GENERAL INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

(Engr. Adonis P. Adornado)

Chemistry – from French “alkemie”; from Arabic “al-kimia”; the art of transformation
Five Traditional Branches of Chemistry
1. Inorganic Chemistry
2. Organic Chemistry
3. Analytical Chemistry
a. Qualitative Analysis
b. Quantitative Analysis
4. Physical Chemistry
5. Biochemistry
Some Notable Scientists
1. Democritus – first to conceived matter in the form of particles which he called “atoms”
2. Antoine Laurent Lavoisier – Father of Modern Chemistry; laid the “Law of Conservation of Matter”
3. Germain Hess – Father of Thermodynamics (Hess’ Law)
4. George Davis – Father of Chemical Engineering (British)
5. Arthur D. Little – coined the term “Unit Operation”; both a chemist and a chemical engineer; started the study of ChE in MIT
States of Matter
1. Solid – definite shape and volume; higher density than liquid; very slight contraction and expansion
2. Liquid – lack of definite shape; definite volume; high density; slight contraction and expansion
3. Gas – lack of definite shape and volume; low density; easy contraction and expansion
4. Plasma – lack of shape; not able to classify it as a gas, liquid or solid; exists at a very very high temperature
– most energetic state of matter
Note: NOT to confuse with “plasma” (in the blood) – water part of the blood

5. Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC)

– Satyendra Nath Bose and Albert Einstein predicted its existence in 1920
– It is an unusual state of matter that arises because of quantum mechanical effects on a collection of entities called “bosons”
– Least energetic state of matter
– A solid subjected to a very very low temperature almost near the absolute zero temperature
– At a very very low temperature, atoms tend to clamp creating a “superatom”
– Examples: superconductors (manufacture of spacecraft and airplane) and superfluids (zero entropy and zero viscosity)
–Note: zero viscosity means that a fluid will just go on flowing passing through any obstacles (a superfluid placed in a glass will
keep on flowing without you turning the glass upside down)
– Cornell and Weiman started creating BEC using Rb in 1995

Classification of Matter
Properties of Matter

Examples:
- Specific volume (reverse of density) is a physical, intensive property.
- Given a piece of cake; mass, temperature, and volume are its physical properties while dietary calories is its chemical property.

Changes in Matter

 Physical Change
 Chemical Change – it is difficult to reverse (irreversible)

John Dalton viewed chemical change as a rearrangement of atoms.

N2 + H2  NH3

Q: Is it possible that C atom become N atom?

A: Yes, it is possible but it is not a chemical change but a nuclear exchange (change in the number of protons and neutrons)

Atoms

Atom is a basic unit of matter.

Nucleus – neutron (neutral) + proton (positively charged)

– technically positively charged but not 100%

Neutron – responsible for keeping protons together

Particle Mass (g) Scientific Constant (Casio fx-991ES)

Proton (p+) 1.67252 x 10-24 01
Neutron (no) 1.67495 x 10-24 02
Electron (e-) 9.1095 x 10-28 03

Balmer Series/Lines

Balmer Series/Lines – (for visible only) designation of one of a set of 6 different named series describing the spectral line emissions
of the hydrogen atom

red line – H-α

two left most lines – UV (>400 nm)

Balmer constant – a constant known for the fundamental number of hydrogen; Johann Balmer (1885)

n ≥ 3 to n = 2 where n = principal quantum number

Example:
n = 3 to n = 2  H-α
n = 4 to n = 2  H-β

In reality, when these lines are zoomed in they are double-lined called “fine-structure splitting” which is a function of atomic number (Z) and
fine structure constant (α).

Fine-structure constant – characterizes the strength of electromagnetic interaction

– by Arnold Sommerfeld (1960)
– has a value of 7.297 x 10-3 (unitless); can be applied to any system of units

Balmer Formula:

( ) ( )

Where:

is the wavelength
B is a constant with the value of 3.6450682×10-7 m or 364.50682 nm
n is equal to 2
m is an integer such that m > n

Modified Balmer Formula

Johannes Rydberg – generalized Balmer lines result to include all of the wavelength of the hydrogen spectrum

Rydberg Formula:

̅ ( ) ( )

Where:

is the wavelength
̅ is the series limit [cm-1]
RH is a constant with the value of 1.097373157×105 cm-1
m is an integer such that n > m

Lyman Series m=1 n = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, ∞ Theodore Lyman

Balmer Series m=2 n = 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, ∞ Johann Balmer
Paschen Series m=3 n = 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, ∞ Friedrich Paschen
Brackett Series m=4 n = 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, ∞ Frederick Brackett
Pfund Series m=5 n = 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, ∞ August Herman Pfund
Humphreys Series m=6 n = 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, ∞ Curtis Humphreys
Further (unnamed) m>6 - -

Work Function

Work Function (Φ) is the energy needed to release the electron from any surface.

