Photon interactions in matter

• Compton effect
Gamma- and X-Ray
• Photoelectric effect
Interactions in Matter • Pair production
• Rayleigh (coherent)
scattering
Chapter 7
• Photonuclear interactions

F.A. Attix, Introduction to Radiological Kinematics

Physics and Radiation Dosimetry Interaction cross sections
Energy-transfer cross sections
Mass attenuation coefficients

Compton interaction: Kinematics

Compton interaction
• Inelastic photon scattering by an electron
• Main assumption: the electron struck by the
incoming photon is unbound and stationary
– The largest contribution from binding is under
condition of high Z, low energy
– Under these conditions photoelectric effect is
• Inelastic collision
dominant
• After the collision the electron departs at angle , with
• Consider two aspects: kinematics and cross kinetic energy T and momentum p
sections • The photon scatters at angle  with a new, lower quantum
energy h and momentum h/c

Compton interaction: Kinematics Compton interaction: Kinematics

• An earlier theory of -ray scattering by Thomson, • The collision kinetics is based upon conservation of
based on observations only at low energies, both energy and momentum
predicted that the scattered photon should always • Energy conservation requires
have the same energy as the incident one, T  h  h
regardless of h or  • Conservation of momentum along the (0°) direction
• The failure of the Thomson theory to describe h  h cos  pc cos
high-energy photon scattering necessitated the • Conservation of momentum perpendicular to the
development of Compton’s theory direction of incidence:
h sin  pc sin

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 Compton interaction: Kinematics
Compton interaction: Kinematics
energy transferred
• pc can be written in terms of T : pc  T (T  2 m0 c 2 ) to the recoiling
where m0 is the electron’s rest mass electron
hv’=0.49
• We get a set of three simultaneous equations in
these five parameters: h, h, T, , and  : photon is
backscattered –
h max energy
h  
 
1  h / m0 c 2 1  cos 
transferred to e-

T  h  h 
 h  
cot  1   tan  
 m0 c 2  2 When photon energy is lower than electron rest mass energy m0c2,
relativistic effects do not contribute => pure elastic scattering

Compton interaction: Kinematics Compton interaction: Cross sections

Interaction cross section
Cross section describes the probability of interaction
• Thomson: elastic scattering on a free electron, no energy is
Dependence of  on  transferred to electron
Photon energy
is a strong function of • Differential cross section (per electron for a photon scattered
at angle , per unit solid angle)
increasing
photon energy:
• Low photon energies
  90    / 2
• High photon energies:
d e T r02
d

2

1  cos2   max at   0, 180o
½ max at   90
o

electrons are mostly

forward scattered e 2 - classical radius of electron
r0 
m0c 2

Compton interaction: Cross sections Compton interaction: Cross sections

Interaction cross section Interaction cross section
• This cross section (can be thought of as an effective target
Thomson: elastic scattering on free electron
area) is equal to the probability of a Thomson-scattering event
- total cross section (integrated over all directions ) occurring when a single photon passes through a layer
containing one electron per cm2
8r02
e T   6.65  10 25 cm 2 /electron • It is also the fraction of a large number of incident photons that
3 scatter in passing through the same layer, e.g., approximately
665 events for 1027 photons
• As long as the fraction of photons interacting in a layer of
r0 e2 matter by all processes combined remains less than about 0.05,
r0  - classical radius of electron the fraction may be assumed to be proportional to absorber
m0c 2
thickness; for greater thicknesses the exponential relation must
be used
Works well for low photon energies, << m0c2
Overestimates for photon energies > 0.01MeV (factor of 2 for 0.4MeV)

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Compton interaction: Cross sections Compton interaction: Cross sections
Interaction cross section Interaction cross section
Thomson’s
• Klein-Nishina: Compton scattering on free electron but
includes Dirac’s quantum relativistic theory d e K  N shows probability for
• Differential cross section:
d a photon to be
scattered at an angle 
d e K  N r02  h '  h h ' 
   sin 2  
2  h  h ' h  Photons with high energies tend to
d  scatter in the forward direction
( ~ 0)
• For elastic scattering – reduces to Thomson's expression
• Needed at high photon energy

Compton interaction: Cross sections Compton interaction: Cross sections

Interaction cross section Energy-transfer cross section
Klein-Nishina: Compton scattering on free electron (includes
Dirac’s quantum relativistic theory) Total cross section –> fraction of energy diverted into Compton
Integrating over all photon scattering angles obtain the total cross interactions –> fraction of energy transferred to electrons –> dose
section
Thomson’s
 2r02 ...
Energy transfer cross section
e K N
T
e  tr  e  
... - depends on incident h
photon energy: higher Average kinetic energy of
recoiling electrons:
e  tr
energy => lower interaction
probability T  h 
e

Compton interaction: Cross sections Compton interaction: Cross sections

Energy-transfer cross section Other cross sections
Differential K-N cross section
for electron scattering at
angle , per unit solid angle,
T / hv per electron
hv' / hv
d e K  N
d photon energies:

For high photon energies

electrons are preferentially
For hv = 1.6 MeV – half of the photon energy is transferred forward scattered ( = 0)
to the electron ( T = 0.8 MeV)

