Leaving words out after auxiliary verbs: Explanation and use

In a longer expression, instead of repeating two verbs, we might use an auxiliary verb on its own in the
second sentence or phrase.

1. Where 2 auxiliary verbs are used, the shortened form can use either the first or both in the second
sentence

Cinderella hadn't been invited to the ball, but her ugly sisters had been invited to the ball.

Becomes the more concise

Cinderella hadn't been invited to the ball, but her ugly sisters had.

OR

Cinderella hadn't been invited to the ball, but her ugly sisters had been.

2. Where there is no auxiliary verb in the first sentence or there is a form of the auxiliary do, 'to do' is
used as the auxiliary verb for the second sentence

'I now run faster than he does.' 'Of course you run faster than he does.'

Becomes the more concise

'I now run faster than he does.' 'Of course you do.'

3. Where 'have' is the auxiliary verb in the first sentence, either 'to have' or 'to do' are used as the
auxiliary verb in the second sentence

'Do you think she has a chance of coming first?' 'Yes I do think she has a chance of coming first.'

Could become either of these more concise versions

'Do you think she has a chance of coming first?' 'Yes I do.'

OR

'Do you think she has a chance of coming first?' 'Yes she has.'

4. Where the verb to be is the main verb in the previous sentence, we repeat a form of the verb be in
the second sentence

I am not walking up the mountain, but my brother is walking up the mountain.

Becomes the more concise

I am not walking up the mountain, but my brother is.

5. Where the verb to be is the auxiliary verb in the previous sentence, we can use a modal verb with
or without be and the second sentence is shortened to either of the two examples below.

Is Ella staying for dinner? Yes I think she is staying for dinner.
Here

Is Ella staying for dinner? Yes I think she will.

OR

Is Ella staying for dinner? Yes I think she will be.

6. Where the verb to be is the main verb or the auxiliary verb within a passive in the previous
sentence, we use a modal with be (which can't be left out).

The book was delivered within a week. The shop said it would be delivered within a week.

becomes

The book was delivered within a week. The shop said it would be.

7. Where have is the auxiliary verb, we can follow the auxiliary verb 'have' by 'done' in the second
sentence.

She has never made a mistake before. Well, she has made a mistake this time.

becomes

She has never made a mistake before. Well, she has (done) this time.

8. Where a modal auxiliary verb (can, could, may, might, must, ought to, shall, should, will, would) is
the auxiliary verb, we can use do (particularly in spoken English).

Will you see Tony tonight? I might see Tony tonight.

becomes

Will you see Tony tonight? I might (do).

Answered By: Rachel Willard

Last Updated: May 08, 2017 Views: 53583

Every complete sentence has a subject and a predicate. The subject is the element at the beginning of a
sentence that performs the action:

 The dog ran in circles.

 I stubbed my toe.

 His car would not start.

The predicate is what comes after the subject. In a simple sentence, the predicate can be just a verb
(the action happening in the sentence):

 She cried.

In the predicate, there may also be an object (the thing receiving the action):

 He kicked the ball.

In this example, he is the subject, and kicked the ball is the predicate, made up of a verb and an object.

Academic writing is often more complicated than this, but these are the essential building blocks. To
have a complete sentence, a writer must have a subject as well as a predicate that contains a verb.

The basic parts of a sentence fall into two cats: the subject and the predicate. Know them well, because
you can’t have a sentence without them!

Subjects

The subject performs the action of the sentence. It can be a noun, noun phrase, or noun clause.
To analyze sentences, grammarians have distinguished three kinds of subjects:

 Complete Subject - "The old, dusty books on the table haven't been read in years." The complete
subject includes the entire noun phrase -- usually everything before the verb.

 Simple Subject - "books". The simple subject is the main noun or pronoun stripped of all
modifiers.

 Compound Subject - "The cowardly mailman and the huge, barking dog didn't get along very
well." A compound subject consists of two or more subjects linked together by conjunctions.
Note: the simple subject of that sentence would be "mailman and dog".

See Sentence Subjects for a closer look at subjects and subject-verb inversion (placing a subject after the
verb in a sentence, as in “How is Bob?”).

Predicates
As with subjects, predicates can be classified as complete predicates, simple predicates, and compound
predicates; see this page in the UIUC Grammar Handbook for more. To form a complete sentence, the
predicate must include a verb (a finite verb, more specifically). It can also include objects, complements,
and adverbials.

Objects

The object is the receiver of the action in a sentence: “He broke the table” or “He threw the ball.” Like
subjects, objects can be any word or group of words functioning as a noun, and each type of object can
also be categorized as a complete, simple, or compound object. Categorized by their different functions
within a sentence, the three types of objects are:

 Direct Object - "I wrote a letter." (What did I write? A letter.)

 Indirect Object - "I wrote a letter to my friend." (Who did I write a letter to? My friend.)

 Prepositional Object - "I wrote on the paper." (What did I write on? The paper.) A thread on
EnglishForums.com discusses prepositional objects and their potential for confusion.

Complements

Complements (also called predicatives) complete the predicate by modifying a noun in the sentence;
copulas or linking verbs require a complement to form a complete sentence.

 Subject Complement - "The car is new." The subject complement follows a linking verb and
modifies the subject. It can be a predicate adjective (He is happy), a predicate noun (He is the
boss), or an adverbial complement (He is in the house).

 Object Complement - "I painted my room purple." The object complement modifies the direct
object, either by describing it or renaming it (They elected him governor). Object complements
can cause some confusion; check out this Pain in the English post. Also see Wikipedia's note on
Object Complements.

 Adjective Complement - "He was happy to help." The adjective complement is a special case in
which a group of words modifies an adjective. If removed, the adjective complement leaves a
grammatically complete sentence, but the meaning of the sentence changes. The CCC Guide to
Grammar and Writing explains the use of infinitive phrases as adjective complements. Note:
predicative adjectives are also sometimes called adjective complements.

 Verb Complement - Some grammarians use the term "verb complement" to refer to direct and
indirect objects (see the "Objects" section above), while others use it to refer to a complement
occuring after a linking verb (a subject complement).

Adverbials

An adverbial is an adverb, adverbial phrase, or adverbial clause: any word or group of words that acts as
an adverb within a sentence. They usually modify verbs, but they can also modify the whole sentence.
Unlike an adverbial complement (He is in the house), an adverbial isn’t needed to complete a sentence
(He had lunch in the house or He had lunch).
When a sentence is written, it can either be written in active voice or passive voice.

 Active voice is used when the subject performs the action stated by the verb.
For example: Tom changed the flat tire.

 Passive voice is used when the subject is acted upon by the verb.
For example: The tire was changed by Tom.

In most cases, writing sentences in passive voice is discouraged because it can obscure the subject of
the sentence and confuse the reader. It also creates a wordy and awkward sentence structure. Once
you learn how to change passive voice to active voice, it's one less thing you'll have to edit.

How to Change Voice from Passive to Active

In order to change passive voice to active voice, you need to recognize what the subject of the
sentence is and then rewrite the sentence so the subject is performing the action.

Let's use the following example to understand how to change passive voice to active voice:

 Extensive training on the new safety procedures was required to be attended by the maintenance
staff.

We can recognize that this sentence is in passive voice because the passive keyword "was" is used.
Also, it's not initially clear who or what the sentence is about.

In order to change the sentence from passive to active:

Step One: Identify the subject of the sentence - who is doing an action? The training is not doing an
action, so it can't be the subject. The only person or thing doing an action here is the maintenance
staff. They are attending training. So, the maintenance staff is the subject of the sentence.

Step Two: Rewrite the sentence so the subject is performing the action. This sentence could be
rewritten to active voice as follows:

 The maintenance staff had to attend extensive training on the new safety procedures.

This rewrite makes it immediately clear to the reader who is doing what. The subject is doing the
action.

Practice Changing Passive to Active Voice

Correct the following five sentences to practice changing passive to active voice:
(Answers are below.)
1. The jar is filled with sand.