Bohr: Ephoton = Einitial - Efinal

Einstein: Ephoton ∝
( )
Where:
h = planck’s constant = 6.626 ×10-34 Js
= frequency
c = speed of light = 2.9979 ×108 m/s
= wavelength

Note: Bohr’s and Einstein’s definition of E photon are equivalent.

Photoelectric Effect

- Heinrich Hertz (1888)

- Electrons are emitted from solids, liquids or gases when they absorb energy from light.
- A photon is an elementary particle, the quantum of light and all other forms of electromagnetic radiation

kinetic energy (KE) is considered if

Formula:

Atoms

Isotope : same no. of p+ but different no. of no

Isotone : same no. of no but different no. of p+
Isoelectronic : same no. of e- (are usually but not most of the most are “magkatabi” in the Periodic Table of Elements)
Isobar : same mass number

Protium : 1H
1

Deuterium : 1H
2

Tritium : 1H
3

Note: D2O (heavy water) is heavier than normal water (H2O) because D2 is heavier than H2

Electron Configuration
- Aufbau Building Up Principle

Methods:
1. Spectroscopic notation (long way)
2. Noble gas core notation (short way)
3. Orbital box notation

Diamagnetic – all electrons are spin paired

Paramagnetic – there is a presence of unpaired electron

Comparison of Groups and Periods

If group > period  non-metal (say 5>4  non-metal!)

If group = period  metalloid

Example:
[Xe]6s2 : 2A group: 6th period: 2<6 (less than) therefore metal!
Shielding Effect

- describes the decrease in attraction between an electron and the nucleus in any atom with more than one electron shell.
- Other electron does not feel the full effect of the proton because of the shielding effect.

Effective Nuclear Charge (Zeff) is the net positive charge experienced by an electron in a multi-electron atom, given by the formula

Zeff = Z – σ
Where:
 Z = no. of p+ in the nucleus
 screening constant, σ = average number of electrons between the nucleus and the electron in question

 Higher Zeff  electrons will be harder to remove

 Lower Zeff  electrons will be easier to remove

1. Simple Method
18Ar: 1s22s22p63s23p6
(2nd shell) (3rd shell)  interest!

σ = 2+2+6 (from 1s22s22p6) = 10

Zeff = Z – σ = 18 – 10 = 8

2. Slater’s Rule
a. Write the electron configuration then group the level
b. Calculate σ
i. 0.35  all other electron in the same group
ii. If e- of interest is s or p: 0.85  next inner
If e- of interest is d or f: 1.00  next inner
iii. 1.00  next next inner and farther group

18Ar: 1s22s22p63s23p6  take out 1 e-

(2nd shell) (3rd shell)  interest!

Additional Examples
Calculate the Zeff in the following:

a. N(7) for 2p e-
7N: 1s 2s 2p  take out 1 e-
2 2 3

determine σ: σ = 0.35(4e-) + 0.85(2e-) = 3.1

Zeff = 7 – 3.1 = 3.9

b. 3p e- in Si(14)
14Si: 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p  take out 1 e-
2 2 6 2 2

determine σ: σ = 0.35(3e-) + 0.85(8e-) + 1.00(2e-) = 9.85

Zeff = 14 – 9.85 = 4.15

c. one of 6s e- in W(74)
74W: 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s 4p 4d 4f 5s 5p 5d 6s  take out 1 e-
2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 4 2

determine σ: σ = 0.35(1e ) + 0.85(8e ) + 1.00(4e ) + 1.00(60e-) = 71.15

- - -

Zeff = 74 – 71.15 = 2.85

Quantum Numbers

- Describe the exact location of an electron in an atom

1. Principal Quantum Number, n (1, 2, 3, 4, 5…)

- main energy level/shell
- formulated by Niels Bohr

2. Azimuthal / Angular Momentum Quantum Number, l [0 to (n-1)]

- denotes the sub-shell/sub-energy levels
- defines the slope of the orbital
- formulated by Arnold Sommerfeld

orbital max. no. of electrons slope meaning

s 2 spherical sharp
p 6 dumb bell principal
d 10 rosette diffuse
f 14 complicated fundamental

