# 1997 University of South Africa

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University of South Africa
Muckleneuk, Pretoria

EDA201-W/1/98±2007

96554754

3B2
 CONTENTS
A personal letter to you (v)
Some important issues (vi)

SECTION 1 1

The nature of the teaching-learning situation

and its implications for the teacher 2
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 The term ``management'' in the class-
room context 3
1.3 The aim and nature of classroom man-
agement 5
1.4 The classroom 7
1.5 The teacher's approach to teaching and
classroom management 9
1.6 Classroom management and leadership
styles 14
1.7 Principles of classroom management 22
1.8 Summary 22
1.9 Review questions 23
1.10 Bibliography 23

SECTION 2 25

Management tasks in the classroom situation 26

2.1 Introduction 26
2.2 Planning 29
2.3 Organising 31
2.4 Directing 33
2.5 Control 34
2.6 Policy making 36
2.7 Decision making 38
2.8 Communication 39
2.9 Motivation 39
2.10 Summary 40

EDA201±W/1/98±2007 (iii)
 2.11 Review questions 40
2.12 Bibliography 40

SECTION 3 43

Elements of the teaching-learning situation 44

3.1 Introduction 44
3.2 Classroom environment 47
3.3 Classroom climate 48
3.4 Teaching management 51
3.5 Pupil activities 52
3.6 Discipline 53
3.7 Classroom administration 55
3.8 Effective use of teaching time 56
3.9 Positive interpersonal relations in the
classroom 57
3.10 Summary 59
3.11 Review questions 60
3.12 Bibliography 60

SECTION 4 63

Critical issues in the modern classroom 64

4.1 Introduction 64
4.2 Overcrowded classrooms 64
4.3 Handling conflict in the classroom 65
4.4 Handling disruptive behaviour 66
4.5 How to be an inviting teacher 68
4.6 Parent involvement in classroom activ-
ities 71
4.7 Summary 73
4.8 Review questions 74
4.9 Bibliography 74

(iv)
 Dear Student
Welcome to the module Classroom Management (EDA201±W). I hope that you
will find this module meaningful, enriching and of particular value to your
own classroom practice.
A leading author in the field of classroom management said the following
about it:
The concept of classroom management is broader than the notion of
student discipline. It includes all the things teachers must do to foster
student involvement and cooperation in classroom activities and to
establish a productive working environment.

It is our aim that you should understand the theory of classroom management
and to apply it in your own classroom practice to enhance the effectiveness of
your teaching actions as well as the learning actions of the pupils.
You should study this study guide and the relevant sections in your prescribed
book very thoroughly. Try to read as widely as possible on the topic of
classroom management to ensure that you are able to form your own informed
opinions creatively, critically and independently.
Best wishes with your studies Ð we invite you to participate in a practical way
in this module.
Prof AG Kruger

EDA201±W/1 (v)
 SOME IMPORTANT
ISSUES
In this module we discuss some theoretical aspects of classroom management.
As you are probably a practising teacher the contents should not be unfamiliar
to you; you may perhaps see it in another form than the one you are
accustomed to.
After you have read Tutorial Letter 101 you should have a fair idea of the scope
of the work that we shall be doing in this module.
This study guide consists of four sections. The content of each section follows
logically on the previous one, so you should study the sections in sequence.
The following topics are discussed in the four sections.
SECTION 1: THE NATURE OF THE TEACHING-LEARNING SITUATION
AND ITS IMPLICATIONS FOR THE TEACHER
In this section we discuss the classroom situation and how its complex nature
and function can influence the teaching and management style of the teacher.
SECTION 2: MANAGEMENT TASKS IN THE CLASSROOM SITUATION
We discover how some general management functions are actualised in the
teaching-learning situation.
SECTION 3: ELEMENTS OF THE TEACHING-LEARNING SITUATION
In this section we discuss the various elements of a teaching-learning situation.
We also indicate how these elements may be managed.
SECTION 4: CRITICAL ISSUES IN THE MODERN CLASSROOM
A few aspects that teacher should be able to handle are discussed in this
section.
A textbook is prescribed for this module which will not only supply more
information about the contents of the module, but which may be meaningful
for your teaching practice as well.
The prescribed book you should buy is:
Kruger, AG & Van Schalkwyk, OF. 1997. Classroom management. Revised
edition. Pretoria: Van Schaik.
The four sections contain sections of articles on certain aspects of classroom
management. These articles provide additional information to supplement and
expand the contents of your prescribed book. It is important that you know
what they contain.
This study guide should be studied in conjunction with the prescribed book.
Each section deals with an aspect of classroom management. You will be
required to perform certain activities to help you apply the study material in
practice and to think about what you learn. When you have completed a

(vi)
 section, you should answer the review questions at the end of that section. The
questions will help you to determine whether you have reached the learning
outcomes of that section.
Once again, enjoy your studies!
We are convinced that this module will make you aware of the importance and
the responsibility of your task as a teacher and that it will equip you with
knowledge and skills to be able to tackle your task with confidence.

EDA201±W/1 (vii)
SECTION 1

THE NATURE OF THE TEACHING-LEARNING SITUATION AND ITS

IMPLICATIONS FOR THE TEACHER

EDA201±W/1 1
 SECTION 1
THE NATURE OF THE TEACHING-
LEARNING SITUATION AND ITS
IMPLICATIONS FOR THE TEACHER
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Education today, both in this country and elsewhere in the world, is in such a state
that effective teaching and learning are not always possible. Almost every week the
media tell us about the sorry state of education. Both teachers and parents are
concerned about the future of pupils.
Today teaching is a hard job, and you get less out of it ... It's just so hard, just so
hard managing. Teachers would rather go to work at the local hardware store and
manage nails. Nails are easy to manage. Teenagers in the 1990s are hard ... there is
so little pay-off.

The question we need to answer in this course is not so much why education is
in such a bad state, but rather:

What can I, a teacher, do to ensure that effective teaching and learning take place in
my classroom so that I will feel good about the work I am doing?

All teachers know that there is a close relationship between successful teaching
and learning and an orderly classroom. The orderly course of classroom
activities is considered a prerequisite for effective teaching and learning. As the
authority figure in the classroom, the teacher is responsible for creating this
orderly environment to ensure effective teaching and learning. We may
conclude that teachers have to perform the following two kinds of actions in
their classrooms:
. teaching or instructional actions (functional task)
. management actions (management task)

These teaching and classroom management tasks are however executed in a

specific classroom situation, each with its own characteristics that will to a
certain extent determine the teacher's approach for that lesson.

2
 g
Outcome
You should be able to discuss the context in which classroom management
takes place.
Objectives
. to understand and discuss the concept of management in the classroom
situation
. to describe the classroom as a complex organisation
. to discuss different approaches to classroom management

g
Outcome
You should understand and be able to discuss the relationship between
teaching and classroom management.
Objective
. to discuss the relationship between the classroom management style and the
teaching style

1.2 THE TERM ``MANAGEMENT'' IN

THE CLASSROOM CONTEXT
The teacher's management actions may be defined as activities that are aimed
at creating and maintaining the classroom conditions that are essential to
effective teaching and learning. Classroom management encompasses all the
activities that are needed to support and fulfil the main purpose of the teaching
and learning situation. Classroom management is a means to ensure effective
performance of the teacher's educational and instructional task in order to
realise the teaching objectives. Turney et al (1986:52) express this view of
classroom management:
Thus as teachers work with classes it is important that, by using
appropriate classroom management strategies, they establish and
maintain those conditions in which instruction can take place effectively
and efficiently and in which their pupils feel comfortable and
unthreatened.

Classroom management comprises the following:

. Management tasks that are performed to deal with certain elements of the
teaching-learning situation
. to make the essential or main task of the teaching-learning situation (teaching
and learning) proceed effectively

Teachers often have different perceptions of their task and this gives rise to
different teaching approaches and styles in various teaching-learning

EDA201±W/1 3
 situations. Teachers should clearly understand the relationship between
teaching and classroom management. Brophy (1983:265) mentions the
following three assumptions about classroom management:
. The teacher is both the authority figure and the instructional leader in the
classroom.
. Good classroom management implies good teaching.
. Effective classroom management strategies are cost-effective in terms of
teaching (ie effective management results in effective learning).

b
Activity
Explain the relationship between teaching and classroom management as
indicated in these assumptions.
...........................................................................................................................
The teacher performs both teaching and management activities before, during
and after a lesson. In the course of the lesson even experienced teachers are
often not conscious of the difference between the two kinds of activities.
Inexperienced teachers sometimes have difficulty combining the two kinds.

According to Calitz (1987:77) teaching includes the following activities:

. choice and arrangement of learning content
. setting aims and objectives
. conveying knowledge
. transferring skills and attitudes
. giving pupils feedback on their learning achievements
The teacher has to convey the subject matter to the pupils by means of teaching
activities. At the same time the pupils respond by learning and internalising the
subject matter.
However, good teaching entails more than the teaching activities in a teaching-
learning situation. It also requires activities that will ensure that the subject
matter is effectively conveyed by the teacher to the pupil. Management refers
to those activities of the teacher that are aimed at creating and maintaining
conditions in the classroom that promote effective teaching and learning. These
activities include inter alia the following:
. planning
. organising
. creating a positive climate
. discipline
Weber (1986:272) describes classroom management as follows:
Classroom management is a complex set of behaviours the teacher uses to
establish and maintain classroom conditions that will enable students to
achieve their instructional objectives effectively Ð that will enable them to
learn.
When a teacher is able to combine teaching and management activities
properly, they become part of his or her personal teaching style that may be
adapted to the components and characteristics of the classroom. Calderhead
(1984:21) writes that a teacher's teaching and management activities are often
so interwoven that the management strategies become an integral part of his/

4
 her daily practice, to the extent that they can no longer be distinguished from
the instructional process itself. When teachers create conditions in the
classroom that promote effective teaching and learning, they have become true
teacher-managers. When that happens, their management activities are aimed
at realising every pupil's learning aims. The classroom then becomes a learning
environment in which the child's full potential may develop.

1.3 THE AIM AND NATURE OF

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
Teachers have a complex and extensive task. Research has shown that the
classroom behaviour of teachers that influences pupils' performance may be
divided into four categories:
. management ability
. teaching skills
. teacher-pupil relations
. creating an atmosphere (climate)
Studies have shown how extensive the teacher's task can be (Cawood &
Conradie 1989:26±35). But the complexity of the teacher's task is not defined by
its extent. The complexity is also due to factors like the following:
. the interrelatedness of different aspects of the task
. the relationship between events in the classroom and outside the classroom
. external influences on the school and the classroom
The teacher's instructional task may be described as extremely personal, since
teachers work more or less autonomously in the privacy of a classroom.
Teachers take many decisions in the course of a day and they are personally
responsible for their decisions.
Many demands are made of teachers nowadays to ensure effective teaching
and learning in the classroom. Teacher training should therefore prepare
prospective and even practising teachers to meet these challenges. The
following are some of the most common requirements modern teachers have to
satisfy:

Didactic requirements
. a problem-solving attitude
. computer literacy
. a modular approach to teaching
. cooperative teaching-learning

Independent decision making and action

. Devolution of authority in teaching has changed the management
environment in schools, and the teacher is increasingly responsible for
decisions in the classroom.
. Teachers are more accountable for the successful conduct and results of
teaching-learning activities than in the past.
. Teachers are expected to resolve conflict in the classroom more often than
they had to in the past.