2. Reading is enjoyed by Mary.

3. The town was destroyed by fire.

4. The room will be cleaned by John every Saturday.

5. Cheese was eaten by Sara.

Be in Control
Be more active. Sounds like something a parent would say to a child, right? Well, in a way, the
English language is a bit of a parental figure. It guides us in the right direction and has a consistent
set of rules to keep us out of trouble. To avoid the passive voice, remember some of those keywords
to watch out for.

In our very first example, "The tire was changed by Tom," "was" and "by" are both trigger words for
the passive voice. It's much clearer to be straightforward, and active, and say, "Tom changed the
tire."

Feel like you're getting the hang of it? That's great! This is one of the most important rules for
English writing. Before you close the book on the subject, read Active Voice Adds Impact to Your
Writing so you're fully in control of your sentence structure.

Answers to Practice Sentences

1. Sand filled the jar. (Sand is the subject, filled is the action)

2. Mary enjoys reading. (Mary is the subject, enjoys is the action)

3. Fire destroyed the town. (Fire is the subject, destroyed is the action)

4. John will clean the room every Saturday. (John is the subject, clean is the action)

5. Sara ate the cheese. (Sara is the subject, ate is the action)
Demonstratives and Possessives

October 8, 2010 -

Demonstratives

Demonstratives show where a person or thing is in relation to the speaker. There are four
demonstratives in English – this, that, these and those.

This and these are used to refer to a person or thing near the speaker. This is used with a singular noun.
These is used with a plural noun.

 This is my bag.

 This is my car.

 These are my books.

That and those are used to refer to a person / persons or thing / things further away from the speaker.
That is used with a singular noun. Those is used with a plural noun.

 That is an apple.

 Those are apples.

Position of demonstratives
Demonstratives can go in the following positions:
Before the noun.

 This tree is taller than that tree.

 This boy is smarter than that boy.

Before the word ‘one’.

This chair is larger than that one. (= This chair is larger than that chair.)

Before an adjective + noun.

I still remember that fateful day in February.

A demonstrative can be used alone when the noun is understood.

I will never forget that.

The Possessives

Possessives show who the thing belongs to. The possessive has two forms:

Possessive pronouns

Examples are: mine, yours, ours, theirs, his, hers and its

Possessive adjectives
Examples are: my, your, our, his, her, their and it.
Notes

The possessive adjectives are used to modify a noun.

 Jane is my father’s colleague.

 Susie is his friend.

The possessive pronouns can be the subject or the object of a verb or preposition.

 That car is mine. (NOT That car is my.)

 That is my car.

 This is my car. Where is yours? (NOT Where is your?

Clause Definition: A clause consists of a subject and a verb and is the smallest grammatical unit that
expresses a thought.

What is a Clause in a Sentence?

What is a clause? In its simplest form, a clause in grammar is a subject plus a verb. The subject is the
entity “doing” the action of the sentence and the verb is the action that subject completes. A clause
creates a complete thought (an idea or a statement that can stand alone).

A complete thought is also called a main clause or independent clause (IC).

Examples of clauses:

 Subject + verb. = complete thought (IC)

 I eat. = complete thought (IC)

 Sharon speaks. = complete thought (IC)

A clause may include the verb predicate as well. But, it must include at least the subject and verb to be
considered a clause.

Examples of clauses:

 Subject + verb (predicate). = complete thought (IC)

 I eat bananas. = complete thought (IC)

 Sharon speaks loudly. = complete thought (IC)

It should be noted, too, that a clause in a sentence is different from a phrase in that it must contain a
subject and a verb.

What is an Independent Clause?

Independent clause definition: An independent clause can stand alone in a sentence. It contains a
subject and a verb in its smallest form. A clause may also include modifiers and a verb predicate. It is a
complete thought and the smallest unit of grammar that is syntactically accurate.

Example of Independent Clauses:

 Subject + verb (predicate). = complete thought (IC)

 I eat bananas. = complete thought (IC)

 Sharon speaks loudly. = complete thought (IC)

In writing, words and modifiers can be rearranged in independent clauses to create interest.
Example of Independent Clauses:

 I eat bananas in the kitchen.

 In the kitchen, I eat.

Here, “I eat” is the subject and verb. An object (“bananas”) and a prepositional phrase (“in the kitchen”)
have been added to the clause to make it more specific. The entire sentence is an independent clause
because it is a complete thought statement.

Outside Examples of Independent Clauses:

 While Uber says it is profitable in the US, Lyft has reportedly told investors it will lose $50 million
a month this year. –New York Post

In the above example, Lyft has reportedly told investors it will lose $50 million a month this year is an
independent clause.

For more information on independent clauses, click here.

What is a Dependent Clauses?

Dependent clause definition: Dependent

clauses contain a subject and verb. However, they cannot stand alone as an independent thought. They
must be joined with an independent clause to be grammatically correct.

Example of Dependent Clause:

 Every night before I go to bed, I eat bananas.

This example contains the IC, “I eat bananas.” However, a dependent clause now opens the sentence.
While the dependent clause contains a subject and a verb (“I go”), the dependent clause itself cannot
stand alone a complete thought.

Example of Dependent Clause:

 Every night before I go to bed

This is not a complete thought and therefore not a sentence in English. Every night before I go to
bed…what happens? This idea must be joined with an independent clause to be grammatically correct.

Outside Examples of Dependent Clauses:

 While American forces will not be leading the ground war in Syria, they will be involved in
military operations and working without proper authorization from Congress. –The New York
Times
In the above example, While American forces will not be leading the ground war in Syria is a dependent
clause.
Communication is often defined as an exchange of information. Exchange involves at
least one sender and one receiver so true communication thus infers a two way process;
a dialogue, not a monologue. Information can involve text, voice, pictures and in fact
any data which the human body can pick up through its five senses including emotion.

Internal communications can be defined as the direct two way communications between
employers and their staff. Effective internal communication – which can be said to be
“downward, upward and horizontal”, is a vital means of addressing organisational
concerns.

Effective internal communication has been shown to help improve employee

engagement through; increased job satisfaction, safety and decreased absenteeism,
grievances and staff turnover. Such improvements are linked to improved productivity
and overall profitability.

Effective internal communications is all about enabling us to do our jobs to the best of
our ability and ensuring that all of us are working together towards the same
organisational goals.

This can mean anything from encouraging you to talk to and exchange ideas with
people from other departments to explaining the direction that we are heading in as set
out by the University’s decision-making bodies. We use a series of communications
channels and tools to keep you informed and give us the chance to listen to your
opinions. (prof. A.P Krishnan)

Why is internal communication so important?

Because clear, concise, and consistent communications educate employees, enabling
them to appreciate the value of their organisations vision, programs or projects and is a
significant element in engaging the employees keeping them focused, productive and
committed.

The contribution that clear and effective channels of communication can make to an
organisation is substantial, not least in enlisting employees’ support for business
objectives, aligning everyone’s activities and providing some motivation to raise
performance levels. Where appropriate mechanisms are in place, employees are also
more likely to engage with the organisational values and objectives offering feedback
and coming forward with ideas.

Internal communication is more than the art and technique of effectively imparting
thoughts, information, and ideas to large numbers of people. It has become the single,
most important element that enables an organisation to share their vision and galvanise
their work force to action that moves the organisation forward.( Lyn Smith,)
Rate this definition:

1. Advice
Advice is a form of relating personal or institutional opinions, belief systems, values,
recommendations or guidance about certain situations relayed in some context to another
person, group or party often offered as a guide to action and/or conduct. Put a little more
simply, an advice message is a recommendation about what might be thought, said, or
otherwise done to address a problem, make a decision, or manage a situation. Advice is
believed to be theoretical, and is often considered taboo as well as helpful. The kinds of
advice can range from systems of instructional and practical toward more esoteric and
spiritual, and is often attributable toward problem solving, strategy seeking, and solution
finding, either from a social standpoint or a personal one. Advice may pertain to
relationships, lifestyle changes, legal choices, business goals, personal goals, career goals,
education goals, religious beliefs, personal growth, motivation, inspiration and so on. Advice
is not pertinent to any solid criteria, and may be given freely, or only given when asked upon.
In some cultures advice is socially unacceptable to be released unless requested. In other
cultures advice is given more openly. It may, especially if it is expert advice such as legal
advice or methodological advice also be given only in exchange for payment.
Chambers 20th Century Dictionary(3.00 / 3 votes)

1. Deliver it for the Right Reason

First things first, it's not about you, it's about the person you're talking to. In my
experience, providing truly useful advice starts by coming from a selfless place. If you
have ulterior motives, stop while you're ahead. Second, you need to keep it real. Using
real-life experience versus anecdotes or third-party tips can make your advice that
much stronger. If the person seeking advice likes what they hear, you can dive deeper
into the subject and your own experience to make it that much more meaningful.