3. Magnetic Quantum Number, ml [-l to 0 to +l]

- denotes the particular orbital within a sub-shell
- by Arnold Sommerfeld

4. Spin Quantum Number, ms [+1/2 (clockwise), -1/2 (counterclockwise)]

- describes the rotation of electron around an axis
- by Wolfgang Pauli

Pauli Exclusion Principle (Wolfgang Pauli) – no 2 e- in an atom can have an identical set of quantum numbers

Hund’s Rule of Multiplicity (Friedrich Hund) – the most stable arrangement of an e- in a sub-shell is attained when the number of e-
with same spin is maximized

Summary:

 Max. no. of e- / orbital = 2

 No. of orbitals / sub-shell = 2xl+1
 No. of orbital / shell = n2
 Max. no. of e- / subshell = 2 (2 x l + 1)
 Max. no. of e- / shell = 2 n2
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

- By Werner Heisenberg
- We can know position or momentum accurately but not both simultaneously

Where:
= uncertainty in position
= uncertainty in momentum
= reduced planck’s constant = h/2π

( )

Periodic Table

Trends in the Periodic Table

Property Left to Right (L-R) Top to Bottom (T-B)

Metallic Property D I
Atomic Size D I
Reactivity D I
Ionization Energy I D
Electron Affinity I D
Electronegativity I D

Ionization Energy – energy needed to remove an electron from a gaseous atom X(g)  X(g)+ + e-
Electron Affinity – energy always associated with the addition of electron X(g) + e-  X(g)-
Electronegativity – ability of an atom to “attract” electrons toward itself

Technetium (43Tc) – first artificially prepared element by bombardment reaction (prepared in Darmstadt, Germany)
Darmstadtium (110Ds) – named after the town (Darmstadt, Germany) in which it was discovered
Roentgenium (111Rg) – prepared in Darmstadt, Germany, named after Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen (X-ray)
Copernicium (112Cn) - prepared in Darmstadt, Germany, named after the polish astronomer Copernicus

Ionic Size

NaCl  Na+ + Cl-

Na Na+ Cl Cl-
Chemical Bonds

Ionic
Covalent
(transfer of e-)
(sharing of e-)
(ions)
Polar Non-polar
complete transfer of e-
(unequal sharing of e-) (equal sharing of e-)
full ionic charges partial ionic charges
no charges
Na+ Cl- Hδ+ Clδ-
M + NM 2 different NM 2 identical NM

Bond Properties

 Bond Energy – amount of energy involved in the formation and breaking of a bond
 Bond Length – distance between nuclei in a bond

 Bond Order – number of pairs of electron in a bond

Bond Order Bond Length Bond Energy

C– 1 Long Low
C= 2 - -
C≡ 3 Short High
Relationships:

NOTE:

 During BREAKING of a bond, energy is ABSORBED.

 During FORMATION of a bond, energy is RELEASED.

NaCl easily dissociates (dissolution) in water but covalent compounds don't, this implies that covalent bond is stronger than ionic
bond but during hot weather, waxes easily melts but NaCl don’t, this implies that covalent bond is weaker than ionic bond.

Generally, covalent bond is stronger than ionic bond because covalent bond is sharing of e -, not all is given, one will not carry on
without the other and vice versa, e- are not completely transferred (or taken away). *also applies in romantic relationships*
Stoichiometry

Limiting reactants (LR) – maximum conversion (100%); “limits” the formation of products

Excess reactants (ER) – supplied in excess

Actual yield – amount experimentally determine

Theoretical yield – amount calculated from stoichiometry

Sample Problem:

Suppose 8.0 g of CH4 is allowed to burn in the presence of 6.00 g of O2. How much in grams of excess reactant remains after the
reaction is complete?