EDA201±W/1 5
 . Teachers are playing a greater role in school management than they did in
the past.

Discipline
. Discipline has to receive considerable attention in the new educational
system, because teachers have to meet new requirements in this regard.
. Some present-day pupils have little experience of a learning culture. (The
term ``learning culture'' refers to the emotional and social components of
learning and so relates to things like creating a suitable atmosphere/climate
and maintaining discipline.)

Composition of classes
. multicultural classes
. large classes

These and other similar requirements are addressed in this course on classroom
management.

b
Activity
Write a list of what you consider to be the main goals of a course in classroom
management. Refer to 1.4 in your prescribed book to help you.
(1) ....................................................................................................................
(2) ....................................................................................................................
(3) ....................................................................................................................
(4) ....................................................................................................................
(5) ....................................................................................................................
(6) ....................................................................................................................

Your own practice and experience could have helped you to identify several
goals. Check to what extent your goals for this course agree with mine. The
goals of classroom management are to:
. manage a complex teaching-learning situation in the classroom so that
effective teaching and learning may take place
. cultivate appropriate skills so that teachers will be able to solve problems
related to their teaching activities
. cultivate some basic management skills that will be useful to teachers if they
eventually occupy managerial positions in their schools
. make teachers aware of the importance of their personal approach and
attitude to their teaching task
. recognise and understand the interdependence of factors that make up the
complex classroom situation
. develop teachers' knowledge and skills to enable them to handle different
classroom situations effectively
. develop teachers' sensitivity to differences between various teaching-
learning situations and to enable them to adapt to these different situations
. help teachers exercise their autonomy in the classroom in a responsible
manner
. cultivate specific values so that teachers will treat their pupils fairly and
respect their human dignity

6
 1.4 THE CLASSROOM
1.4.1 THE CLASSROOM AS A DYNAMIC AND COMPLEX
ORGANISATION
When all the teaching and learning activities in a classroom situation are
examined, one soon discovers that they are quite complex. The teaching-
learning situation in a classroom is both complex and dynamic and it is
influenced by a combination of factors:
(1) External factors
. nature of the community
. rules and regulations of the education department
. nature of the school management
(2) Internal factors
. the teacher's personality
. nature of the pupils
. the subject matter

b
Activity
On the basis of your own teaching experience, explain how the three external
factors mentioned above may influence a teacher's approach to classroom
management. Also read 2.1 in your prescribed book.
(1) Nature of the community ..........................................................................
(2) Departmental rules and regulations .........................................................
(3) Nature of the school management .............................................................

The teaching and learning activities in the classroom are also influenced by
certain features that are unique to every classroom. These same features also
influence and determine the nature of classroom management. They may be
divided into components and characteristics of a classroom situation.

1.4.2 COMPONENTS OF A CLASSROOM SITUATION

A classroom situation consists of the following components:
. teaching goal
. learning content
. the teacher
. the learner
. guided interaction between teacher and pupil

When these five components are present, they make up a teaching-learning

situation. In schools teaching-learning situations often occur in different places
(playground, school hall, sports field, etc), but they usually occur in the
classroom. The classroom may be considered a focal point of educative
teaching. Educative teaching refers to the guided interaction between teacher

EDA201±W/1 7
 and pupils with a view to reaching predetermined goals, that require both
teaching and management activities.

b
Activity
Consider the five components of a teaching-learning situation in your specific
school situation and indicate how each component may contribute to a
particular teaching and classroom management approach. The components
are discussed in detail in 2.2 of your prescribed book.
(1) ....................................................................................................................
(2) ....................................................................................................................
(3) ....................................................................................................................
(4) ....................................................................................................................
(5) ....................................................................................................................
(6) ......................................................................................................................

While performing this activity you should constantly keep your own teaching
practice in mind. Questions like these may help you to do so:
. Will a teacher of grade 8 pupils always use the same approach and style as a
teacher of grade 12 pupils?
. Will a Home Economics teacher use the same approach and style as a
History teacher?
. Will a novice teacher use the same approach and style as an experienced
teacher?

1.4.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF A CLASSROOM SITUATION

Although all classroom situations have the same characteristics, the extent to
which they influence the course and management of the teaching-learning
situation differs from one classroom to the next:
. Formal nature and structure of the classroom situation: teaching-learning
situations do not come about informally, but are formally designed and
structured in terms of the school timetable.
. Multidimensionality: a wide variety of activities are performed in every
classroom situation; classrooms are crowded, busy places.
. Simultaneity: things happen simultaneously in the classroom and teachers
should be able to divide their attention.
. Immediacy: things happen suddenly and teachers should be able to decide
and respond quickly.
. Unpredictability: many things that happen in a classroom cannot be
predicted.
. Openness: everything that happens in a teacher's classroom soon becomes
general knowledge among pupils and parents.
. Time limit: every lesson has a time limit Ð a syllabus has to be completed
within a predetermined period.
. Size of class: pupil numbers differ from class to class and teachers should
adapt their teaching accordingly.

8
 . Classroom atmosphere: every teaching-learning situation has an atmosphere
of its own.

b
Activity
Explain, by refering to practical examples, how the following characteristics
and components of a classroom situation may influence the teacher's approach
(see 2.3 in your prescribed book):
(1) Simultaneity: ..............................................................................................
(2) Immediacy: .................................................................................................
(3) Openness: ...................................................................................................
(4) Time limit:..................................................................................................
(5) Teaching goal: ............................................................................................

1.5 THE TEACHER'S APPROACH TO

TEACHING AND CLASSROOM
MANAGEMENT
There are different views of, or approaches to, classroom management. Each
view or approach emphasises different aspects of the teaching-learning
situation. One may study the different approaches to classroom management in
terms of the following two perspectives:
. how much authority, order or discipline the teacher exercises in the
classroom
. how much a teacher emphasises a particular aspect or area of the teaching-
learning situation

The different approaches are not mutually exclusive Ð in fact, they overlap.
We shall briefly outline the different approaches based on the two perspectives
to serve as a background to a comprehensive view of classroom management
that may help teachers to create a positive, that is conducive to learning,
classroom atmosphere.

1.5.1 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT APPROACHES BASED

ON EXERCISE OF AUTHORITY, ORDER AND
DISCIPLINE
This category of management approaches or management models may be
placed on a continuum according to the nature and the extent of the control and
the organisational structure applied by a teacher. The continuum ranges from
classrooms where there is little control and organisational structure to
classrooms where there is too much control and organisational structure.

EDA201±W/1 9
 Little control Too much control
3
3
and structure and structure

These approaches are grouped into three categories in which the classroom
management approach relates to the teaching and learning theory followed by
the teacher. The following six examples of classroom management approaches
are tabled in this manner:
TABLE 1.1
Classroom management approaches

Category 1 Category 2 Category 3

Teaching and Child-centred Interactive Teacher-centred
learning theory
Measure of teacher Little control Shared control Too much control
control
Classroom
management Laissez faire Democratic Autocratic
models

b
Activity
Read the following conversation. How would you classify the three teachers
whom the pupils are discussing in terms of the above table?
The following is an example of a typical conversation between pupils in a
particular class:
Pupil A: You chaps can thank your lucky stars you don't do biology with
Mr Collins. If you just look around you in his class he punishes
you. I don't like biology as much as I used to when Miss Dlamini
taught us.
Pupil B: Yeah, we've heard about Mr Collins. We've got Mr Molefe for
history. He's a great teacher! He always discusses things with us
before he decides anything. When he teaches he sometimes asks us
what we think. It makes you want to work hard in his subject.
Pupil C: That's nothing. Miss Jones's English classes are even nicer. She
doesn't care what we do. She says school work is our responsibility
and she wants to treat us like responsible people. If we don't hand
in our homework, she doesn't even complain.

Teacher Category 1 Category 2 Category 3

Mr Collins
Mr Molefe
Miss Jones

10
 Although one could rank these three models of classroom management in a
particular order, they cannot be placed in watertight compartments because
each model contains features of the other two. Neither is it possible simply to
reduce a teacher's classroom behaviour to a list of requirements and functions.

1.5.2 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT APPROACHES

BASED ON THE IMPORTANCE OF A PARTICULAR
ASPECT OF THE TEACHING-LEARNING PROCESS
The various classroom management approaches are based on the belief that one
of the following aspects of the teacher's task is decisive for effective teaching
and learning:
. control over pupil behaviour
. use of effective teaching methods
. establishing and maintaining positive interpersonal relations in the
classroom
. effective groupwork
. effective classroom organisation and management

We shall explain each approach in order to highlight the differences between

them.

Control over pupil behaviour

This approach to classroom management is related to discipline (see 1.5.1). The
teacher's classroom management activities are aimed at establishing certain
behavioural patterns among pupils to stimulate optimum teaching and
learning in a particular situation. The teacher's teaching and management
approach is often described in terms of one of the following management styles,
based on the exercise of authority:
. autocratic
. democratic
. laissez faire

This approach aims to influence pupil behaviour in order to bring about

maximum involvement in teaching and learning activities. An important
component of the approach is to reward good behaviour and punish bad
behaviour. The main aim of teachers who follow this approach is to ensure
effective teaching and learning by controlling pupil behaviour in accordance
with the requirements of a particular situation.

Effective teaching methods

This approach to classroom management assumes that properly planned and
applied teaching methods will ensure effective teaching and learning. Many
studies of teaching practices have identified a large number of teaching
methods that will, according to this view of classroom management, prevent
behavioural problems in the classroom. The teacher's key function is to plan
and present good lessons that suit the pupils' needs and interests.

EDA201±W/1 11
 Interpersonal relations
Followers of this approach believe that effective classroom management and
teaching are a result of good relations between the teacher and the pupils and
among the pupils themselves. They say that the teacher's main task is to
maintain good relations and a healthy socioemotional atmosphere in which
effective teaching and learning can take place. A key requirement of this
approach is the creation of a democratic classroom atmosphere in which the
teacher simply has to guide the teaching and learning process.

Group process approach

The group process approach is based on the following assumptions:
. Teaching happens in a (class) group context.
. The teacher's task is to transform the group into an effective, productive class
group.
. The class group is a social system and should display the same characteristics
as any other social system.
. The teacher has to create an atmosphere in which the class group can
function as an effective social group.

The group process approach relies heavily on the teacher's ability to make
teaching and learning effective by means of group dynamics. According to this
approach the class group's influence on individual pupils is the key factor and
the teacher should manage the teaching-learning process from a group-
dynamics perspective.

Organisation and management

The key feature of this approach is the teacher's ability to create a stimulating
learning environment in the classroom through good management. The
approach is based on the research of scholars like Kounin Discipline and group
management in classrooms, Brophy and Evertson Learning from teaching and
Emmer, Evertson and Anderson Classroom organization and effective teaching
project. All these researchers have identified certain classroom management
techniques that stimulate effective teaching and learning.