ADVERTISING

2. Read the Room

Determine whether the person you're talking to is open to receiving your advice. Is
she asking for it? No, literally, is she asking for it? If not, go back to step one and just
re-confirm. If yes, make sure you're listening to the question so you can deliver the
best answer or point her in a direction that'll help her further. If there's no concrete
question, assess her body language. Is she leaning into your conversation, does she
seem engaged, eager to hear what you have to say? Paying attention to the situation
can help you both come out ahead.

3. Understand Your Target

By knowing who you're talking to and how he listens or receives feedback, you can
structure your advice in a way that will resonate. Does this person prefer anecdotes,
personal stories, short takeaways, specific examples, or fuller context? Do you need
visuals to help get your point across? What state of mind is he in--crisis mode or
planning mode? All of this information makes a difference. If it means connecting on
a personal level first to get a grasp of the person you're dishing advice to, that's fine.
You might find that it helps you structure what you're going to say accordingly.

4. Keep it Brief
Just in case you're providing unsolicited advice and you've read your target wrong, err
on the side of brevity. Don't go on and on. Simply give the topline takeaway, and wait
for a cue that more would be welcome. If the person wants more or would like you to
elaborate on what you're saying, believe me, she'll ask. If she doesn't, you'll get a
thank you, after which both of you can move on.

5. Know Your Expertise

This might be a given, but don't give advice if you don't really know what you're
talking about. Be candid with that fact and point the person in the right direction or
connect him with someone who is an expert on the topic at hand. He'll appreciate not
only that you haven't wasted his time but that you've moved him one step closer to
what he's seeking.
Good advice can come from anywhere. But to make it worthwhile, you need to make
sure it's relevant and that the person you're talking to actually wants to receive it.
Once you learn how to read the situation and offer your helpful thoughts accordingly,
you'll be one step closer to being a respected resource and trusted advisor.
PUBLISHED ON: JUN 16, 2016

More from Inc.

Sponsored Business Content

IFOREXTry Forex Trading! Learn how to turn $1000 into $7000 in one month!

MITSUBISHI ELECTRICPartnering India's Dream To Be No.1

THE AICGoing Green

LATAM INVESTORNow is a Great Time to Invest in Latin American Mining

Personal Barriers

Definition: The Personal Barriers relate to the factors that are personal to the sender and receiver and
act as a hindrance in the communication process. These factors include the life experiences, emotions,
attitudes, behavior that hinders the ability of a person to communicate.

The most common personal barriers are:

1. Lack of Listening Skills: The efficiency of communication process gets disturbed when the
receiver listens only with ears but do not apply his mind. Often, the receiver listens what he
wants to listen and give no attention to other aspects of the information, thereby acting as a
hindrance to the effective communication.

2. Selective Attention: This problem arises when the person is impatient and put his objective
above all. He gives ears to only that part of the information which is helpful for him and fulfills
his objective and ignores all the other aspects.

3. Lack of knowledge: Also, the communication process suffers if the sender and receiver have less
knowledge about the subject matter.

4. Lack of vocabulary: Often, the communication problem arises when the sender uses some
words which are difficult for the receiver to comprehend correctly.

In the organizational context, both the superiors and the subordinates have their personal barriers that
impede them to communicate effectively. These barriers are:
Barriers Related to the Superiors in the organization

1. Less faith in subordinates: Often, the superiors have a lack of confidence in the subordinates
and, therefore, doubt on their capacity to provide relevant information. They deliberately ignore
the suggestions and recommendations from the subordinates and discourages them to further
communicate. This lowers the morale of the employees and hinders the communication
process.

2. Fear of challenge of Authority: There is a fear in the minds of the superiors that if they will not
perform in line with their authority, they will be demoted to the lower levels. And, thus in order
to maintain their level they intentionally hide their weaknesses by not communicating their
ideas to others.

Barriers related to the subordinates in the organization

1. Lack of Incentives: Often, the subordinates give their suggestions and recommendations with an
objective to earn incentives. The incentives are given to the subordinates to motivate them to
give suggestions and to acknowledge their suggestions as important for the success of the
organization. If there is a lack of incentives, then the subordinate is not likely to communicate
and hence the communication process gets adversely affected.

2. Unwillingness to communicate with the Superiors: Often the subordinates do not communicate
with their superiors with an intention to conceal the information which is of a negative nature
and can have an adverse effect. If the subordinate is required to inform his superior then, he
modifies the information in such a way that it does not have a negative impact. Thus, by not
providing the information in its actual form, the communication process is tempered.