CH4 + 2O2  CO2 + 2H2O

8.0 g 6.00 g

Determine the LR: Method 1:

Stoich Actual

>

( )

( )

2 > 0.375 therefore O2 is the LR! (But if, say 2 < 2.5 then O2 comes in excess and is an ER)

Determine the LR: Method 2:

Assume CH4 as LR:

( )( )

Assume O2 as LR:
( )( )

Since O2 produced less moles of the product than CH4 then O2 is the LR! (LR: “limits” the formation of products)

( )( )( )
Chemical Equations

1. Synthesis: A + B  C

a. M + O2  M2O (metal oxide / basic anhydride)

b. M2O + H2O  2MOH (base)
c. NM + O2  NMO2 (non-metal oxide / acid anhydride)
d. NMO2 + H2O  HNMO3 (acid)

2. Decomposition: AB  A + B

a. M 2O  M + O 2
b. M2CO3 (metal carbonate)  M2O + CO2
c. MNO3 (metal nitrate)  MNO2 (metal nitrite) + O2
d. MHCO3 (metal bicarbonate)  M2CO3 + H2O + CO2

3. Single Replacement: AB + C  CB + A
Note: If C is a metal (or NM or ion) then the one that should be replaced is also a metal (or NM or ion). C is the one attacking the
AB.

Activity Series of Metals

Case of oxidation: decreasing    

   Li, K, Na, Ca, Mg, Al, Mn, Zn, Cr, Fe,
Ni, Sn, Pb, H, Cu, Bi, Sb, Hg, Ag, Pt, Au,
          decreasing

e.g. Zn metal is oxidized by aqueous solution of Cu but Ag metal is not

4. Double Displacement: AB + CD  AD + BC

Nomenclature

 Ionic Compounds (M + NM)

Cu2+ Cu+
Copper (II) Copper (I)
Latin: Cupric Cuprous

Note: Use “-ic” for higher oxidation number

NO3- NO2-
nitrate nitrite

Note: Use “-ate” for greater O atoms

Oxyanions or oxoanions (e.g. SO42-, SO32-)

Acid anions (one or more H + oxoanion - e.g. HPO42-)

 Binary Molecular Compounds (2 NM or metalloids)

B Si C Sb As P N H Te Se S I Br Cl O F
IIA IVA VA VIA VIIA

F3N is incorrect!
NF3 is correct!

SCl2 – sulfur dichloride

Al2S3 – aluminum sulfide

Oxoacids (oxyacids) – e.g. HNO3, H2SO4

- e.g. HNO3 (nitric acid) : HNO2 (nitrous acid)
H + NM (use prefix “hydro-“)
- e.g. HCl(aq) (hydrochloric acid) : HBr(aq) (hydrobromic acid)

ClO- : hypochlorite
ClO2- : chlorite
ClO3- : chlorate
ClO4- : perchlorate

HClO3 (chloric acid)

HBrO2 (bromous acid)

Hydrates
- e.g. Na2CO37H2O (sodium carbonate heptahydrate)

Concentrations of Solution

Where:

 f = number of replaceable H+ (acid)

 f = number of OH- (base)
 f = net charge of an ion (salt)
 f = number of e- gained/lost (oxidation/reduction)

Example

What is the f of the salt given (net charge of an ion) in the chemical equation: Au2(Cr2O7)3  2Au3+ + 3Cr2O72-
a. 2
b. 3
c. 5
d. 6

Common Basis Used for a Given Concentration

Given Basis
Molarity, M 1 L solution
molality,m 1 kg solvent
% w/w 100 g solution
ρsolution 1 mL solution
Example Problem 1: A solution of toluene in benzene has a molal concentration of 1.50. Find the molarity and the mole fraction of
toluene if the volumes are additive. Density of toluene is 0.867 g/cm3 and density of benzene is 0.876 g/cm3.

Basis: 1 kg (1000 g) C6H6 solvent

therefore, mole C7H8 = 1.50

*( )( )( ) ( ) +

( )

Example Problem 2: What is the volume % concentration of ethanol in a solution that is 24% by mass ethanol (ρ = 0.798 g/mL) in an
aqueous solution with density 0.963 g/mL?