1.5.3 A COMPREHENSIVE APPROACH TO CLASSROOM

MANAGEMENT
The teaching-learning situation that takes shape in the classroom is too complex
to be managed effectively by just one approach. Many scholars of classroom
management emphasise the need for a broad approach that includes features of
all the above-mentioned approaches and that suits both the teacher's
personality and the needs of the situation. We shall now consider such a broad
or comprehensive approach to classroom management.
On the basis of the contextual variables (ie components and characteristics Ð
see 1.4.2 and 1.4.3) in a classroom situation, one may develop a comprehensive
framework for classroom management. A framework that places the teacher's
classroom activities in a management perspective will be based on the
following management principles:

12
 . Through good management the teacher creates order in the classroom, which
is a prerequisite for teaching and learning.
. The teacher is the formal authority figure in the classroom and ensures
effective teaching through good management.
. The teacher operationalises classroom management mainly through
management activities.
. Classroom management is directed to a specific goal, namely to make
effective teaching and learning possible.

A comprehensive view of classroom management implies that teachers should

be able to organise and direct (in other words manage) all elements of the
teaching-learning situation with a view to optimal teaching and learning. This
means that teachers have to manage the classroom situation as a whole
effectively by:
. performing a number of management tasks (section 2)
. dealing with certain elements of the teaching-learning situation (section 3
and 4) in the classroom.

A comprehensive view of classroom management implies that the teacher can

continually redefine and adapt the orderly state of the classroom to ensure that
pupils experience it positively.
Jones and Jones (1990:ix) identify the following elements (management areas) of
the teaching-learning situation:
Extensive review of the research and our own experiences in classrooms
highlight five major factors or skills areas of effective classroom
management:
(1) Developing a solid understanding of students' personal/psychological
and learning needs.
(2) Establishing positive teacher-student and peer relationships that help
meet students' basic psychological needs.
(3) Implementing instructional methods that facilitate optimal learning by
responding to the academic needs of individual students and the
classroom group.
(4) Using organizational and group management methods that maximize
on-task student behavior.
(5) Using a wide range of counseling and behavioral methods that involve
students in examining and correcting their inappropriate behavior.

b
Activity
Compare these skills, as well as the elements in the classroom situation
discussed in section 3, with your own teaching experience. If you can identify
any other management areas or elements in the classroom, list them below.
(1) ....................................................................................................................
(2) ....................................................................................................................
(3) ....................................................................................................................
(4) ....................................................................................................................
(5) ....................................................................................................................

EDA201±W/1 13
 1.6 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
AND LEADERSHIP STYLES
A classroom management style may be defined as the way in which teachers
express their management and leadership in the classroom situation. There is
no single correct management style: the different styles discussed below may be
used in different situations.
Consider the following instructions by three teachers:

Teacher A: All of you must hand in your homework assignments on Monday.

Those of you whose assignments are not here on Monday will get no
marks.
Teacher B: I want to remind you of the work programme that we worked out at
the beginning of the term and that homework assignment 2 has to be
handed in on Monday.
Teacher C: When you have completed your homework assignments you can hand
them in.

These three instructions illustrate three different ways of dealing with the same
classroom situation. Think about what we said in 1.5.1 of this section and try to
relate it to these examples.
A teacher's approach to teaching and management is linked to his or her
perception of how much emphasis should be placed on:
(a) task aspects, and
(b) human aspects in the classroom situation.

The two kinds of interactions:

. those aimed at establishing personal relationships and
. those aimed at task completion,

represent the very essence of management in a teaching situation. They

represent two important dimensions of classroom activities, and teachers have
to focus on both dimensions to promote successful teaching and learning. If one
of the two dimensions is overemphasised, a particular management and
teaching style may develop:
. If the teacher for example overemphasises the task dimension, it could lead
to an autocratic management and teaching style.
. Overemphasis of the human dimension may result in a laissez-faire or
permissive management and teaching style (see figure 3.1 in your prescribed
book).

Two important components of the teacher's management and leadership style

are authority and power. Leadership implies authority, because effective
leadership is impossible without authority. Without authority a teacher will not
be able to manage and lead the various activities in the teaching-learning
situation.

14
 The following five sources of power may be identified:
. reward power
. legitimate power
. coercive power
. referent power
. expert power

b
Activity
Study chapter b of your prescribed book and discuss the influence of these
sources of power on the classroom management style of the teacher.
...........................................................................................................................

The teacher's approach to the task dimension and the human dimension may
result in any of the following three major management and teaching styles:

FIGURE 1.1
Classroom management and teaching styles

HIGH
(+)

~
RELATIONS ORIENTATION

(IV) (I)
RELATIONS HIGH (+) RELATIONS HIGH (+)
TASK LOW (7) TASK HIGH (+)

(III) (II)
RELATIONS LOW (7) RELATIONS LOW (7)
TASK LOW (7) TASK HIGH (+)

LOW HIGH
(7) " (+)
TASK ORIENTATION

1.6.1 AUTOCRATIC CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT STYLE

In this (teacher-centred) style the role and leadership of the teacher (manager)
play an important part. When dealing with pupil behaviour this teacher will
intervene and try to control the behaviour of the pupils. The teacher is mainly
interested in the pupils' completion of tasks and learning performance (learning
results are all that matter). Pupils' participation in the classroom situation is

EDA201±W/1 15
 limited to listening, working and doing. This is a task-oriented management
style that overemphasises the task dimension of the classroom situation.
A characteristic feature of the autocratic management style is the strong
leadership role of the teacher. It has advantages as well as disadvantages,
depending on the characteristics of the classroom situation (class group, subject
matter, etc).
The following are some advantages of this approach:
. Some pupils may feel secure in this kind of situation.
. Because the teacher lays down fixed rules and procedures, pupils know what
is expected of them and what they can expect in the classroom.

The following are some disadvantages of this approach:

. The classroom atmosphere is characterised by competition, unwillingness to
work together and poor discipline when pupils are left unsupervised.
. Creative thinking is suppressed.
. There is no cooperation.
. Pupils may develop a negative attitude towards the subject.

The disadvantages of this style overshadow the advantages and it might

therefore not be the best style to use in the classroom.

1.6.2 LAISSEZ-FAIRE OR PERMISSIVE CLASSROOM

MANAGEMENT STYLE
Generally speaking this kind of manager or leader (teacher) may be described
as passive. The pupils enjoy maximum freedom while the teacher plays a
supportive role, remains in the background and does little to direct the
teaching-learning process. This management style overemphasises the human
aspects of the teaching-learning situation and may be termed a child-centred
teaching style. Pupil freedom characterises this style. When discipline problems
occur, this teacher is slow to become involved. In some classroom situations
this kind of teaching and classroom management style may be beneficial,
especially when pupils are expected to be creative (eg art and handicraft
classes). But in most classroom situations a lack of direction and leadership by
the teacher hampers effective teaching and learning.

1.6.3 DEMOCRATIC CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT STYLE

A democratic style of classroom management correlates with an interactive
teaching style. This teaching style requires that teachers should have a sound
knowledge of their subject and of human nature so that they can encourage
their pupils to participate actively and meaningfully in teaching and learning
activities. The control of pupil behaviour in the classroom is jointly controlled
by the pupils and the teacher. As a management style it requires the teacher to
maintain a balance between the task aspect and the human aspect of the
classroom situation. Teaching and learning tasks are completed with the pupils'
willing cooperation and coresponsibility which are the hallmarks of democratic
classroom management.
A democratic classroom management style has more advantages than
disadvantages for teaching and learning. The following are some advantages:

16
 . Pupils participate confidently in classroom activities.
. It encourages initiative and creativity.
. The classroom atmosphere is relaxed, yet productive.
. Pupils feel that they are involved in teaching activities.

b
Activity
Read the article by Allen (1986), study the three scenarios that are described,
and carry out the following activities.
(1) Identify the management style applied in each of the three lessons.
...................................................................................................................
(2) Identify and briefly discuss the features of the three lessons that prompted
your answers to the previous question.
Lesson 1: Agriculture
...........................................................................................................................
Lesson 2: Spanish
...........................................................................................................................
Lesson 3: Health education
...........................................................................................................................

Period one: Agriculture

Two major characteristics of the Agriculture class were: the diminished
importance of in-class academic activities, and the informal student-teacher
interactions encouraged by the teacher. A major portion of a student's grade
was determined by an out-of-class project. If a student raised an animal or grew
plants for the county fair, he automatically received a ``B'' or an ``A'' for the
class. Students without projects received either a ``C'' or a ``D''. No one failed,
regardless of in-class behavior. Mr. Ag believed that the classroom was a boring
place for him and his students. He frequently showed movies, filmstrips, and
slides, and class activities were primarily organized to pass the time in an
entertaining way with teaching subject matter a secondary concern. There was
seldom any written work or tests.
Working with students individually on projects outside of class fostered an
informal relationship between Mr. Ag and some of his students. He purposely
allowed this informality to carry over into the classroom. He tried to create a
relaxed and unstructured atmosphere in the classroom similar to the one he had
with students outside of class. A consequence of the informal nature of the
classroom was the verbal exchange between the students and Mr. Ag. This
involved Mr. Ag verbally picking on a student through sarcastic comments in
an effort to control his behavior.
Students viewed Agriculture as an easy grade and generally an entertaining
place to be. Minimal in-class effort was necessary to pass the course and the
strategies predominately used were having fun and reducing boredom, which
helped students to socialize.
The high use of having fun was related to the minimal in-class requirements
necessary to pass the course and the lack of structure in the class. Most students
were content to show up to the class and obtain an easy grade for minimal class
work while using the lack of structure, such as not having assigned seats, to
socialize by having fun with friends. As two students commented, ``Ag was an

EDA201±W/1 17
 easy class. No one ever fails it. So they sign up for it'' (student #8); and ``They
just sit and listen and goof around'' (student #14).
The moderate use of reducing boredom was by students who became bored by
the lack of content presented in class and who felt challenged by Mr. Ag's
sarcastic comments. Students found Mr. Ag's lectures confusing and, due to the
slow tempo of the class, very boring. It was common to observe 10±15-minute
stretches of class in which students were not engaged in any learning activity.
Mr. Ag often used the phrases ``being in left field'' and ``running around the
barn'' to describe his being off the subject. Then Mr. Ag would pick on
someone, often sarcastically, to try to interest the student in a new topic.
Students would turn this into a game and try to come back with a sarcastic
retort to ``burn'' Mr. Ag.
I don't understand what he means when he says, ``Getting back from left field,''
and I'm going ``I didn't even know we were in left field!'' That we were off the
subject. He's really confusing ... Mr. Ag kind of picks ... on one person. He'll just
nag at them most of the day. And so they fight back with him. We'll say
something that he doesn't like. (student #8)
A classroom management situation evolved in which students primarily
socialized, since minimal in-class effort was necessary to pass the course. Most
students were in Agriculture I for the easy grade. Other students were
interested in the subject matter but quickly accomplished the few class
assignments and were often confused and bored. Classroom management was
unstructured in this non-academic class and took on a game-like atmosphere
for most students.