Thus, there are several personal factors, varying from person to person, influences the communication
to a great extent and might obstruct the purpose for which the communication was intended
Nonverbal communication is the process of sending and receiving messages without
using words, either spoken or written. Also called manual language. Similar to the
way that italicizing emphasizes written language, nonverbal behavior may emphasize
parts of a verbal message.
The term nonverbal communication was introduced in 1956 by psychiatrist Jurgen
Ruesch and author Weldon Kees in the book "Nonverbal Communication: Notes on
the Visual Perception of Human Relations."
Nonverbal messages have been recognized for centuries as a critical aspect of
communication. For instance, in "The Advancement of Learning" (1605), Francis
Bacon observed that "the lineaments of the body do disclose the disposition and
inclination of the mind in general, but the motions of the countenance and parts do .
. . further, disclose the present humour and state of the mind and will."
LEGAL ASPECTS OF BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
In all of business communication every possible care should be taken. Even a
single carelessly chosen word may lead of a lawsuit. When we communicate
with integrity and honest consideration for our reader, and with a golden we are
legally safe. Golden rules refer to do to the others as you wish to be done by.
You should remember that ignorance of the law is no excuse. You should be
aware of changing laws from time to time, which are warranted, by changing
social and business conditions. From the legal viewpoint it is not surprising that
even true statement may lead to legal action while some untrue statements are
harmless.
In the following areas a communicator should be very careful to avoid any legal
risk:
1. Defamation
2. Invasion of privacy
3. Fraud
4. Credit, collection, and employment
5. Other areas of caution
1. 1. CYBER APPELLATE TRIBUNAL SUBMITTED TO: Ms. Divya Sharma
2. 2. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This Project is a golden opportunity for learning and self development. I
consider myself very lucky and honored to be part of this project. My grateful thanks to Prof. Divya
Sharma, who in spite of being extraordinary busy with her duties, took time out to hear, guide and keep me
on correct path. I do not know where would I have been without her. She was always so involved in the
entire process, shared her knowledge, and encouraged me to think. Last but not the least there was so many
who shared valuable information that helped in the successful completion of this project. ANKITA
SHARMA BE IT 4TH SEM SG-12808
3. 3. INTRODUCTION  Cyber Appellate Tribunal has been established under the Information Technology
Act under the aegis of Controller of Certifying Authorities (C.C.A.).  The first and the only Cyber
Appellate Tribunal in the country has been established by the Central Government in accordance with the
provisions contained under Section 48(1) of the Information Technology Act, 2000.  The Central
Government shall also specify, in the notification referred to in sub-section (1), the matters and places in
relation to which the Cyber Appellate Tribunal may exercise jurisdiction.
4. 4. CONSTITUTION PROCEDURE & POWERS JURISDICTION
5. 5. CONSTITUTION  A Cyber Appellate Tribunal shall consist of one person only (hereinafter referred to
as the Presiding Officer of the Cyber Appellate Tribunal) to be appointed, by notification, by the Central
Government.  A person shall not be qualified for appointment as the Presiding Officer of a Cyber
Appellate Tribunal unless he-(a) is, or has been, or is qualified to be, a Judge of a High Court;or; is or has
been a member of the Indian Legal Service and is holding or has held a post in Grade I of that Service for
at least three years.
6. 6.  No order of the Central Government appointing any person as the Presiding Officer of a Cyber
Appellate Tribunal shall be called in question in any manner and no act or proceeding before a Cyber
Appellate Tribunal shall be called in question in any manner on the ground merely of any defect in the
constitution of a Cyber Appellate Tribunal.  Staff of the Cyber Appellate Tribunal: (1) The Central
Government shall provide the Cyber Appellate Tribunal with such officer and employees as that
Government may think fit. (2) The officers and employees of the Cyber Appellate Tribunal shall discharge
their functions under general superintendence of the Presiding Officer. (3) The salaries, allowances and
other conditions of service of the officers and employees of the Cyber Appellate Tribunal shall be such as
may be prescribed by the Central Government.
7. 7. JURISDICTION  Appeal to Cyber Appellate Tribunal : (1) Save as provided in sub-section (2), any
person aggrieved by an order made by Controller or an adjudicating officer under this Act may prefer an
appeal to a Cyber Appellate Tribunal jurisdiction in the matter. (2) No appeal shall lie to the Cyber
Appellate Tribunal from an order made by an adjudicating officer with the consent of the parties. (3) Every
appeal under sub-section (1) shall be filed within a period of forty-five days from the date on which a copy
of the order made by the Controller or the adjudicating officer is received by the person aggrieved and it
shall be in such form as prescribed.
8. 8.  Appeal to High Court: Any person aggrieved by any decision or order of the Cyber Appellate Tribunal
may file an appeal to the High Court within sixty days from the date of communication of the decision or
order of the Cyber Appellate Tribunal to him on any question of fact or law arising out of such order :
Provided that the High Court may, if it is satisfied that the appellant was prevented by sufficient cause from
filing the appeal within the said period, allow it to be filed within a further period not exceeding sixty days.
 The appellant may either appear in person or authorise one or more legal practitioners or any of its
officers to present his or its case before the Cyber Appellate Tribunal.  No court shall have jurisdictions
to entertain any suit or proceeding in respect of any matter which an adjudicating officer appointed under
this Act or the Cyber Appellate Tribunal constituted under this Act is empowered by or under this Act to
determine and no injunction shall be granted by any court or other authority in respect of any action taken
or to be taken in pursuance of any power conferred by or under this Act.
9. 9. PROCEDURE & POWER  (1) The Cyber Appellate Tribunal shall not be bound by the procedure laid
down by the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908 but shall be guided by the principles of natural justice and,
subject to the other provisions of this Act and of any rules, the Cyber Appellate Tribunal shall have powers
to regulate its own procedure including the place at which it shall have its sitting.  (2) The Cyber
Appellate Tribunal shall have, for the purposes of discharging its functions under this Act, the same powers
as are vested in a civil court under the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908, while trying a suit, in respect of the
following matters, namely : -  (a) summoning and enforcing the attendance of any person and examining
him on oath;  (b) requiring the discovery and production of documents or other electronic records;
10. 10.  (c) receiving evidence on affidavits;  (d) issuing commissions for the examination of witnesses of
documents;  (e) reviewing its decisions;  (f) dismissing an application for default or deciding it ex parte;
 (g) any other matter which may be prescribed.  Every proceeding before the Cyber Appellate Tribunal
shall be deemed to be a judicial proceeding within the meaning of sections 193 and 228, and for the
purpose of section 196 of the Indian Penal Code and the Cyber Appellate Tribunal shall be deemed to be a
civil court for the purposes of section 195 and Chapter XXVI of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973.
11. 11. SUMMARY To encourage people to transact through electronic commerce. To consider and decide
the validity/legal propriety of the orders passed by the Adjudicating officers. To spread awareness about
the Cyber Appellate Tribunal mechanism for redressing the grievances of the aggrieved party against the
orders of the adjudicating officers appointed under IT Act 2000 and 2008.
Types of System : Physical or Abstract : Physical system is tangible entities that may
be static or dynamic in nature. Abstract system is conceptual or non-physical. The
abstract is conceptualization of physical situations.
Open and Closed : An open system continually interacts with its environment. It receives
input from the outside and delivers output to outside. A closed system is isolated from
environment influences.
Sub System and Super System : Each system is part of a large system. The business
firm is viewed as the system or total system when focus is on production, distribution of
goal and sources of profit and income.
The total system consists of all the objects, attributes and relationship necessary to
accomplish an objective given a number of constraints. Sub systems are the smaller
systems within a system. Super system denotes extremely large and complex system
Permanent and Temporary System : A permanent system is a system enduring for a
time span that is long relative to the operation of human. Temporary system is one having
a short time span.
Natural and Man Made System : System which is made by man is called man made
system. Systems which are in the environment made by nature are called natural system.
Deterministic and Probabilistic : A Deterministic system is one in which the occurrence
of all events is perfectly predictable. If we get the description of the system state at a
particular time, the next state can be easily predicted. Probabilistic system is one in which
the occurrence of events cannot be perfectly predicted.
Man-made Information System : It is generally believed that the information reduces
uncertainty about a state or event. An information system is the basis for interaction
between the user and the analyst. It determines the nature of relationship among decision
makers.
An information system may be defined as a set of devices, procedures and operating
system designed around user-base criteria to produce information and communicating it
to the user for planning control and performance.
The main function of the CPU is processing instructions given to the computer. This is why the
CPU is known as the "brain" of the PC. Every operation that is carried out, including key strokes,
opening and closing programs, and saving files, is carried out by the CPU. This function is
separated into four functions or steps for every operation: fetch, decode, execute and store.

Typically, the main parts of a CPU responsible for carrying out the operations are the
arithmetical logical unit and the control unit. The ALU carries out arithmetic and logical
operations and makes decisions, whereas the CU fetches, decodes and executes processes.

The most popular CPU manufacturers are AMD and Intel. Initially, a CPU contained only one
processor; then, Intel came up with the dual-core processor, a CPU containing two processors,
also known as two cores. For over two decades both Intel and AMD have continued to develop
and produce multiple core processors. These are quad core, hexa core and octo core, or four, six
and eight cores, respectively.

Other characteristics for functional performance of a CPU are the clock speed and the number of
instructions it can perform in a second.
Gartner coined the term “enterprise resource planning” in 1990. ERP is
preceded by Material Requirements Planning (MRP), developed by IBM
engineer Joseph Orlicky as a system for calculating the materials and
components needed to manufacture a product.

In 1983, management expert Oliver Wight developed an extension of MRP

called MRP II, which broadened the planning process using a method that
integrated operational and financial planning. MRP II added other production
processes, such as product design and capacity planning.

ERP emerged as an expansion of MRP II, extending its scope beyond

manufacturing to cover business processes such as accounting, human
resources and supply chain management, all managed from a single,
centralized database.

ERP has expanded to encompass a growing set of business-critical

applications, such as business intelligence, sales force automation (SFA) and
marketing automation. While MRP and MRP II applied to the manufacturing
industry, ERP is used by a wide range of industries today.

