOP and POS Observations
 The previous examples show that:
• Canonical Forms (Sum-of-minterms, Product-of-Maxterms),
or other standard forms (SOP, POS) differ in complexity
• Boolean algebra can be used to manipulate equations into
simpler forms
• Simpler equations lead to simpler implementations
 Questions:
• How can we attain a “simplest” expression?
• Is there only one minimum cost circuit?
• The next part will deal with these issues

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 47