Period two: Spanish I

The main characteristics of the Spanish class were very different from those of
the Agriculture class. First, classroom instruction was very structured and
presented in a highly routine manner. A high level of academic performance
was expected of students. These expectations included active participation in
almost constant verbal and written learning activities. Second, explicit
classroom rules and procedures were explained by Mr. Span the first day of
class and enforced consistently throughout the semester. These rules included
Rule 1, ``No talking or disruptions during lecture and drills,'' and Rule 2, ``Not
doing anything else that was wrong or dangerous.'' The consequences of
violating these rules included lowering the student's grade for the class. Third,
student-teacher interaction was very formal. Mr. Span maintained personal
distance between himself and the students. This distance was most evident in
the way Mr. Span talked down to students. It also accounted for Mr. Span's
lack of understanding of four bilingual students who were responsible for the
majority of disruptive class activities. Instead of getting to know these students
well enough to understand that their bilingual ability was the source of their
disruptive behavior due to being bored by the lessons, Mr. Span chose to
analyze the problem as an emotional one related to ``baby fat''.
The only problem that we had was with those three or four immature boys that sat
back there ... They were all sort of chubby. They still had baby fat on them ... I
think that all three or four of them to some extent, the emotional make-up was the
same. (Mr. Span)
There were two distinct student perspectives regarding this class. The first, held
by the majority of the students, was that it was a demanding class, requiring a
lot of work, but that they learned a lot of Spanish. The second perspective, held
by the bilingual students, was that the class was easy and often boring.

18
 The first group used the strategy giving the teacher what he wants to pass the
course. They gave almost constant attention to the steady academic activities
and did little to socialize. Socializing occurred only during the last few minutes
of class when students were given the opportunity to begin their homework
assignment. Students were very aware of the class rules, procedures, and the
need to focus on academic activities.
Mr. Span, I think he's the strictest. But he's a good teacher ... you can't joke
around in there or anything ... he makes us do those drills all the time and he's
always speaking to us in Spanish ... He explained the class rules and stuff ...
something like you're not suppose to be disruptive and no trouble and talking.
(student #15)
The second group, who were bilingual, sat together in the back corner of the
room and regularly used the strategy reducing boredom to socialize. They
found that they did not need to attend closely to the instructional activities to
do well on oral drills and written assignments or tests. Because of the tight
structure of class activities, they were often bored and created ways to reduce
their boredom. One said, ``I just screw around in there. That class is boring the
way he (Mr. Span) teaches it ... I already know Spanish, so I figure I don't have
to pay attention during class'' (student #10).
Although Mr. Span discounted the bilingual ability of these students as a
possible cause for their classroom behavior, it was clear to everyone else in the
class that this was the primary reason for their disruptive behavior.
A lot of people in there are learning Spanish. But a lot of people, like Juan in back,
he's messing around, he comes from a Spanish family. That's all he speaks at his
house (student #6);
I guess they're bored or something. Because most of them speak Spanish at their
homes ... So they just talk or they goof around and stuff. (student #15)
The perspective held by the majority of students was one that focused on giving
the teacher what he wants in order to pass the course. The bilingual students'
perspective was that the class was boring, and focused on socializing. The daily
disruption of this intense, academically oriented class by the bilingual students
became the established classroom management situation. The teacher often
interrupted his instruction to reprimand these students as they engaged in their
reducing boredom strategy to socialize as they easily passed the course.

Period Three: Health Ed

Health Ed was a required course for all ninth graders. It was taught five periods a
day by the same teacher. Three features that characterized the class were the
abundance of easy classwork required, the flexible limits on socializing behavior,
and the good rapport and cooperation between Mr. Heed and the students.
Mr. Heed required extensive written classwork from students that included
copying lists of health words, their definitions, and lecture notes from the
board, and two- or three-page worksheets related to a reading assignment,
movie, or filmstrip. Since the daily activities (Mr. Heed's lecture, movie, or
filmstrips) took up to 30 minutes of class time there was never enough time to
complete the written work in class. It then became homework to be collected
the following day. Students were told that this class was easy to pass if the
worksheets were done and minimal test grades were achieved. Most students
(90%) passed this course. Mr. Heed said,
For the first semester ... I had 18 A's, 29 B's, 51 C's, 40 D's, and 15 F's. And
those 15 F's, half of those are kids that I didn't see after about the first two weeks.

EDA201±W/1 19
 In general, Mr. Heed had a high tolerance for student socializing provided they
were doing classwork. He permitted students to sit by their friends if they were
not disruptive. If they were disruptive, he moved them permanently to another
seat or removed them from class.
Mr. Heed realized that socializing and humor were natural elements of the
students' culture. He took advantage of this to provide a classroom
environment that was relaxed yet focused on the study of health. Mr. Heed
personally knew many of the students since he had attended SHS with many of
their relatives. It was natural for Mr. Heed to socialize and joke with students
during class since he had a genuine interest in them based on his out-of-class
social contact. The in-class socialization between Mr. Heed and the students
contributed positively to the good rapport between them.
The above classroom features influenced the strategies that students chose to
socialize and pass the course. Having fun, giving the teacher what he wants,
and minimizing work were all frequently used in Health. Students realized the
need to pass the course since Health Ed was a requirement for graduation. They
also knew a great deal of written work was expected. Although they found the
work easy, they found the quantity excessive.
There were moments in every class period when students were giving the
teacher what he wanted. These occurred during Mr. Heed's lecture, during
movies and filmstrips, and during and immediately before tests. During these
times, Mr. Heed discouraged socializing and since his lectures were short and
the movies interesting, students complied with his request. Students also knew
that if they did the homework regularly it was easy to get a high grade: ``I do
homework every day and turn it in ... I guess he feels that if you can turn your
homework in you should get an A'' (student #11).
Students viewed Health Ed as a class in which they felt relaxed, even though it
required a great deal of written work. Students found Mr. Heed very tolerant of
their socializing as long as they were accomplishing their work.
Having fun regularly prevailed when Mr. Heed was preoccupied at his desk,
such as during the beginning minutes of the class. During those moments
students engaged in play and talk. Mr. Heed was tolerant of this activity as
long as it ceased when he began his lecture of assigned classwork. Generally
most students did cease playing around once an assignment was given, and
shifted to the strategy minimizing work.
Students knew that Mr. Heed placed a certain limit on their socializing to
maintain order for classwork to be accomplished. They generally accepted
being kicked out of class for disruptive behavior and it did not interfere with
their good rapport with Mr. Heed. They also found Mr. Heed interested in
socializing with them, which was pleasant if not unusual compared to their
other classes. Since Mr. Heed was tolerant and even participated in student
socializing, they could simultaneously pursue both agenda goals. This was
accomplished through minimizing work by cooperation on class and
homework assignments. Students helped one another by sharing answers on
worksheets and tests and by other cooperative means to ensure a passing
grade. Many students realized that with such an abundance of work turned in
daily, it was unlikely that Mr. Heed graded it all.
Mr. Heed wished to establish a relaxed environment in which students would
do the assigned health work. Students' perspective of this class was that it was
a relaxed environment in which they could complete their work to pass the
course while also being able to socialize with their friends. Those students
interested in receiving a minimal grade for Health Ed focused on minimizing
work and having fun, whereas students interested in receiving higher grades
focused on doing a lot of easy assignments by minimizing the work and giving

20
 the teacher what he wants. This class was the best example of both the students
and the teacher satisfactorily completing their respective agendas. It was in this
class that students' activity varied most and in which student-teacher
cooperation was most evident.

1.6.4 ALTERNATING CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

STYLES
It is evident from the above discussion of the three basic styles of classroom
management that one can use all three of these styles, depending on the
characteristics and components of the classroom situation. Factors in the
classroom situation that determine which management and teaching style is
used, include the following:
. class group
. subject matter
. purpose of the lesson
. type of teaching and learning activities to be performed
This means that a teacher's classroom management style may vary according to
the situation, or he or she may use different elements of the various
management styles in the same classroom situation. There is a correlation
between the teacher's classroom management style and his or her teaching
approach. This correlation may be represented as follows (Kruger & Van
Schalkwyk 1997:23):

FIGURE 1.2
Correlation between management and teaching style

MANAGERIAL APPROACH

!
!
!

AUTOCRATIC DEMOCRATIC LAISSEZ-FAIRE

BEHAVIOURISTIC INTERACTIVE HUMANISTIC

TEACHER CENTRED CHILD CENTRED

!

!
!

TEACHING APPROACH

EDA201±W/1 21
 b
Activity
Study 1.4, 1.5 and 1.6 of this section and consider the contents carefully
before you continue with this activity.
Now explain, by referring to practical examples, how the circumstances in a
particular classroom situation may influence a teacher's style of classroom
management and teaching. See if you can mention every factor that could be
present in a classroom. How do they affect the teacher's style?
...........................................................................................................................

1.7 PRINCIPLES OF CLASSROOM

MANAGEMENT
As we have pointed out, teachers can use all three of the basic styles of
classroom management and teaching, depending on the situation. But there are
certain principles that direct a teacher's activities, and they apply to all teaching
and learning situations.

b
Activity
List a number of general principles that you feel should apply to a teacher's
classroom management practice.
...........................................................................................................................

The following are some of the general qualities mentioned in your prescribed
book:
. fairness and justice
. consistency
. democracy
. respect
. decisiveness and leniency
. efficiency
. balance between task orientation and person orientation
. flexibility and adaptability
. competent classroom management and teaching
. maximised learning time
. modelling of appropriate behaviour

1.8 SUMMARY
This section dealt with the nature of the teaching-learning situation and with
classroom management:
. the meaning of the term ``classroom management''
. the complex nature of the classroom situation

22
 . different approaches to classroom management
. a comprehensive approach to classroom management
. classroom management styles
. principles of classroom management

These issues are important since they form the background to the rest of the
course material. The classroom management activities of a teacher with an
autocratic management style will differ from those of a teacher who practises
one of the other styles. When teachers consider management activities and
management areas in the classroom, they should bear in mind the principles
that apply to all types of classroom management.

1.9 REVIEW QUESTIONS

These are examples of possible examination questions:
(1) Briefly discuss the various approaches to classroom management.
(2) Explain the differences between a comprehensive approach to classroom
management and the other approaches.
(3) Explain how classroom situations may influence a teacher's classroom
management and teaching approach.

1.10 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Allen, JD. 1986. Classroom management: students' perspectives, goals and
strategies. American Educational Research Journal 23(3):437±459.
Bell, RT. 1984. Classroom management: a gallon in a pint pot? System 12(2):107±
115.
Brophy, JE. 1983. Classroom organization and management. The Elementary
School Journal 83(4):265±283.
Calderhead, J. 1984. Teachers' classroom decision-making. London: Holt, Rinehart
& Winston.
Calitz, LP. 1987. Riglyne vir doeltreffende klaskamerbestuur, in Badenhorst,
DC (red). Skoolbestuur: die rol en taak van die onderwyser. Pretoria:
HAUM.
Cawood, J & Conradie, SM. 1989. 'n Taakanalise van die onderwyser in skole in
die Republiek van Suid-Afrika. Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Opvoedkunde
9(1):26±35.
Jones, VF & Jones, LS. 1990. Comprehensive classroom management. 3rd edition.
Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Turney, C, Eltis, KJ, Towler, J & Wright, R. 1986. The teachers' world of work.
Sydney: Sydmac Academic Press.
Weber, WA 1986. Classroom management, in Cooper, JM (ed). Classroom
teaching skills, Lexington: Heath.
Zahorik, JA. 1990. Stability and flexibility in teaching. Teaching & Teacher
Education 6(1):69±80.