ERP Implementation : The 12 Step Process

1. Define Scope of Implementation and End Objectives

2. Select an ERP System.

3. Create the Project plan.

4. Define phases of Implementation.

5. Make urgent but achievable Schedule.

6. Make a Communication Plan.

7. Arrange mid-way Approvals.

8. Plan your Testing.

9. Migrate Business Data

10. Prepare for the change

11. Plan your Go-Live

12. Support and Maintenance

1. Identify the problems / Set the objective(s)
ERP provides a vast solution to many issues faced by companies. However, it
is very important to identify the real objective for implementing ERP. The
question is less about “should we implement” and but more about “what
should ERP be implemented for”. The Key Performance Indicators (KPI)
have to be analyzed in order to understand the necessity of the software
intervention. Key objectives are necessary; not only with respect to the
present but also because future projections are included in the requisition list,
which allows a business to factor in the scalability and accommodating
changes in the future of the business/industry. So again, it is essential to
identify the problem or the exact necessity motivating the ERP.
2. Define scope/team
The objectives can be many, ranging from bringing in the transparency of
operations to having financial control, supporting organic expansion,
supporting acquisition or supporting common processes. As per Panorama
study, 61.1% of ERP implementations take longer than expected and
74.1% of ERP projects exceed budget. The primary cause of the delays and
over budgeting is the unclear definition of the ERP requirement. The ERP
features must be evaluated in accordance with the barometer of
synchronization within the needs of company. Depending upon the budget
and core necessity, the ERP demand list should be generated which achieves
a smooth and hurdle less ERP implementation.
3. Brainstorm/evaluate the options
As per Capterra, approximately 33% of ERP buyers did not demo a
product before buying it and approximately 22% of companies surveyed
reported they bought the first system they looked at. These are dangerous
statistics, not only for those who implement the ERP but also for the vendors,
as optimal utilization of ERP software remains a dream. For successful
utilization of ERP software, the management of the company has to invest its
time in evaluating the options available. In the 2015 ERP report, it was found
that 93% of the companies customized their ERP software to some degree
according to their intended use. The customization could sometimes lead to
an increase in the failure of the ERP system as it may increase the
complexities. The organization needs to understand the difference between
ERP package configuration and customization clearly because many times
the requirement is fulfilled by the purchased of the ERP system and no
customization is needed. Evaluating ERP options is a very important task, as
options are to be evaluated based on current needs, as well as against future
requirements. New additions, like cloud ERP solution or SaaS ERP, are the
current preference of customers, as these options –are available in different
scope and flexibilities to accommodate future requirements. Thus, a company
needs to brainstorm with the ERP vendors/ consultants to bring in the best
system in the organization.
4. Data migration
Once an ERP solution is identified, the next biggest and most important step
is of data migration, which provides for a smooth transition and future
utilization of the software. Implementing an ERP can be a huge change,
especially if the company is trying the software for the first time. Identifying
which data are necessary for successful transition to the common software
problem is very important. Most software allows the input of data but entire
data shifting may burden the software. Therefore, only the necessary and
most important data should be transferred to the software, and great care
should be taken to ensure that the data is retrieved from the software,
whenever required.
5. Check infrastructure
Preparing the company for the ERP implementation is at the core of all of the
steps of ERP implementation and plays a vital role in the process, be it a
success or failure. After detailed brainstorming between the vendor and its
management, the requisite infrastructure is installed. According to Mint
Jutras, 23% are unable to grow their business as quickly as they would
like and believe this to be because they lack the tools they need in their
current ERP system. The infrastructure on which the software will run, has to
have the scope of scalability along with options to update as per the
demand. Such requirement should not be limited.
6. Customization
ERP software is designed after a significant amount of research and
according to the needs of the specific industry. In some cases, there may be
no need for the customization. Implementing an ERP solution is a big
investment decision by the company involving a large pool of resources,
therefore, management has to continuously maintain tabs on the ERP
software and maintenance schedule. During the pilot testing, management has
to evaluate the realization of the value of the system against the desired value
of the company. One should have a check on the system adopted by the
company since its inception – so long as the company is following best
practices OR it un-follows some unconventional/old methods regarding the
ERP being fit-as-it-is-bought? These questions should be answered prior to
customization as there is a chance that even before understanding the
software, the system and making positive changes, and the need may never
arise to customize the software.
7. Change management
Employees of any company are accustomed to the same kind of activities
performed through a defined process in their daily routine and any changes
may not be easily-accepted, especially when it is something as influential as
ERP and that is when Change Management becomes crucial. ERP is not a
fixed asset like a computer which is purchased and set up in the company
office; it's actually a system that would change the environment and the
working-style for the better, which affects not only one or two operations but
all. Management should involve their employees and prepare them mentally
to answer the critical questions like - Why is it important for the organization
to include ERP? OR How would an ERP boost productivity? OR How would
an ERP automate back-office functions and save time? A series of
brainstorming sessions, updates on related developments and resolving
queries would build employees' confidence and prepare them to welcome the
good change with open arms. Change is for one and all and communicating
this positively to the employees will make things easier as an ERP can only
provide optimal results when every employee accepts the change. Therefore,
care must be taken to ensure a smooth, yet successful transition by building
employee consensus and confidence.
8. Technology & Knowledge Transfer
21% of ERP implementations fail to deliver significant business benefits.
The reasons vary, starting with improper customization for non-optimal
software utilization resulting from ill-trained personnel operating/feeding
data to the solution. Training is the most important aspect of the ERP
software implementation process. It ensures there are fewer issues and more
success, especially when ERP is implemented for the first time in the
company or when the platform is changed from one ERP solution to another.
The company’s management must ensure proper vendor detailing and
technological know-how to the company’s in-house IT support staff. Proper
use of technology and an effective knowledge transfer, along with proper
training should be considered since they are the parties responsible for the
entire project's success. Considering the consultant to be a part of the project
would not only assist in a smooth and unhurdled operation, but would also
reduce the time gap between the untimely glitch and the solution.
9. Project management and Testing
After evaluation of all available options, selecting the best-suited and then
training the employees, the real aspect of implementation is the project
implementation itself. According to a Panorama Research study, 40% of
ERP implementations cause major operational disruptions after go-live;
therefore, proper implementation is imperative. The rigidity may backfire
since there are a lot of time gaps between the processes of selection,
evaluation and implementation. . There is also a lateral improvisation which
should be incorporated. Simultaneously, the core objective should not be
diluted or changed. Testing is an important phase of the implementation
process, which takes care of system and user acceptance testing.
10. Final touch (go live) & on-going support
Once the ERP solution is properly-checked and implemented, it is the time to
go live. It is advisable to pursue one additional functionality test, just as a
safety precaution. An ERP solution is not a one-time event, but rather a
continuous process. It is something that the company has to continuously
keep tabs on to avoid any aberrations or systemic glitches which could affect
the ERP software functionality. Finally, regular vendor software updates
are one of the solution requirements upon completion of implementation.
Maintenance must also be periodically performed as an aspect of
ongoing support, which helps ensure a smooth, functioning solution.
Definition - What does Trackball mean?
A trackball is an input device which comprises of a exposed protruding ball held by a socket
having sensors for detecting the ball's rotation.

There are usually one or two buttons provided with a trackball that have the same capability as
click buttons on a mouse. Unlike other input devices which needs movement like the mouse, a
trackball is stationary and does not require much space. It can also work on most surfaces which
is a great advantage compared to other input devices.

[Free eBook] An Introduction to Microsoft Azure and the Microsoft Cloud | Throughout
this guide, you will learn what cloud computing is all about and how Microsoft Azure can
help you to migrate and run your business from the cloud.

Techopedia explains Trackball

While working with a trackball, the arm and wrist motion are less compared to working with a
mouse. The physical strain is less as well. Controlling of the trackball is done using thumbs,
fingers or the palm of the hand. As precision control is more pronounced in case of a trackball,
it's more popular for certain applications like gaming.

Advantages of using a trackball are:

 Less work surface is required for trackball to function.

 As it's stationary, the trackball allows continuous and fast scrolling and does not require
repositioning.
 Precision control is more the case of the trackball. Ergonomic advantages are more
pronounced trackballs.
 Unlike other input devices, trackballs require only minimal cleaning

Disadvantages of using a trackball are:

 Compared to mouse, trackballs are physically larger.