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Compton interaction: Cross sections Compton interaction:
Other cross sections Mass attenuation coefficient
Cross section per electron
Probability that a single photon The distribution of kinetic energies given to the
(no Z dependence due to free e   Z0
Compton recoiling electrons is ~ flat from 0
will have Compton interaction almost up to the max electron energy electron assumption)
and transfers energy between
Cross section per atom a   Z e 
T and T+dT
d e K  N
in cm2 MeV 1e 1  N AZ
dT Cross section per unit mass  e 
(mass attenuation  A
Energy distribution of coefficient)
electrons, averaged over all  NA – Avogadro’s constant; Z – number of electrons per atom;
A – number of grams per mole of material;  – density in g/cm3
Tmax -> hv-0.2555 MeV
for high hv

Photoelectric effect: Kinematics Photoelectric effect basics

Most important at low photon energies

E
• Interaction with atomic-shell electrons tightly bound with
h
L
potential energy Eb < hv mom=hv/c K
L
K
• Photon is completely absorbed
• Kinetic energy to electron:

T  h  Eb
• Photon transfers its momentum hv/c plus some
independent of scattering angle transversal momentum due to the perpendicular
• Atom acquires some momentum electric field in the electromagnetic wave
• No universal analytical expression for
cross sections • Final state = free electron + hole in the atomic shell

Photoelectric effect: Photoelectric effect: Cross sections

Directional distribution Interaction cross section
For higher photon energies electrons tend to scatter in forward
direction ( =0 is forbidden since it is perpendicular to the vector E) Total interaction cross section per atom, in cm2/atom
Zn
Directional distribution Half of all electrons is ejected  k
(h ) m
a
within a forward cone of half
angle equal to bipartition angle k  Const
m, n  energy dependent
Z4
m  3, n  4 at hν  0.1 MeV 
( h ) 3
Mass attenuation coefficient
  Z 
3

 
  h 

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 Photoelectric effect: Mass Photoelectric effect: Cross sections
attenuation coefficient Energy-transfer cross section
  Z 
3

 
  h  Fraction of energy transferred to all electrons
T h  Eb

E=88keV
h h
Vacancy created by a photon in the inner shell has to be filled
through Auger process, additionally contributing to kerma.
Final result:
 tr   h  PK YK  h K  1  PK PLYL  h L 

   h 


Photoelectric effect: Mass energy-transfer coefficients

Atom relaxation
h

L L
K K

Excited atom relaxes its energy by

- fluorescence (emission of photons) or
- Auger process (emission of electron)
when the higher energy shell electrons move downward

Pair production: Third body is

Pair production
needed
• Photon is absorbed giving rise to electron and positron
e
• Occurs predominantly in Coulomb force field • There exists a reference frame
usually near atomic nucleus where the total momentum of
sometimes in a field of atomic electron h
p electron and positron is zero
• Minimum photon energy required 2m0c 2  1.022 MeV
• But photon momentum is always
hv  2m0c 2  T   T  h/c
 1.022 MeV  T   T  • Third body needed for momentum
e conservation: electron or nucleus

h
p

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 Pair production in Nuclear Pair production in Electron
Coulomb Force Field Coulomb Force Field
Energy transferred to electron
Total cross section per atom
Triplet production – higher threshold 4m0c 2  2.044 MeV
a   0Z P 2 required for conservation of momentum

Ratio of cross section for all electrons of the atom to

P – function of hv and Z nuclear cross section of the same atom is small:
2
1  e2 
0 
r02
    5.80x10 28 cm2 /electron  electron 1
137 137  m0 c 2  
 nucleus CZ
Nuclear attraction and repulsion tend to give
the positron slightly more energy than the C – parameter depending on energy, close to 1
electron, the difference being less than For Pb the ratio is ~1%
0.0075Z MeV Fraction of energy
transferred to positron

Pair production: Cross sections Rayleigh (coherent) scattering

Total cross section for pair production per unit mass: • Photon is scattered by combined action of whole atom
• Photons do not lose energy, redirected through only a small
      angle
         
  pair   nuclear   electron • No charged particles receive energy, no excitation produced
=> No contribution to kerma or dose
Pair production energy transfer coefficient: Atomic cross section: R Z

 h 2
 tr   hv  2m0c 2  Typical ratios of Rayleigh to total attenuation coefficient  R / 
  
   hv 

Total coefficients for attenuation,

Photonuclear Interactions energy transfer and absorption
Total mass attenuation coefficient for photon interactions -
• Photon with energy exceeding few MeV excites nucleus,
add probabilities for photoelectric effect, Compton effect,
which emits proton or neutron
pair production and Rayleigh scattering
• Contributes to kerma and dose
    R
• Relative amount less that 5% of pair production    
• Usually not included in dosimetry consideration     
• Important for shielding design (neutrons) Total mass energy-transfer coefficient:

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 Mass attenuation coefficients Mass energy-absorption
coefficient
en tr
 1  g 
 
E=88keV

g - average fraction of secondary electron energy lost in

radiative interactions
For low Z and high hv, g --> 0

Appendix D

Mass energy-transfer coefficients

Summary
• Compton effect
• Photoelectric effect the most important

• Pair production
• Rayleigh (coherent) scattering – no energy
transferred to the medium
• Photonuclear interactions – relevant at high
energies