EDA201±W/1 23
24
SECTION 2

MANAGEMENT TASKS IN THE CLASSROOM SITUATION

EDA201±W/1 25
 SECTION 2
MANAGEMENT TASKS IN THE
CLASSROOM SITUATION
2.1 INTRODUCTION
When I started teaching I had my first introduction to the wide variety of
management and administrative duties that teaching a group of pupils entails.
Making lists! School feÃte tickets, textbook numbers, school fund contributions, a
bus excursion for pupils, lists of marks, medical examinations! And everything has
to be completed on a particular form; there are lists and forms for everything.
Evaluation! The teacher is expected to take six to ten weeks of a pupil's work and
participation in class activities Ð the pupil's entire experience of my subject, in
fact Ð and reduce it to just a single mark or an alphabetic symbol.
Planning and preparation! I spend hours planning and preparing for every possible
eventuality. The amount of time I spend on planning Ð sometimes to no
purpose Ð amazes me. And sometimes the principal wants to see my planning in
writing.
Corrections! Every week I am buried under mountains of homework and classwork
assignments. How must I find time to correct all this work and still offer every pupil
meaningful and constructive criticism on his or her daily effort?
Organising! The classroom has to be prepared for every lesson. Sometimes it's
groupwork, sometimes class teaching. I must order the overhead projector from the
media centre and fetch it. Remember to send Thabo to the head of department at ten
o'clock. Remember to pump the ball for this afternoon's soccer practice. Remember
the meeting in the staffroom at break. And tonight at seven there is a parents'
evening in the school hall. Oh, and remember the class party next week ...

This sketch illustrates a typical day in the life of a teacher. If you spend a day in
a classroom and observe all the activities that take place, you soon realise that
teachers have to perform a great number and variety of tasks effectively. This
section deals with management activities that will help teachers to create order
in a sometimes chaotic situation.

b
Activity
Reread the sketch. Now write down the different tasks this teacher had to
perform:
(1) ....................................................................................................................
(2) ....................................................................................................................

26
 (3) ....................................................................................................................
(4) ....................................................................................................................
(5) ....................................................................................................................
(6) ....................................................................................................................
(7) ....................................................................................................................

Did you spot the following tasks?

. completing forms and lists
. evaluation
. planning
. preparation
. correction
. organising

To make the teacher's classroom management work more systematic, the work
can be divided into the following two categories:
. management tasks (ie the different actions, functions or activities that are
required for teaching and learning activities to proceed smoothly)
. management areas (ie the different kinds of activities in a classroom or the
elements of the teaching-learning situation)

b
Activity
Take another look at the tasks you spotted in the sketch. Which of these tasks
would you describe as a management activity and which as a management
area?
Management activity Management area
...........................................................................................................................

Would you agree that the following activities are management tasks?
. planning
. preparation
. organising

b
Activity
The other tasks are not strictly management tasks. What are they?
. Completing forms and lists ..........................................................................
. Evaluation .....................................................................................................
. Corrections ....................................................................................................

One could say that these tasks represent the following:

. completing forms and lists: classroom administration
. evaluation: teaching
. corrections: teaching

So teaching and classroom administration may be defined as two elements of

the classroom situation.

EDA201±W/1 27
 g
Outcome
You should be able to discuss and apply various management functions in the
classroom situation.
Objectives
. Describe the necessary management tasks or functions in teaching-learning
situations.
. Indicate the relation between management functions and teaching
activities.
. Apply the various management tasks in classroom situations.

You have to work through this section, chapters 4 to 11 of your prescribed book
and critically analyse your own teaching practice to achieve these objectives.
After you have studied Part II in your prescribed book you should have some
idea of the various management tasks, activities or functions that help teachers
to do their work. You should also know how these activities have to be carried
out in classroom situations. You should realise that the management tasks of a
factory manager, which are the same as the management tasks of a classroom
manager, are performed in a very different, unique way by teachers in a
classroom. In this section we discuss a number of management tasks. Your task
is to translate this knowledge into skills that you can use in the classroom.
There are different views of management tasks. Most authors identify the
following four principal or basic management tasks:
. planning
. organising
. leadership
. control

Some authors identify policy making as a fifth basic management task. These
five management tasks constitute a management process.
FIGURE 2.1
The five management tasks as a management process

(1) policy making

~

!
(2) planning
(5) control
~

!
(3) organising

(4) leadership 3

28
 (1) policy making
(2) planning
(3) organising
(4) leadership
(5) control

However, there are a number of additional tasks that managers have to

perform continuously to supplement the basic management tasks or functions.
Marx and Van Aswegen (1983:82) point out that these additional management
tasks are performed at all stages of the management process. The number of
additional management tasks that are identified depends on a particular
author's idea of management.
For the purposes of classroom management and specifically this course we do
not divide management tasks between basic management functions and
additional management functions. The classroom situation differs from other
areas where management takes place (see 1.4 again). A teacher should be able
to apply any number of management functions in the course of one lesson. The
following may be regarded as the most important management functions a
teacher should be able to apply:
. planning
. organising
. directing
. control
. policy making
. decision making
. communication
. motivation

2.2 PLANNING
Planning is conscious reflection about the aims of the enterprise (or a
section of it), the means and activities involved and the problems that may
arise, and then working out the best plan of action to achieve the set aims.

b
Activity
Write down the different elements or essential components of this definition of
planning.
(1) ....................................................................................................................
(2) ....................................................................................................................
(3) ....................................................................................................................
(4) ....................................................................................................................
(5) ....................................................................................................................
(6) ....................................................................................................................
(7) ....................................................................................................................

EDA201±W/1 29
 One may identify the following elements:
. conscious reflection
. aims
. means
. activities
. problems
. plan of action
Teachers should plan for different aspects of the teaching-learning situation.

b
Activity
Think about a typical teaching-learning situation. For which aspects of the
lesson do you think you should plan?
...........................................................................................................................

(1) According to Berliner (1990:87±88) teachers should plan things like the
following:
. lesson content
. time allocation
. group formation
. class activities
(2) According to Ames (1978:10) teachers should plan the following:
. use of time
. teaching methods
. aims
De Bruyn (1984:21) believes that managers have to plan the following:
. what the enterprise should achieve
. what has to be done to achieve the aims
There are four basic phases of planning that apply to teachers as classroom
managers (Marx & Van Aswegen 1983:60±61; Van der Westhuizen 1990:144±
145):
Phase 1 Formulating the aims, for example:
. specify exactly what a particular lesson or activity should achieve
. state what knowledge, skills and attitudes pupils should learn from
a lesson or activity
Phase 2 Analysing the present situation Ð this entails collecting and
analysing information on factors like the following:
. nature of the class group
. particular lesson content
. available media
. time available
. classroom activities
Phase 3 Implementing the plan
Phase 4 Evaluation Ð homework, tests and examinations enable teachers to
determine whether a plan has been carried out successfully.

30
 Calitz (1986:72±73) believes that planning as a management task for teachers
entails professional reflection on the total plan of action and how the teaching-
learning process should proceed, and determining strategies for this purpose.
Planning should take all the variables that determine effective teaching and
learning in the classroom into account.

Three main types of planning exist and also apply to teachers and their task:
. long-term planning
. medium-term planning
. short-term planning

b
Activity
How would you classify a teacher's planning in terms of the three types
mentioned above?
(1) long-term planning ....................................................................................
(2) medium-term planning ..............................................................................
(3) short-term planning ...................................................................................

When a teacher spreads the syllabus over the whole year, this is called long-
term planning. When this annual plan is broken up into terms or quarters, it is
called medium-term planning, and when a teacher is planning a lesson or
theme it is called short-term planning.

b
Activity
With reference to the four phases and three types of planning mentioned
above, explain how your work scheme in fact provides a plan of the year's
activities for a particular class. ........................................................................

2.3 ORGANISING
Marx and Van Aswegen (1983:62) define organising as:
the management task concerned with arranging the activities and
resources of an enterprise by assigning duties, responsibilities and
authority to persons and sections and determining their interrelationships
in order to promote cooperation and to permit optimal, systematic work
performance and goal achievement.

Organising is a regulating function that includes the regulation of people,

things and processes in order to achieve set goals. If one examines the definition
of organising carefully, the following characteristics are evident:

. It is an ongoing, creative activity.

. It includes the arrangement of an enterprise's activities and resources by
assigning duties, responsibilities and authority to persons and sections.

EDA201±W/1 31
 . It involves systematic performance of work to ensure optimal attainment of
aims and objectives.

The organisational activities of the manager of an enterprise include the

following:
. creating an organisational structure, inter alia grouping tasks logically
. delegating by entrusting authority and responsibilities to others
. coordinating, in order to ensure cooperation between people in the
performance of tasks

b
Activity
Apply the above definition of organising by indicating what each of the terms
in the definition implies for the classroom situation.
(1) Activities.....................................................................................................
(2) Resources ....................................................................................................
(3) Duties .........................................................................................................
(4) Responsibilities ...........................................................................................
(5) Authority ....................................................................................................
(6) Relations .....................................................................................................
(7) Systematic performance..............................................................................
(8) Goals ...........................................................................................................

You could have identified the following elements of organising in the

classroom:
(1) Activities: teaching, learning, classwork, listening
(2) Resources: writingboard, textbooks, overhead projector
(3) Duties: teaching, learning, cleaning classroom, handing out books
(4) Responsibilities: teaching, learning
(5) Authority: teacher, class captain
(6) Relations: teacher-pupils, pupil-pupil
(7) Systematic performance: instructional steps, classwork, paying attention
(8) Goals: lesson goals

Do you agree with the following two authors about aspects that a teacher has to
organise in the course of a teaching-learning situation.

(1) According to Berliner (1990:89) a teacher organises things such as the

following:
. pace of the lesson
. sequence of activities
. pupils' learning activities
. time

(2) Ames (1978:10) mentions the following aspects:

. division of work
. delegating authority
. establishing relationships
. coordination

32
 You will have gathered by now that there are various aspects in the classroom
situation that need organising. Do you agree with the following brief definition
of a teacher's organisational task?

The teacher's organisational task is to arrange the teaching-learning activities so

that all those involved will cooperate in an orderly way to achieve the set goals.

Your prescribed book mentions the following steps in the organising process:
(1) task setting
(2) task analysis
(3) task organisation
(4) assigning tasks
(5) assigning authority
(6) determining communication routes
(7) establishing relationships
(8) providing means
(9) announcing arrangements

b
Activity
Study 5.4 in your prescribed book and explain how you would use the various
steps of the organising process to organise a class sale with your pupils. .....
...........................................................................................................................