 As they are little more expensive, the selection is not as broad as other input devices.
 The five primary steps in problem-solving are:
1. Analyzing the factors or causes contributing to the unwanted situation

In order to solve a problem, you must first figure out what caused it. This requires
that you gather and evaluate data, isolate possible contributing circumstances, and
pinpoint the chief causal factors that need to be addressed in order to resolve the
problem.
Required Skills:

 Active Listening
 Data Gathering
 Data Analysis
 Fact Finding
 Historical Analysis
 Causal Analysis
 Process Analysis
 Needs Identification
Examples: Diagnosing Illnesses, Identifying the Causes for Social Problems,
Interpreting Data to Determine the Scope of Problems, Pinpointing Behaviors
Contributing to Marital Distress, Recognizing Invalid Research Models
2. Generating a set of alternative interventions to achieve your end goal

Once you’ve determined what is causing a problem, it’s time to come up with
possible alternative solutions. Sometimes this involves teamwork, since two (or
more) minds are often better than one. It’s rare that a single strategy is the obvious
route to solving a complex problem; devising a set of alternatives helps you to cover
your bases and reduce your risk exposure should the first strategy you implement
fail.
Required Skills:

 Brainstorming
 Creative Thinking
 Prediction
 Forecasting
 Project Design
 Project Planning
 Examples: Brainstorming Solutions, Developing Treatment Plans, Devising and
Testing Hypotheses
3. Evaluating the best solutions

Depending upon the nature of the problem and your chain of command,
evaluating the best solutions may be performed by assigned teams, team leads, or
forwarded upward to major corporate decision makers. Whoever makes the decision
must evaluate potential costs, required resources, and possible barriers to
successful solution implementation.
Required Skills:

 Analysis
 Discussion
 Corroboration
 Teamwork
 Test Development
 Mediation
 Prioritizing
Examples: Evaluating Alternative Strategies for Reducing Stress, Proposing
Diplomatic Solutions to Border Disputes, Selecting Employees to Lay Off During a
Business Downturn, Troubleshooting Computer Malfunctions
4. Implementing a plan

Once a course of action has been decided upon, it must be implemented, along with
benchmarks that can quickly and accurately determine whether it’s working to solve
a problem. Plan implementation also typically involves alerting personnel to changes
in their standard operating procedures (SOPs).
Required Skills:
 Project Management
 Project Implementation
 Collaboration
 Time Management
 Benchmark Development
Examples: Anticipating Obstacles to Implementation, Implementing Solutions,
Mediating Interpersonal Conflicts, Repairing Malfunctioning Machinery
 5. Assessing the effectiveness of your interventions

Once a solution is implemented, the best problem-solvers have systems in place to

ascertain if and how quickly it’s working. This way, they know as soon as possible
whether the issue has been resolved or, alternatively, whether they’ll have to change
their response to the problem mid-stream.
Required Skills:
 Communication
 Data Analysis
 Surveys
 Customer Feedback
 Follow-through
 Troubleshooting
C Language Basics

 Home

 Learn

 C Program Examples

 Need Help?

C Tokens

Updated March 21, 2019 · 3 Comments

In a passage of text, individual words and punctuation marks are called tokens or lexical units. Similarly,
the smallest individual unit in a c program is known as a token or a lexical unit.

C tokens can be classified as follows:

1. Keywords

2. Identifiers

3. Constants

4. Strings

5. Special Symbols

6. Operators

C Keywords

C keywords are the words that convey a special meaning to the c compiler. The keywords cannot be
used as variable names because by doing so, we are trying to assign a new meaning to the keyword
which is not allowed.

The list of C keywords is given below:

auto break cas

continue default do

enum extern floa

 if int lon

short signed size

switch typedef uni

volatile while

C Identifiers

Identifiers are used as the general terminology for the names of variables, functions and arrays. These
are user defined names consisting of arbitrarily long sequence of letters and digits with either a letter or
the underscore(_) as a first character.

There are certain rules that should be followed while naming c identifiers:

 They must begin with a letter or underscore(_).

 They must consist of only letters, digits, or underscore. No other special character is allowed.

 It should not be a keyword.

 It must not contain white space.

 It should be up to 31 characters long as only first 31 characters are significant.

Some examples of c identifiers:

Name Remark

_A9 Valid

Temp.var Invalid as it contains special charac

void Invalid as it is a keyword

C Constants
C constants refers to the data items that do not change their value during the program execution.
Several types of C constants that are allowed in C are:

1. Integer Constants

Integer constants are whole numbers without any fractional part. It must have at least one digit and may
contain either + or – sign. A number with no sign is assumed to be positive.

There are three types of integer constants:

1.1. Decimal Integer Constants

Integer constants consisting of a set of digits, 0 through 9, preceded by an optional – or + sign.

Example of valid decimal integer constants

341, -341, 0, 8972

1.2. Octal Integer Constants

Integer constants consisting of sequence of digits from the set 0 through 7 starting with 0 is said to be
octal integer constants.

Example of valid octal integer constants

010, 0424, 0, 0540

1.3. Hexadecimal Integer Constants

Hexadecimal integer constants are integer constants having sequence of digits preceded by 0x or 0X.
They may also include alphabets from A to F representing numbers 10 to 15.

Example of valid hexadecimal integer constants

0xD, 0X8d, 0X, 0xbD

It should be noted that, octal and hexadecimal integer constants are rarely used in programming.

2. Real Constants

The numbers having fractional parts are called real or floating point constants. These may be
represented in one of the two forms called fractional form or the exponent form and may also have
either + or – sign preceding it.

Example of valid real constants in fractional form or decimal notation

0.05, -0.905, 562.05, 0.015

Representing a real constant in exponent form

The general format in which a real number may be represented in exponential or scientific form is

mantissa e exponent

The mantissa must be either an integer or a real number expressed in decimal notation.
The letter e separating the mantissa and the exponent can also be written in uppercase i.e. E
And, the exponent must be an integer.
Examples of valid real constants in exponent form are:
252E85, 0.15E-10, -3e+8

3. Character Constants

A character constant contains one single character enclosed within single quotes.

Examples of valid character constants

‘a’ , ‘Z’, ‘5’

It should be noted that character constants have numerical values known as ASCII values, for example,
the value of ‘A’ is 65 which is its ASCII value.

Escape Characters/ Escape Sequences

C allows us to have certain non graphic characters in character constants. Non graphic characters are
those characters that cannot be typed directly from keyboard, for example, tabs, carriage return, etc.

These non graphic characters can be represented by using escape sequences represented by a
backslash() followed by one or more characters.

NOTE: An escape sequence consumes only one byte of space as it represents a single character.

Escape Sequence D

a A

b B

f F

n N

r C

t H
 v V

\ B

“ D

‘ S

? Q

String Constants

String constants are sequence of characters enclosed within double quotes. For example,
“hello”
“abc”
“hello911”

Every sting constant is automatically terminated with a special character ” called the null character
which represents the end of the string.

For example, “hello” will represent “hello” in the memory.

Thus, the size of the string is the total number of characters plus one for the null character.

Special Symbols

The following special symbols are used in C having some special meaning and thus, cannot be used for
some other purpose.

[] () {} , ; : * … = #

Braces{}: These opening and ending curly braces marks the start and end of a block of code containing
more than one executable statement.

Parentheses(): These special symbols are used to indicate function calls and function parameters.

Brackets[]: Opening and closing brackets are used as array element reference. These indicate single and
multidimensional subscripts.
C Operators

C operators are symbols that triggers an action when applied to C variables and other objects. The data
items on which operators act upon are called operands.

Depending on the number of operands that an operator can act upon, operators can be classified as
follows:

1. Unary Operators: Those operators that require only single operand to act upon are known as
unary operators.

2. Binary Operators: Those operators that require two operands to act upon are called binary
operators.

3. Ternary Operators: These operators requires three operands to act upon.

Boolean Expressions
A Boolean expression always produces a Boolean value. A Boolean expression is
composed of a combination of the Boolean constants (True or False), Boolean variables
and logical connectives. Each Boolean expression represents a Boolean function.
Example − AB′CAB′C is a Boolean expression.