Basis:

( )

( )

Solutions

 Unsaturated solution – more solute dissolves

 Saturated solution – no more solute dissolves
 Supersarturated – added crystals grow

Colligative Properties of Solutions (Non-Electrolytes Solutions)

 Boiling Point Elevation (BPE) : ∆Tb = Tb, solution – Tb, solvent = kbm
 Freezing Point Depression (FPD) : ∆Tf = Tf, solvent – Tf, solution = kfm
 Vapor Pressure Lowering: ∆P = Posolvent – Psolution = xsolute Posolvent

VPL : ∆P = Posolvent – Psolution

Raoult’s Law : Psolution = xsolvent Posolvent

∆P = Posolvent – xsolventPosolvent = (1 - xsolvent) Posolvent = xsolute Posolvent

 Osmotic Pressure : Π = MRT

Where:
o Π = osmotic pressure
o M = Molarity
o R = universal gas constant
o T = absolute temperature

P<Π : osmosis
P=Π : osmosis stops!
P>Π : reverse osmosis
Van’t hoff factor

 i = 1 (non-electrolye)
 i > 1 (electrolye)

degree of ionization, ∝

i – approches the no. of ions in the solution

v – no. of ions in the solution

e.g. NaCl: v = 2 and i = 1.997

Empirical Gas Laws

- one variable being held constant

Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure

Dalton’s Law: PT = PA + PB

( )

( )

Example Problem 1: A vessel containing 39.5 cm3 of the gas at 25oC and 106 kPa was inverted and placed in cold ethanol. As the gas
contacted, ethanol was forced into the vessel to maintain the same pressure of helium. If this required 18.8 cm 3 of ethanol, what was
the final temperature of the helium?

( )
( )

Example Problem 2: Helium is collected over water at 25 oC and 1.00 atm total pressure. What volume of gas must be collected to
obtain 0.375 g of helium? At 25oC, vapor pressure of water is 23.8 torr.

( )( )( )( )

* ( )+
Example Problem 3: A 10-L vessel containing 8.00 g oxygen is connected by means of a valve to a 5-L vessel containing 7.00 g of
nitrogen. When the valve was opened and the gases are allowed to mix, what will be the total pressure of the gas in the mixture at
25oC assuming the temperature was kept constant?

[ ( ) ( )] * + [( ) ]

What are the partial pressures of O2 (PO2) and N2 (PN2)?

( )
( ) [ ][ ] [ ][ ]
( ) ( )

Gases

 STP (Standard Temperature Pressure)

P = 1 atm ; T = OoC ; Vm = 22.4 L/mol

 SATP (Standard Ambient Temperature Pressure)

P = 1 bar ; T = 25oC

Chemical Equilibrium (Gases Only)

- Net rate of all chemical reactions is zero

( ) ( ) ↔ ( )

[ ] ( )
[ ] [ ] ( ) ( )

( )

( ) ( ) ↔ ( ) ( )

[ ] [ ]
[ ][ ]
At Equilibrium:

[ ] [ ] [ ][ ]

[ ][ ]
[ ] [ ]

( )( )
( ) ( )
Using ideal gas law:

( )( )
( ) ( )

( )( ) ( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( )

Use of the Equilibrium Constant

1. Qualitatively interpreting the equilibrium constant

o If K > 1: more products
o If K < 1: more reactants
o If K = 1: “equal amounts”

2. Predicting the direction of reaction

3. Calculating equilibrium concentrations and partial pressures

Le Chatelier’s (Lu-Shatulya) Principle (by Henry-Louis Le Chatelier)

- When a system in chemical equilibrium is disturbed by a change of temperature, pressure, or a concentration, the
system shifts in equlibrium composition in a way that tends to counteract this change of variable.

N2(g) + 3H2(g)  2NH3(g)

1. Change in Concentration
- decreasing concentration of product: favors forward reaction
- increasing concentration of reactant: favors forward reaction

2. Changing Pressure / Volume

- increasing pressure  decreasing volume (favors lesser gas molecules)
- decreasing pressure  increasing volume (favors more gas molecules)
 3. Changing Temperature
- increase in temperature  favors endothermic reaction
- decrease in temperature  favors exothermic reaction

heat haters : EXO : release heat : ∆H (-) : A + B  P + heat

heat likers : ENDO : absorb heat : ∆H (+) : A + B + heat  P

Lewis Structure

Note:
- 2e- fewer than an octet suggests a double (=) bond
- 4e- fewer suggests a triple (≡) bond or 2 double (=) bonds
- C, N, O and S atoms often form multiple bonds