2.4 DIRECTING
There is widespread agreement that the successful organisation has one
major attribute that sets it apart from unsuccessful organisations: dynamic
and effective leadership (Charlton 1993:29).

Providing guidance may be seen as the very core of the management process,
since all the management tasks we have discussed so far (policy making,
planning and organising) are activated by leadership.
Directing is the management activity that activates the activities of an
enterprise and keeps them going to ensure optimal performance (Marx & Van
Aswegen 1983:77).
Directing is part of the dynamics of management and according to De Bruyn
(1984:23) it is the most complicated part. The following are reasons why
leadership is so complicated and demanding (De Bruyn 1984:24; Conradie
1990:81; Marx & Van Aswegen 1983:77):
. Leadership has to do with the human element in an enterprise. The
management leader should be able to inspire people to achieve not only the
aim of the enterprise but their personal aims as well.
. Because managers are only human and are often closely involved with
matters, they are not always rational and objective.

EDA201±W/1 33
 . Managers' leadership task confronts them with the problem that employees'
goals sometimes conflict with the goals of the enterprise.

The manager's planning and organising are implemented as effectively as

possible. The aim of leadership is not only to get the work done, but to get
people to do top-quality work willingly, enthusiastically and with commitment
(De Bruyn 1984:24). This aim obviously demands a lot from the manager in
terms of leadership.
The leadership task of the teacher as a classroom manager is related to the
concept of directing as one facet of the act of providing guidance.
Van der Westhuizen (1990:196) defines leadership as a vocation and personal
talent that enables leaders to stimulate, direct and coordinate group interaction
and activities in a given situation in a creative and helping manner, based on
group aims, with a view to eventually achieving these aims.
The act of providing guidance, on the other hand, implies that the leader
should inspire, influence and lead his or her followers so that they may fulfil
their vocations.

b Activity
Study chapter 6 of your prescribed book and discuss the relationship between
leadership and power. .......................................................................................

Teachers stimulate and motivate their pupils, through the example they set, to
follow the teacher of their own free will.
Leadership is an important component of the classroom situation. Cawood et al
(1980:141) even say that leadership is a prerequisite for the practical application
of didactic theory.

b
Activity
Read chapter 6 of your prescribed book and try to identify the functions
through which teachers provide leadership. .....................................................
...........................................................................................................................

The leadership functions that teachers fulfil in the course of teaching-learning

activities include the following:
. encouragement
. motivation
. initiation
. problem solving
. variation of pace

2.5 CONTROL
Marx and Van Aswegen (1983:79) define control as:

34
 ... the management task of controlling and regulating the execution of
plans and/or instructions to ensure that execution conforms to the
predetermined plans, standards and goals.

b
Activity
Teachers can determine whether the predetermined goals have been achieved
by exercising control. Suppose the objective of a grade 6 Mathematics lesson is
to enable pupils to execute the steps in the long division process.
What would you do to determine (exercise control, monitor) whether the
pupils have in fact achieved the objective of the lesson?
(1) During the lesson.......................................................................................
(2) After the lesson ..........................................................................................

Exercising control is a dynamic management activity. According to De Bruyn

(1984:24) it comprises the following three elements:
. comparing the actual results with the planned results
. evaluating differences or discrepancies between the actual results and the
planned results
. taking remedial steps with a view to achieving the planned results
Control follows the other management tasks and aims to prevent and remedy.
By exercising control, the manager ensures that the right action is performed in
the right way at the right time and place.
Control involves the following four steps:
. setting standards
. observing and measuring work
. evaluating work and performance
. remedial action
Control is an important management task. It gives meaning to planning,
organising and leadership, but if control is too rigid (inflexible) it can hamper
efficiency. Van der Westhuizen (1990:232) says that the control activity is the
sum of all the other management activities and so reflects the manager's
management and leadership style.
Johnson and Brooks (1979:34) define the teacher's control task as follows:
Controlling has to do with determining whether or not the intentions
embodied in plans, policies, and rules are being carried out properly and
successfully. Thus it encompasses the evaluating and monitoring activities
of teachers that are directed at assuring that pupils are learning, doing
their assigned tasks, reaching their group goals, and adhering to the norms
of the school and classroom.
Control in the classroom relates not only to pupils' learning activities but also to
controlling and structuring their activities and behaviour during the teaching-
learning process. The measure of control that a teacher exercises over the
teaching-learning process depends on such things as the nature of the subject
matter, the pupils' ages and the level of their learning ability (Du Plooy
1991:35±38; Bossert 1979:48). Morrison (1979:474±475) found for example that if
the teacher exercises considerable control over the teaching-learning process of

EDA201±W/1 35
 very young pupils, it reduces fear and insecurity and leads to effective
performance.

The teacher's control task includes the following:

. discipline
. monitoring
. evaluation
. remediation
. feedback

b
Activity
Give practical examples of how a teacher can control the effective performance
of pupils' learning activities: ............................................................................
...........................................................................................................................

2.6 POLICY MAKING

Think about the following sketch:

Boys and girls, I am Mr Harvey. Right at the beginning of the year I want us to
understand each other quite clearly. I am here to teach you and you are here to
learn. I don't stand any nonsense and I expect you always to do exactly what I tell
you to do. Otherwise there will be trouble.

You may have heard somebody say these words already. Perhaps you have
spoken them yourself. Let's see what we can learn from the sketch.

b
Activity
Read the sketch again, as well as 8.3 in your prescribed book. Now indicate
whether the following statements are true or false:
. Mr Harvey's pupils know exactly what is expected of them. .....................
.......................................................................................................................
. What Mr Harvey describes here could be called his classroom policy. ......
.......................................................................................................................
. A classroom policy should be outlined to pupils at the beginning of the
year................................................................................................................
. In a month's time the pupils will still remember what Mr Harvey said. ..
.......................................................................................................................
. Mr Harvey stated the aims of his classroom policy very clearly. ...............
.......................................................................................................................

36
 It is not easy to put a straight ``true'' or ``false'' opposite all these statements.
The following views may be helpful:
. I don't think Mr Harvey's pupils know exactly what is expected of them.
. To some teachers this will suffice as a classroom policy.
. Of course one should declare a classroom policy at the beginning of the year,
but one has to repeat it from time to time.
. I think Mr Harvey's pupils could forget his policy, because a classroom
policy should also be written on paper and displayed.
. If we assume that this is Mr Harvey's only policy statement to his pupils, we
could expect them to be uncertain and his classroom might sometimes be
chaotic.

Policy making involves the following:

. formulating the aims of the enterprise (classroom)
. laying down guidelines for decision making in order to achieve the aims

One could define policy as general statements or guidelines that allow a person
to take decisions within certain fixed parameters (boundaries). Although one
should not equate policy with rules and procedures, it does relate to these
things because policy inevitably leads to rules and regulations which ensure
that the policy is executed.
A teacher's classroom policy, and the accompanying classroom rules and
procedures, provide the basis for classroom management.
Without a classroom policy the teacher cannot manage the different elements of
the classroom effectively. Calitz (1986:88±89) mentions the following aspects
that should receive attention in a classroom policy:
. aims and objectives
. class rules and procedures
. general behaviour of pupils
. task division
. pupil leadership
. discipline and order
. neatness and decoration of the classroom

b
Activity
Think about your own teaching and classroom practice, then complete the
following two parts of what could be a classroom policy:
. Aims for our classroom ................................................................................
. Rules for our classroom ...............................................................................

You could have written the following under these two headings:
. The aim of being together in the classroom as a group is always to strive for
effective learning. We know we are there to learn and not to play.
. Class rules like the following make it possible to achieve this aim:
We must enter and leave the classroom in an orderly manner.
When the teacher speaks we must keep quiet and listen.
Our exercise books and textbooks must always be available. And so on.

Why do you think these examples were written in the first person (``we'')?

EDA201±W/1 37
 . Classroom rules should be drawn up by the teacher and the pupils.
. The teacher should try to reach agreement with the pupils.
. The teacher, and especially the pupils, should feel that the classroom policy is
their own.

After you have completed the two parts of the policy above, you should discuss
the other aspects of a classroom policy with your pupils so that you may arrive
at a workable, acceptable classroom policy.

2.7 DECISION MAKING

Decision making is one of the teacher's main management activities. Teachers
often have to choose between different courses of action in the classroom.
Making these choices is called decision making. Because the teachers' decisions
affect the pupils and because teachers often have to bear the consequences of
their decisions, they should not take decisions lightly.
The following kinds of decisions have been identified (Schreuder et al 1993:71;
Kruger & Van Schalkwyk 1992:69):
. impulsive decisions
. intuitive decisions
. routine decisions
. creative decisions
. sensitive decisions
. participatory decisions

Teachers have to consider two important things when they make decisions:
. their own value system and that of the school
. the situation in which the decision has to be taken

There are different views of the steps to be followed in making decisions.

Bernard (1981:22) mentions the following steps:
Step 1 Identify the need
Step 2 Analyse the need
Step 3 Set criteria for measuring the plan of action
Step 4 Collect relevant information
Step 5 Identify different ways of meeting the need
Step 6 Try out at least one of these ways
Step 7 Evaluate the chosen method

b
Activity
What kind of decision would you take in the following cases?
(1) Once again Harry has not finished his homework. ..................................
(2) For the first time in your teaching career a pupil swears at you in the
classroom and in the heat of the moment you hit the pupil.....................
(3) After listening to all the pupils' excuses for not attending your class, you
wait until the next day before you punish them.......................................

38
 2.8 COMMUNICATION
According to Theron and Van der Westhuizen (1992:145), communication in
the classroom situation is not just conveying information but includes both
direct and indirect influencing of pupils. In simple terms, communication
happens when a sender (teacher) conveys a message (the lesson) to a recipient
(pupil) through a medium (speech, writingboard, etc) and the recipient
responds (oral answers in class, homework assignments, etc).
Thus communication consists of the following elements:
. sender
. message
. media
. recipient

b
. feedback

Activity
Discuss what each element of communication entails in a teaching-learning
situation. ...........................................................................................................

2.9 MOTIVATION
There are several definitions of motivation but, in simple terms, one could say
that it is the process through which the teacher provides pupils with motives to
encourage them to achieve the goals set for the class. Motivation may also be
described as an inner force that drives people to fulfil certain needs.
There are many theories about motivation, including the theories of Maslow,
McGregor, Herzberg and Vroom. A number of motivators are identified when
these theories are examined:
. Needs: the school should satisfy certain needs of pupils.
. Expectations: pupils expect certain things from a class or a subject.
. Opportunities: Opportunities should be made available to pupils to work
and achieve.
. Satisfaction: pupils strive to realise their own goals.
. Reward: pupils expect recognition for good work.

b
Activity
Read 11.4 in your prescribed book and then indicate how you could use the
following motivators in the classroom:
. Pupils' needs .................................................................................................
. Pupils' expectations ......................................................................................
. Opportunities ................................................................................................
. Satisfaction....................................................................................................
. Reward ..........................................................................................................