Boolean Identities
Double Complement Law

∼(∼A)=A∼(∼A)=A

Complement Law

A+∼A=1A+∼A=1 (OR Form)

A.∼A=0A.∼A=0 (AND Form)

Idempotent Law

A+A=AA+A=A (OR Form)

A.A=AA.A=A (AND Form)

Identity Law

A+0=AA+0=A (OR Form)

A.1=AA.1=A (AND Form)

Dominance Law

A+1=1A+1=1 (OR Form)

A.0=0A.0=0 (AND Form)

Commutative Law

A+B=B+AA+B=B+A (OR Form)

A.B=B.AA.B=B.A (AND Form)

Associative Law

A+(B+C)=(A+B)+CA+(B+C)=(A+B)+C (OR Form)

A.(B.C)=(A.B).CA.(B.C)=(A.B).C (AND Form)

Absorption Law

A.(A+B)=AA.(A+B)=A
A+(A.B)=AA+(A.B)=A

Simplification Law

A.(∼A+B)=A.BA.(∼A+B)=A.B
A+(∼A.B)=A+BA+(∼A.B)=A+B

Distributive Law

A+(B.C)=(A+B).(A+C)A+(B.C)=(A+B).(A+C)
A.(B+C)=(A.B)+(A.C)A.(B+C)=(A.B)+(A.C)

De-Morgan's Law

∼(A.B)=∼A+∼B∼(A.B)=∼A+∼B
∼(A+B)=∼A.∼B
/**
* C program to count total number of even and odd elements in an array
*/

#include <stdio.h>

#define MAX_SIZE 100 //Maximum size of the array

int main()
{
int arr[MAX_SIZE];
int i, size, even, odd;

/* Input size of the array */

printf("Enter size of the array: ");
scanf("%d", &size);

/* Input array elements */

printf("Enter %d elements in array: ", size);
for(i=0; i<size; i++)
{
scanf("%d", &arr[i]);
}

/* Assuming that there are 0 even and odd elements */

even = 0;
odd = 0;

for(i=0; i<size; i++)

{
/* If the current element of array is even then increment even count */
if(arr[i]%2 == 0)
{
even++;
}
else
{
odd++;
}
}

printf("Total even elements: %d\n", even);

printf("Total odd elements: %d", odd);

return 0;
}
Output
Enter size of the array: 10
Enter 10 elements in array: 5 6 4 12 19 121 1 7 9 63
Total even elements: 3
Total odd elements: 7
Files: As we know that Computers are used for storing the information for a Permanent Time or the Files
are used for storing the Data of the users for a Long time Period. And the files can contains any type of
information means they can Store the text, any Images or Pictures or any data in any Format. So that
there must be Some Mechanism those are used for Storing the information, Accessing the information
and also Performing Some Operations on the files.

There are Many files which have their Owen Type and own names. When we Store a File in the System,
then we must have to specify the Name and the Type of File. The Name of file will be any valid Name
and Type means the application with the file has linked.

So that we can say that Every File also has Some Type Means Every File belongs to Special Type of
Application software’s. When we Provides a Name to a File then we also specify the Extension of the File
because a System will retrieve the Contents of the File into that Application Software. For Example if
there is a File Which Contains Some Paintings then this will Opened into the Paint Software.

1) Ordinary Files or Simple File: Ordinary File may belong to any type of Application for example
notepad, paint, C Program, Songs etc. So all the Files those are created by a user are Ordinary Files.
Ordinary Files are used for Storing the information about the user Programs. With the help of Ordinary
Files we can store the information which contains text, database, any image or any other type of
information.

2) Directory files: The Files those are Stored into the a Particular Directory or Folder. Then these are the
Directory Files. Because they belongs to a Directory and they are Stored into a Directory or Folder. For
Example a Folder Name Songs which Contains Many Songs So that all the Files of Songs are known as
Directory Files.

3) Special Files: The Special Files are those which are not created by the user. Or The Files those are
necessary to run a System. The Files those are created by the System. Means all the Files of an Operating
System or Window, are refers to Special Files. There are Many Types of Special Files, System Files, or
windows Files, Input output Files. All the System Files are Stored into the System by using. sys Extension.

4) FIFO Files: The First in First Out Files are used by the System for Executing the Processes into Some
Order. Means To Say the Files those are Come first, will be Executed First and the System Maintains a
Order or Sequence Order. When a user Request for a Service from the System, then the Requests of the
users are Arranged into Some Files and all the Requests of the System will be performed by the System
by using Some Sequence Order in which they are Entered or we can say that all the files or Requests
those are Received from the users will be Executed by using Some Order which is also called as First in
First Out or FIFO order.

Types of File Operations

Files are not made for just reading the Contents, we can also Perform Some other operations on the
Files those are Explained below As :

1) Read Operation: Meant To Read the information which is Stored into the Files.

2) Write Operation: For inserting some new Contents into a File.

3) Rename or Change the Name of File.

4) Copy the File from one Location to another.

5) Sorting or Arrange the Contents of File.

6) Move or Cut the File from One Place to Another.

7) Delete a File

8) Execute Means to Run Means File Display Output.

We can Also Link a File with any other File. These are also called as the Symbolic Links, in the Symbolic
Links all the files are linked by using Some Text or Some Alias.

When a User Clicks on the Special text or on the Alias then this will open that Linked File. So that we can
say that the Files are linked With each other by using Some Names and by using Some Locations.

These are Also Called as the Symbolic Links and always remember that when we remove the Link from
the System then this will not effect on the Actual file Means the Original File will be Kept Save into the
Locations.
 o .

What is a predicate?

Consider the statement, “ is greater than 3″. It has two parts. The first part, the variable , is the
subject of the statement. The second part, “is greater than 3”, is the predicate. It refers to a property
that the subject of the statement can have.

The statement “ is greater than 3″ can be denoted by where denotes the predicate “is
greater than 3” and is the variable.

The predicate can be considered as a function. It tells the truth value of the statement at .

Once a value has been assigned to the variable , the statement becomes a proposition and
has a truth or false(tf) value.
In general, a statement involving n variables can be denoted by

. Here is also referred to as n-place predicate or a n-ary

predicate.

 Example 1: Let denote the statement “ > 10″. What are the truth values of

and ?

Solution: is equivalent to the statement 11 > 10, which is True.

is equivalent to the statement 5 > 10, which is False.

 Example 2: Let denote the statement “ “. What is the truth value

of the propositions and ?

Solution: is the statement 1 = 3 + 1, which is False.

is the statement 2 = 1 + 1, which is True.

What are quantifiers?

In predicate logic, predicates are used alongside quantifiers to express the extent to which a predicate is
true over a range of elements. Using quantifiers to create such propositions is called quantification.

There are two types of quantification-

1. Universal Quantification- Mathematical statements sometimes assert that a property is true for all
the values of a variable in a particular domain, called the domain of discourse. Such a statement is
expressed using universal quantification.

The universal quantification of for a particular domain is the proposition that asserts that
 is true for all values of in this domain. The domain is very important here since it decides the

possible values of . The meaning of the universal quantification of changes when the domain
is changed. The domain must be specified when a universal quantification is used, as without it, it has no
meaning.

Formally,

The universal quantification of is the statement

" for all values of in the domain"

The notation denotes the universal quantification of .

Here is called the universal quantifier.

is read as "for all ".

 Example 1: Let be the statement “ > “. What is the truth value of the

statement ?

Solution: As is greater than for any real number, so for all or

2. Existential Quantification- Some mathematical statements assert that there is an element with a
certain property. Such statements are expressed by existential quantification. Existential quantification

can be used to form a proposition that is true if and only if is true for at least one value of in
the domain.

Formally,

The existential quantification of is the statement

"There exists an element in the domain such that "

The notation denotes the existential quantification of .

Here is called the existential quantifier.

 is read as "There is atleast one such such that ".

 Example : Let be the statement “ > 5″. What is the truth value of the statement

Solution: is true for all real numbers greater than 5 and false for all real numbers less

than 5. So

o
In an ordinary induction argument, you assume that P(n) is true and try to prove that P(n+1) is
also true. In a strong induction argument, you may assume that P(0), P(1), . . . , and P(n) are
all true when you go to prove P(n + 1)1 Ordinary Induction

(Ordinary) mathematical induction is a way to prove things about natural numbers. We can write it as a
rule: φ(0) ∀x.φ(x)⊃ φ(succ(x))/ ∀x.φ(x) where φ(x) is a statement involving a number x. Proving φ(0) is
called the base case, and proving that φ(succ(x)) follows from φ(x), for any x, is called the induction step
(or case). There is a good source of examples of mathematical induction in (what are known as)
primitive recursive definitions. Here is an example, we define addition by the following two equations:

0+ y = y succ(x)+ y = succ(x+y)

where succ(x) is the next number after x, its successor. Note that these equations completely determine
addition. The first one tells you how to add 0 to something and the second one tells you how to add the
successor of something to something else, provided you know how to add the something to the
something else. Looking at them as recursive definitions, we say that the recursion is on the first
argument.
The greatest common divisor (GCD), also called the greatest common factor, of two
numbers is the largest number that divides them both. For instance, the greatest common
factor of 20 and 15 is 5, since 5 divides both 20 and 15 and no larger number has this
property. The concept is easily extended to sets of more than two numbers: the GCD of a
set of numbers is the largest number dividing each of them.