Say in PO43-…
If (-)  add to the total number of valence electrons
If (+)  subtract to the total number of valence electrons

Formal Charge

- The charge of the individual atom in a molecule or a polyatomic ion

Formal Charge, FC = no. of valence electrons – no. of non-bonding electrons – ½ of the bonding electrons

FC = 7 – 6 - ½(2) = 0

Note:
By adding all the formal charges, you can get the overall charge of the molecule
Polarity of Molecules

 A polar molecule is one having:

- polar bonds (arranged unsymmetrically)
- net dipoles

 A non-polar molecule is one having:

- non-polar bonds
- no net dipoles
- polar bonds (arranged symmetrically)

Polarity shows the compatibility of molecules. “Like dissolves like”

MOLECULAR GEOMETRY
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory – states that atoms are kept as far as possible preventing repulsion
Five Basic Shapes

Linear

Bent/Angular/
Trigonal Planar V-Shaped

Bent/Angular/
Tetrahedral Trigonal Pyramidal V-Shaped

Sawhorse/Seesaw/
Linear
Trigonal Bipyramidal Distorted Tetrahedral T-Shaped

Linear
Octahedral Square Pyramidal Square Planar T-Shaped
Forces Between Atoms

Intramolecular Forces – forces which keeps molecule together, i.e. bonds (chemical bonding)
Intermolecular Forces – attractive force between molecules. Responsible for keeping matter in solid or liquid phase.

NaCl – ionic bonding

NaCl solution – ion-dipole
H-bonding: H bonded to F, O or N (strongest Van der Waals)
London forces (weakest of the 5 intermolecular forces)

In general as the strength of intermolecular force increases

- Melting point
- Boiling point
- Heat of vaporization
- Heat of fusion increase
- Surface tension
- Specific heat
- Viscosity
- Vapor pressure  decreases

Note:
London forces increase with increasing molecular weight. The higher the molecular weight, the stronger (tie-breaker for two
compounds that have same london forces).

Example:
BF3 – london forces
Isopropyl alcohol – hydrogen bonding
HI – dipole-dipole forces
Kr – london forces
LiCl – ionic bonding
NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY

- is the study of the chemical and physical properties of elements as influenced by changes in the structure of the atomic
nucleus
- changes in the no. of p+ and no (nuclear change)

Otto Hann – is a German chemist and Nobel laureate that founded the nuclear chemistry
– “father of nuclear chemistry”
– “the founder of the atomic age”

The Nuclide

Nucleons – mixture of protons and neutron = mass number

Radioactivity

Radioactive decay- the process in which a nucleus spontaneously disintegrates, giving off radiation.

Types of Nuclear Reaction

Nuclear Fission – heavy nucleus splits into lighter nuclei and energy is released
Nuclear Fusion - two or more atomic nuclei collide at very high speed and join to form a new type of atomic nucleus

Nuclear Equation
- a symbolic representation of a nuclear reaction

Note:
Balancing nuclear equations makes use of the concept of conservation of mass number and proton number

Types of Particle Emitted

- Beta particle or electron

- Positron
- Proton or hydrogen nucleus
- Neutron
- Gamma ray
- Alpha particle or helium nucleus
- Photons – (from light) excitation of electrons (photoelectric effect)
 Types of Radioactive Decay
Nuclear Change
Type of Decay Equation Process Usual Nuclear Condition
Atomic No. Mass No.
Alpha emission - -2 -4 Z > 83

A given nuclide > A stable nuclide

Beta emission +1 0

Positron emission -1 0
A given nuclide < A stable nuclide

Electron capture -1 0

Gamma emission - 0 0 excited

Neutron emission Positron or Electron Capture 0 -1 -

* A neutron-to-proton ration (N/Z) of 1:1 indicates that the nuclide is stable

** Electron capture is important with heavier elements
*** Gamma emission is an emission of a given photon from an excited nucleus which simply results to a product nucleus of lower
energy state, excited nucleus  ground state nucleus + gamma photon

Note:

( )

Nuclear Stability

Number of Stable Isotopes p+ no

157 Even Even
53 Even Odd
50 Odd Even
5 Odd Odd

Magic Numbers (p+ or no): 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126

Strong Nuclear Force

Nuclear force is a strong force of attraction between nucleons that acts only at very short distances (about few femtometers).
Neutron serves as nuclear binders of protons.
Nuclear Bombardment Reaction
- a nuclear reaction in which a nucleus is bombarded, or struck by another nucleus or by a nuclear particle
- nuclear bombardment reaction is done in particle accelerators

Example:

Transmutation:

Transuranium elements (Z > 92)

- elements with atomic number greater than uranium (92)
- very radioactive
- first transuranium element is Neptunium (93)

Binding Energy
- it is the amount of energy released during a nuclear transformation
- it is a measure of the energy used to bind the nucleus in a parent nuclide

Where:
o = mass defect
o c = speed of light

The greater the mass, the higher the energy!