EDA201±W/1 39
 2.10 SUMMARY
A number of management activities have been discussed in this section. The
important thing is to know what the management activities entail and how they
may be applied in the classroom situation. We have tried to point out this
relationship throughout the section. Since teachers often have to perform
management and teaching activities at the same time, they have to be quite sure
how to perform management activities in the classroom.

2.11 REVIEW QUESTIONS

(1) Explain how a class teacher will set about organising a class function to
raise funds for the school. Refer to the steps of organising.
(2) Explain the elements of communication in terms of the teaching-learning
situation.

2.12 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ames, M.D. 1978. Beyond competency and control: teachers as managers. The
Elementary School Journal 79(1):7±14.
Berliner, DC. 1990. If the metaphor fits, why not wear it? The teacher as
executive. Theory into Practice, 24(2):85±93.
Bernard, PB. 1981. Onderwysbestuur en onderwysleiding. Durban: Butterworth.
Bossert, ST. 1979. Tasks and social relationships in classrooms. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Calitz, LP. 1984. Die bestuursbevoegdhede van die onderwyser. Suid-Afrikaanse
Tydskrif vir Opvoedkunde 4(4):151±156.
Calitz, LP. 1986. Riglyne vir doeltreffende klaskamerbestuur, in Badenhorst,
DC (red). Skoolbestuur: die rol en taak van die onderwyser. Pretoria:
HAUM.
Cawood, J, Strydom, AH & Van Loggerenberg, NT. 1980. Doeltreffende
onderwys. Goodwood: Nasou.
Charlton, GD. 1993. Leadership: the human race. Kenwyn: Juta.
Conradie, JJ. 1990. Die wesensaard van klaskamerbestuur: 'n multidissiplineÃre
benadering. Ongepubliseerde DEd-proefskrif. Pretoria: Universiteit van
Suid-Afrika.
De Bruyn, HEC. 1984. Die verwantskap tussen die strategie en die
organisasiestruktuur van multi-divisionele ondernemings met spesiale
verwysing na die matriksorganisasie. Ongepubliseerde DEd-proefskrif.
Vereeniging: Potcefstroomse Universiteit vir Christelike HoeÈr
Onderwys.
Du Plooy, WJ. 1991. Die didaktiese kontinuum. Educare 20(1, 2):27±41.
Emmer, LT, Evertson, CM, Sanford, JP, Clements, BS & Worsham, ME. 1984.

40
 Classroom management for secondary teachers. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-
Hall.
Johnson, M & Brooks, H 1979. Conceptualizing classroom management, in
Duke, DL (ed). Classroom management. The 78th yearbook of the
National Society for the Study of Education. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press.
Marx, FW & Van Aswegen, PJ. 1983. Die bedryfsekonomie: 'n kort oorsig. Pretoria:
HAUM.
Morrison, TL. 1979. Classroom structure, work involvement, and social climate
in elementary school classrooms. Journal of Educational Psychology,
71(4):471±477.
Schreuder, JH, Du Toit, PJ, Roesch, NC & Shah, CG. 1993. Professionele
ontwikkeling. Kaapstad: Maskew Miller.
Van der Westhuizen, PC 1990. Onderwysbestuurstake, in Van der Westhuizen,
PC. (red). Doeltreffende onderwysbestuur. Pretoria: HAUM.

EDA201±W/1 41
42
SECTION 3

ELEMENTS OF THE TEACHING-LEARNING SITUATION

EDA201±W/1 43
 SECTION 3
ELEMENTS OF THE TEACHING-
LEARNING SITUATION
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Do you remember the classroom tasks that you identified in Activity 1 of
section 2? Some of these activities, we found, could not really be classified as
management tasks; they were activities that occur in classrooms or in the
teaching-learning situation.

b
Activity
Consider your own teaching situation and try to identify five types of
activities that you perform.
(1) ....................................................................................................................
(2) ....................................................................................................................
(3) ....................................................................................................................
(4) ....................................................................................................................
(5) ....................................................................................................................

You could have listed the following classroom activities:

. various teaching activities
. administration (filing, handing out scripts, completing forms, etc)
. maintaining discipline
. helping pupils with problems, and so on

The classroom may be defined as a general management area in which teachers

perform management tasks in order to realise effective teaching and learning
(Van der Westhuizen & Steyn 1983:167; Calitz 1984:153). The main tasks
performed in the classroom are therefore teaching and learning.
Conradie (1990:159) cites the overall purpose of classroom management to be
the activities that teachers perform to organise classroom events in order to
ensure optimal learning conditions.
Jones and Jones (1990:15) favour a comprehensive view of classroom
management. They believe that teachers should not focus on a few individual
aspects of the complex classroom situation: they should manage all the many
factors that make up a teaching-learning situation for the sake of effective
teaching and learning. These authors identify five management areas in which
teachers should possess skills to manage their classrooms effectively:

44
 . knowledge of pupils' characters and needs and the necessary management
skills to satisfy these needs
. creating positive interpersonal relationships to help satisfy pupils'
psychological needs
. teaching methods that ensure optimal learning so that pupils' academic
needs may be met
. classroom organisation and group management techniques that stimulate
task-oriented behaviour
. methods that ensure appropriate and correct pupil behaviour

Several authors have identified areas (elements) in the classroom that are
affected by the teacher's management task. Some emphasise one area as being
the most important and regard the rest as secondary. Others adopt an
encyclopaedic approach and list all the management activities that occur in a
classroom. If all these approaches are analysed, we can identify some universal
classroom management areas that together make up the complex teaching-
learning situation.
Brophy (1988:5) mentions the following elements that teachers have to manage
in the teaching-learning situation:
. physical environment of the classroom
. creating an orderly situation through rules and procedures
. pupil participation in group activities
. pupil involvement in teaching and learning activities

Evans et al (1991:62) mention the following factors that teachers have to

manage to meet pupils' educational needs:
. discipline
. classroom environment
. time
. group teaching
. teaching methods
. media

Doyle (1990:350±351) considers classroom activities as the key to creating order

in a classroom. He believes that a classroom activity consists of the following
elements that are affected by the teacher's management task:
. time
. physical environment and media
. pupils' behaviour or programme of action
. lesson content which is the focus of classroom activity

Evertson (1989:84±87) identifies the following areas in the classroom that are
affected by the teacher's management task:
. teaching
. physical environment of the classroom
. rules and procedures
. pupil behaviour
. classroom atmosphere
. adapting to pupils' intellectual ability

Emmer, Evertson and Anderson (1980:223±230) mention the following

management areas in the classroom:

EDA201±W/1 45
 . pupil behaviour
. teaching
. pupils' interests
. physical environment of the classroom
. teacher's conduct or activities
The insights gained from the following three sources enable us to identify some
universal, inclusive (that form the overall teaching-learning situation)
management areas in a classroom:
. the Teacher Effectiveness Research Program in the USA
. various approaches to classroom management
. management areas identified by authors on classroom management
(outlined above)

We are therefore able to identify the following eight universal management

areas in classroom management, including some of the areas mentioned above:
. maintaining of discipline, including pupils' behaviour in the classroom
. a learning-friendly environment, including features of the physical classroom
environment
. teaching
. classroom climate
. interpersonal relations
. classroom administration
. effective use of teaching time
. pupil activities

The management activities (section 2) are performed in the various

management areas or elements in the classroom. For instance, a teacher may
plan, organise, provide leadership and so on in regard to teaching, group work,
discipline, et cetera. All these elements or management areas together make up
the overall classroom situation. We may present classroom management
schematically as follows:
FIGURE 3.1
Classroom management

Management activities Management areas

Planning " Teaching
Organising Groupwork
Leadership Discipline
Control Classroom environment
etc " etc

b
Activity
Do you agree with the number of management areas that we have identified?
Can you identify other management areas? If so, write them down.
...........................................................................................................................

46
 g
Outcome
You should be able to discuss the structure of the classroom situation and
manage a teaching-learning situation in your own teaching situation.
Objectives
. understand and discuss the classroom as the teacher's ``organisation''
. describe managing the various elements of a teaching-learning situation
. develop skills that will enable you to manage your own classroom better

In this section we discuss eight elements of the teaching-learning situation. You

have to decide whether these eight are adequate and comprehensive enough to
cover all aspects that are affected by the teacher's management task.
To do that, you should study this section and chapters 14 to 27 of your
prescribed book.

3.2 CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT

f
What are the most serious problems of education and how should they be
addressed?
Here are a few grass-roots opinions that appeared in Barometer (1995:18±20):
. There is overcrowding in most schools due to the shortage of classrooms
and furniture.
. One class has to accommodate too many pupils.
. Teachers must sacrifice. They should divide their classes because of the
overcrowding in schools. Some should come in the mornings, and others in
the afternoon to please all of them.

The teacher has to create a learning environment that will have a positive
influence on the pupils' experiences in the classroom. Despite the problems we
have discussed, teachers still have to create an effective teaching and learning
environment in their classrooms.
The classroom environment consists of the following three components:
. A physical component: this includes the classroom area, furnishings and
teaching media.
. A social component: this is a product of interaction between teacher and
pupils and amongst the pupils themselves.
. An educational component: this consists of lesson content, goals and
organisation of the teaching-learning situation.

If the conditions in the classroom are orderly and appropriate for learning,
effective teaching can take place and the likelihood of disruptive behaviour is
minimised. Creating and maintaining an orderly teaching-learning
environment includes the following aspects:

EDA201±W/1 47
 . layout and arrangement of furniture
. positioning of pupils
. effective use of classroom space, in keeping with the content and goal of the
lesson
. time schedules for classroom activities
. handling teaching media and study material
. creating a positive, inviting classroom atmosphere

Doyle (1986:395) believes that the orderly progress of teaching and learning
activities in an orderly environment forms the basis of a teacher's classroom
management. Even if the physical component of the classroom is not ideal, the
teacher can still try to do justice to the social and educational components.

3.3 CLASSROOM CLIMATE

As a teacher you surely want your classroom situation to be relaxed yet
productive. You will definitely want your pupils to do their work in your
subject or class willingly, without disturbing the orderly progress of the
teaching-learning situation.
Consider the following sketches:

When Mr Mwenese allows his 32 grade 9 pupils to enter his classroom, some of
them stand around chatting to each other, others sit down and take out their books,
and others keep joking and laughing loudly.
Mr Mwenese shouts to be heard above the noise in the classroom: ``All right,
children, let's sit down now. We have a lot of work to do.''
Some children sit down but others continue making a noise. A few children try to
silence the others: ``Shhh, keep quiet.''
Mr Mwenese: ``Hey, come on now, stop it! Take out your homework so we can get
started.''

When Miss Naidoo allows her 28 grade 10 pupils to enter the classroom, they
stand around chatting to each other while Miss Naidoo discusses something
personal with a pupil outside the door. When she enters the classroom, all the
pupils stop talking, sit down and take out their books.
``Thank you, children. Let's carry on with today's work.''
Miss Naidoo at once proceeds to check their homework assignments and starts the
lesson.