The GCD is used for a variety of applications in number theory, particularly in modular
arithmetic and thus encryption algorithms such as RSA. It is also used for simpler
applications, such as simplifying fractions. This makes the GCD a rather fundamental
concept to number theory, and as such a number of algorithms have been discovered to
efficiently compute it.

Properties[edit]
 Every common divisor of a and b is a divisor of gcd(a, b).
 gcd(a, b), where a and b are not both zero, may be defined alternatively and equivalently
as the smallest positive integer d which can be written in the form d = a⋅p + b⋅q, where p
and q are integers. This expression is called Bézout's identity. Numbers p and q like this
can be computed with the extended Euclidean algorithm.
 gcd(a, 0) = |a|, for a ≠ 0, since any number is a divisor of 0, and the greatest divisor of a
is |a|.[2][6] This is usually used as the base case in the Euclidean algorithm.
 If a divides the product b⋅c, and gcd(a, b) = d, then a/d divides c.
 If m is a non-negative integer, then gcd(m⋅a, m⋅b) = m⋅gcd(a, b).
 If m is any integer, then gcd(a + m⋅b, b) = gcd(a, b).
 If m is a positive common divisor of a and b, then gcd(a/m, b/m) = gcd(a, b)/m.
 If c, d are integers such that a = c⋅gcd(a, b) and b = d⋅gcd(a, b), then gcd(c, d) = 1.
 The gcd is a multiplicative function in the following sense: if a1 and a2 are relatively
prime, then gcd(a1⋅a2, b) = gcd(a1, b)⋅gcd(a2, b). In particular, recalling that gcd is a
positive integer valued function (that is, gets natural values only) we obtain that gcd(a,
b⋅c) = 1 if and only if gcd(a, b) = 1 and gcd(a, c) = 1.
 The gcd is a commutative function: gcd(a, b) = gcd(b, a).
 The gcd is an associative function: gcd(a, gcd(b, c)) = gcd(gcd(a, b), c).
 If none of a1, a2, . . . , ar is zero, then gcd( a1, a2, . . . , ar ) = gcd( gcd( a1, a2, . . . , ar-1 ), ar
).[15][16]
 gcd(a, b) is closely related to the least common multiple lcm(a, b): we have

gcd(a, b)⋅lcm(a, b) = |a⋅b|.

This formula is often used to compute least common multiples: one first computes the
gcd with Euclid's algorithm and then divides the product of the given numbers by their
gcd.

 The following versions of distributivity hold true:

gcd(a, lcm(b, c)) = lcm(gcd(a, b), gcd(a, c))

lcm(a, gcd(b, c)) = gcd(lcm(a, b), lcm(a, c)).
 If we have the unique prime factorizations of a = p1e1 p2e2 ⋅⋅⋅ pmem and b = p1f1 p2f2 ⋅⋅⋅ pmfm
where ei ≥ 0 and fi ≥ 0, then the gcd of a and b is

gcd(a,b) = p1min(e1,f1) p2min(e2,f2) ⋅⋅⋅ pmmin(em,fm).

 It is sometimes useful to define gcd(0, 0) = 0 and lcm(0, 0) = 0 because then the natural
numbers become a complete distributive lattice with gcd as meet and lcm as join
operation.[17] This extension of the definition is also compatible with the generalization for
commutative rings given below.
 In a Cartesian coordinate system, gcd(a, b) can be interpreted as the number of segments
between points with integral coordinates on the straight line segment joining the points
(0, 0) and (a, b).
 For non-negative integers a and b, where a and b are not both zero, provable by
considering the Euclidean algorithm in base n:[18]

gcd(na − 1, nb − 1) = ngcd(a,b) − 1.

 An identity involving Euler's totient function:

A full binary tree (sometimes proper binary tree or 2-tree) is a tree in which every node other
than the leaves has two children. A complete binary tree is a binary tree in which every level,
except possibly the last, is completely filled, and all nodes are as far left as possible.

The diameter of a graph is the maximum eccentricity of any

vertex in the graph. That is, it is the greatest distance between any pair of vertices. To find
the diameter of a graph, first find the shortest path between each pair of vertices. The
greatest length of any of these paths is the diameter of the graph.

Diameter, D, of a network having N nodes is defined as the maximum shortest paths

between any two nodes in the network

Diameter, D, of a network having N nodes is defined as the longest path, p, of the shortest
paths between any two nodes D ¼ max (minp[pij length( p)). In this equation, pij is the
length of the path between nodes i and j and length (p) is a procedure that returns the
length of the path, p. For example, the diameter of a 4 4 Mesh D ¼ 6.
Combinatorial Proofs
Combinatorial proof is a perfect way of establishing certain algebraic identities without resorting to any kind
of algebra. For example, let's consider the simplest property of the binomial coefficients:

(1)

C(n, k) = C(n, n - k).

To prove this identity we do not need the actual algebraic formula that involves factorials, although this, too,
would be simple enough. All that is needed to prove (1) is the knowledge of the definition: C(n, k) denotes the
number of ways to select k out n objects without regard for the order in which they are selected. To prove (1)
one needs to observe that whenever k items are selected, n-k items are left over, (un)selected of sorts. So that
proving (1) becomes a word usage matter. (In this example, another simple proof is by introducing m = n - k,
from which k = n - m so that (1) translates into an equivalent form C(n, n - m) = C(n, m).)

As another example, the identity

(2)

C(n, 0) + C(n, 1) + C(n, 2) + ... + (n, n-1), + C(n, n) = 2 n

which is a consequence of the binomial theorem

(x + y) = Σ C(n, k) x y , 0 ≤ k ≤ n.
n k n-k

admits a combinatorial interpretation. The left hand side in (2) represents the number of ways to select a group
-- empty or not -- of items out of a set of n distinct elements. The first term gives the number of ways not to
make any selection, which is 1. The second term gives the number of ways to select one item (which is n), etc.
What does the right hand side represent? Exactly same thing. Indeed, with every selection of items from a
given set we can associate a function that takes values 0 or 1. A selected element is assigned value 1, while an
unselected element is assigned value 0. If for the sake of counting convenience, the elements of the set are
ordered with indices 1, ..., n, then every selection from the set is represented by a string of 0's and 1's; the total
number of such strings is clearly the right hand side in (2): 2 .
n

Thus a combinatorial proof consists in providing two answers to the same question. But not to forget, finding
the question to be answered in two ways is conceivably the most important part of the proof. As a matter of
convention, it is often convenient to think of sets and their elements as groups of students and of selections of
elements as endowing them with a membership on a committee.

For a third example, consider the popular identity underlying the Pascal triangle:

(3)

C(n, k) = C(n - 1, k) + C(n - 1, k - 1).

By definition, the left hand side is the number of ways to compose a k-member committee out of a group of n
students. To grasp the significance of the right hand side, pick arbitrarily one of the students. Then the first
term on the right gives the number of k-member committees that do not include the student, whereas the
second term gives the number of committees in which the student is a member.

Here is an additional example. Prove that

(4)

C(n, r)C(r, k) = C(n, k)C(n-k, r-k),

where k ≤ r ≤ n.

C(n, r) is the number of ways to form an r-member committee from a group of n students. C(r, k) is the number
of ways to form a 4-member committee out of a group of r students. As r is the same in both cases, it it
sensible to assume that the r students selected from the initial n are exactly those among whom we seek a more
restrictive r. So we could describe the left hand side in (4) as the number of ways to choose a k-member
committee from an n-member student body and a k-member subcommittee out of the selected r. So the
question is in how many ways is it possible to choose a r-member committee from an n-member student body
and a k-member subcommittee out of the selected r. The left hand side gives an answer to that question. The
right hand side answers the same question but in a different way. First we select a k-member subcommittee out
of the n-member student population and later complete it to an r-member committee by selecting r-k members
out of the remaining population of n-k students.