Mass defect (of a nucleus) is the mass difference between the total mass of an atom’s particle and the atom’s total mass (atomic mass)

Conclusion:

Eunbound > Ebound

munbound system > mbound system

The total energy of the bound system (nucleus) is less than the combined energy of the separated nucleons (p + and no)

Typical Nuclear Power Plant

- typical nuclear power plants use fissionable materials as source of heat
- Cd is the material used in central rods because it is a good no absorber
- When the central rods are “down”, energy is very low but when central rods are “up”, so many n o released producing
more energy
1st Order Kinetics:

2nd Order Kinetics:

Zero Order Kinetics:

Particle Accelerators

- Any of several mechanics that increase the speed and energy of atomic particles and direct them at a nuclei or other
particles to cause high-energy collisions producing other particles

Large Hadron Collider (LHC)

- is the world's largest and highest-energy particle accelerator, and considered "one of the great engineering milestones of
mankind" (Geneva, Switzerland)
- created Higgs boson (God’s particle): exist only at a fraction of a second

Types of Particle Accelerator

1. Linac
2. Betatron – causes electrons to become larger in mass but have relatively low energy
3. Synchrotron
4. Cyclotron – a type of particle accelerator consisting of 2 hollow, semi-circular metal electrodes called “dees” in which
charged particles are accelerated by stages to higher and higher kinetic energies

Radiation

The energy absorbed from exposure to radiation is called a “dose”.

Radiation dose quantities are described in 3 ways:

1. Absorbed Dose (also known as total ionizing dose, TID)

- is the concentration of energy deposited in tissues as a result of an exposure to ionizing radiation
- it is equal to the energy deposited per unit mass of medium, which may be measured as joules per kilogram and
represented by the equivalent SI unit, gray (Gy), or the antiquated CGS units, rad and rep (Röntgen equivalent physical)

2. Equivalent Dose
- is an amount that takes the damaging properties of different types of radiation into account
- is dimensionally a quantity of energy per unit of mass, and is measured in sieverts or rems (roentgen equivalent in man
(or mammal))

3. Effective Dose
- is used to assess the potential for long-term effects that might occur many years later
- the unit for effective dose is the sievert (Sv), or the rem, the same as for equivalent dose. One sievert equals one
joule/kilogram (J/kg)

Somatic Damage
a. prompt (occur sooner or later)
b. delayed (occurs years after the radiation is

Genetic Damage
- exposed to radiation but nothing happened to you
- affect your genes
Somatic effects appear in the exposed person. Somatic effects may be divided into two classes based on the rate at which the dose
was received.

Prompt somatic effects are those that occur soon after an acute dose (typically 10 rad or greater to the whole body in a short period
of time). One example of a prompt effect is the temporary hair loss which occurs about three weeks after a dose of 400 rad to the
scalp. New hair is expected to grow within two months after the dose, although the color and texture may be different.

Delayed somatic effects are those that may occur years after radiation doses are received. Among the delayed effects thus far
observed have been an increased potential for the development of cancer and cataracts. Since some forms of cancer are among the
most probable delayed effects, the established dose limits were formulated with this risk in mind. These limits are set such that the
calculated risk of cancer in radiation workers is an increase of a very small fraction of the normal cancer risk. (More on risk in a
moment)

Genetic, or heritable effects appear in the future generations of the exposed person as a result of radiation damage to the
reproductive cells. Genetic effects are abnormalities that may occur in the future generations of exposed individuals. They have been
extensively studied in plants and animals, but risks for genetic effects in humans are seen to be considerably smaller than the risks
for somatic effects. Therefore, the limits used to protect the exposed person from harm are equally effective to protect future
generations from harm.