You would no doubt prefer your classes to proceed like Miss Naidoo's rather
than Mr Mwenese's. We now look at ways in which teachers can create a
positive classroom atmosphere.
In a study of the relation between classroom atmosphere and successful
learning, Walberg and Anderson (1968:414±419) conclude that both:

48
 . structural aspects (task-related aspects) and
. human relations

in the classroom affect the way in which pupils perceive the classroom
atmosphere.
Paoletti (1990:129) also says that pupils' perceptions of interpersonal relations
and order in the classroom cultivate a particular atmosphere.
Many authors emphasise the importance of the teacher's role in determining
classroom atmosphere. Lewis and Lovegrove (1984:100) write:
It appears that the best teachers are more likely to be seen as taking
responsibility for maintaining a learning atmosphere in their classroom
and not rejecting their disciplinary role ...

Teachers can combine the structural (task-related) and human relations aspects
by managing their classrooms effectively in order to create a positive
atmosphere. Evans et al (1991:78) describe this responsibility of the teacher as
follows:
It is the teacher's role to establish and maintain a positive learning
environment that has structure, expectations and consistent enforcement
of those expectations. It is also necessary that the environment be warm
and supportive, demonstrating care and concern about children.

A proper balance between the:

. structural (task-oriented) and the
. human relations aspects,

required in every teaching-learning situation , enables teachers to create a

teaching-learning situation with a positive atmosphere.
Maintaining a balance between the structural (formal) and human relations
(informal) aspects requires a holistic approach to classroom management
(Conradie 1990:213). Such an approach takes both the structural or task-
oriented aspects and the human relations aspects of the teaching-learning
situation into account. The combination and integration of these two
dimensions represent the actual structure of the classroom situation, which
includes all areas of the teacher's management task. A holistic or
comprehensive approach recognises the interrelationship of the formal and the
informal aspects of a classroom. It enables the teacher to identify the various
factors (determinants) that help to determine classroom atmosphere and to use
them to create and maintain a positive, learning-friendly atmosphere (Conradie
1990:202).
A comprehensive approach to classroom management enables teachers to use
their professional expertise to bring about effective teaching and learning in a
structured classroom situation in which positive human relations prevail. The
result is a classroom that is characterised by a friendly, supportive and positive
atmosphere.
Probably no aspect of the classroom has been more central to the concept
of good teaching than a warm emotional climate (Soar & Soar 1979:105).

Many studies of classroom atmosphere have tried to determine the relation

between classroom atmosphere and pupils' learning performance. Much
research has been done in several countries, using the two most common

EDA201±W/1 49
 measuring instruments for classroom atmosphere, namely the Learning
Environment Inventory and the Classroom Environment Scale. These studies
revealed a clear correlation between classroom atmosphere and pupil
performance (Fraser & O'Brien 1985:571). O'Reilly (1975:247) summarises the
results of his study of the influence of classroom atmosphere on the
performance of grade 9 and grade 10 pupils in 12 secondary schools in Ontario
as follows:
. Classroom atmosphere has a significant influence on pupil performance.
. Although the personal and social characteristics of pupils are important
factors in their school performance, classroom atmosphere is sometimes
more important.
. The psychosocial and academic aspects of teaching are interrelated.
. Variables that relate directly to teaching-learning activities in the classroom
have a special, unique influence on pupil performance.

A common finding of almost all studies of the influence of classroom atmosphere on

pupil performance, emphasises the following two features that affect the classroom
atmosphere positively and enhance pupil performance:
. an orderly organisational structure with high but realistic expectations,
indicating a high level of task-oriented behaviour
. warm, friendly and positive interpersonal relations, indicating a high level of
person-oriented behaviour

In our age of technological progress and the knowledge explosion the teacher's
ability to create a classroom atmosphere in which pupils experience learning
positively has become indispensable.
Murphy (1995:32±33) offers the following guidelines for teachers to cultivate
positive attitudes in their pupils:
. Put the pupils in the centre.
. Respect pupils' opinions and treat all pupils respectfully.
. Give pupils a group feeling.
. Help pupils to feel secure in school.
. Make sure that pupils understand their assignments.
. Realise that pupils are children, not adults.
. Deal with individual behaviour problems in private interviews with the
pupil rather than in front of the whole class.
. Involve pupils in decision making where appropriate.
. Do not label pupils.

b
Activity
Study 13.4 in your prescribed book and think about the type of climate you
create in your classroom.

50
 3.4 TEACHING MANAGEMENT
Cangelosi (1993:160±162) discusses the following measures to ensure effective
lecture-type teaching:
(1) Pupils will benefit more from lectures if they know what is expected of them.
(2) Some sort of prior exercise or assignment will help pupils to pay attention.
(3) During lectures teachers should keep pupils' attention focused by using
various signals or cues. Nonverbal signals are particularly effective.
(4) Teachers should adapt their tone of voice to the target group or the pupils'
level.
(5) If media are used they should be carefully planned and prepared.
(6) Teachers could introduce some humour or entertainment into a lecture.
(7) It is important to maintain eye contact with the pupils.
(8) Teachers should move around while lecturing to prevent pupils' minds from
wandering.
(9) Pupils will stay alert if they are addressed by name during a lecture.
(10) Pupils will listen actively if the teacher helps them to do so.
(11) Constantly check whether pupils are paying attention by asking questions.
(12) The teacher should be aware of pupils' existing knowledge to ensure that they
follow the lecture.

This is an example of the activities that are involved in one teaching method.
Teaching and learning are the core of all classroom activities. In chapter 14 of
your prescribed book other teaching methods are discussed.

Classroom management refers to activities aimed at bringing about effective

teaching and learning, whereas teaching skills ensure that effective teaching and
learning take place.

Curzon (1986:112) describes the teacher's teaching management task as giving

pupils access to instructional resources, and planning and organising
instruction in such a way that pupils may learn optimally.

b
Activity
Think about your own teaching practice and identify the various activities
teachers have to perform to accomplish their teaching task.
...........................................................................................................................

The following activities relate to the teacher's instructional management. Did

you identify some of them?
. creating and maintaining a learning environment
. interpreting the syllabus
. selecting and setting teaching goals

EDA201±W/1 51
 . selecting appropriate teaching methods
. motivating pupils and monitoring and controlling activities
. teaching (presenting lessons)
. evaluating
. providing meaningful feedback
. developing pupils' stamina
. conveying knowledge

The following are some management skills that are needed to present a lesson:
. ``With-it-ness'': the teacher should always be aware of what is going on in
the classroom during a lesson.
. Doing several things simultaneously: teachers should be able to divide their
attention among several activities.
. Flexibility and momentum: the lesson should proceed fluently and
smoothly.
. Capture pupils' attention: pupils' attention should be focused on the lesson
throughout the period.
. Vary challenges to pupils: pupil participation includes listening, writing,
classwork and other assignments.

b
Activity
Explain how you would apply each of the following management skills in
your class situation:
(1) ``With-it-ness''
....................................................................................................................
(2) Flexibility and momentum
....................................................................................................................
(3) Capture pupils' attention
....................................................................................................................

Always remember that proper planning and preparation will help you to
perform these management activities successfully.

3.5 PUPIL ACTIVITIES

Pupils should actively participate in teaching and learning activities in the
classroom as all these activities are aimed at mastering the objectives of a
particular lesson. The teacher should carefully plan and organise the learning
tasks and activities of the pupils. Successful teaching cannot take place without
the active involvement of the pupils.
Pupils' activities may vary from:
. passive listening to
. active participation

The following are some advantages of their active involvement during a lesson:

52
 . active participation promotes independent thinking, initiative and
responsibility
. pupils become more interested in the subject
. certain skills are developed
. learning faults and backlogs are easier to diagnose

b
Activity
Consider your own teaching practice and try to identify a number of different
kinds of pupil participation in the teaching-learning situation.
...........................................................................................................................

You may have identified the following activities:

. listening
. reading for the class
. reciting
. lecturing
. participation in groups
. discussing
. role playing
. doing classwork such as completing assignments, work charts, and so on
. carrying out technical actions such as drawing, sewing, welding, et cetera
. checking and marking their own homework
. answering questions

b
Activity
How do the following factors determine the type of pupil activity? (Study
chapter 15 of your prescribed book in this regard.)
. nature of the learning matter
. aim of the lesson
. personality of the pupil

3.6 DISCIPLINE
General aspects of discipline in the classroom situation are discussed with the
emphasis on preventive measures. The more serious disruptive behaviours and
how to deal with them are discussed in 4.4 of section 4.

b
Activity
Think about the following situation:
During Mrs Brown's Mathematics lesson Jackie, after doing the minimum
number of sums, leaves his desk and starts bothering other pupils by fooling
around. After finishing the sums, Jackie should have done more sums for
enrichment.

EDA201±W/1 53
 Mrs Brown: Jackie, stop fooling around and carry on with the enrichment
sums.
Jackie: I've done my sums and I'm not doing any extra sums.
Mrs Brown: Oh yes, you are!
Jackie: You can't force me to do them.
Mrs Brown: Oh yes, I can. And who do you think you're talking to
anyway?
Jackie: Who do you think I'm talking to, Miss?
Mrs Brown: Laddy, I give you five seconds to stop your nonsense or there
will be trouble.
Smiling all over his face, Jackie returns to his desk and starts doing his sums.
How would you have handled this situation? Briefly describe your own
reaction. Then reread 1.6 and check which management style you would have
used.
...........................................................................................................................

Which of the following five general disciplinary problems have you identified
in this sketch?
. aggression
. unprincipled behaviour
. challenging authority
. disturbing the class
. not paying attention in class

Discipline in the classroom is meant to prevent disorderly behaviour (Evans et

al 1991:92). The teacher has to make sure that the pupils' behaviour does not
interfere with the orderly course of teaching and learning activities.
Inexperienced teachers may feel unsure about how to maintain discipline and
order in the classroom. Calitz (1987:81) gives the following explanations for this
attitude of inexperienced teachers:
. overemphasis of discipline in some schools
. the tacit assumption that good teachers are the ones whose pupils work
away quietly
. the knowledge that there is more to order and discipline than just getting
pupils to work quietly
. the knowledge that teaching and learning are unlikely to be successful if
there are disorder and a lack of discipline

The following measures may be applied to maintain order and discipline

(Waterhouse 1983:130±134; Kruger 1992:223; Murphy 1995:31±32):
. Lay down rules and procedures for classroom behaviour and apply them.
. Exercise strong leadership to ensure good behaviour.
. Adapt teaching and management to pupils' ability and learning needs (know
your pupils).
. Make sure that the lesson proceeds without interruption.
. Guide pupils towards self-discipline.
. Reward good behaviour.
. Set a personal example.

54
 . Use suitable disciplinary measures to correct bad behaviour.
. Be patient.
. State clear expectations and goals.
. Know your subject and prepare your lessons.

It would be unrealistic if teachers believed that they could provide educative

teaching without ever punishing or disciplining their pupils. But discipline is
more than punishment. It includes acting supportively and directively and
influencing pupils for the better, censuring or reprimanding them and getting
them to do what is right and proper. Nevertheless, there are times when
teachers have to apply disciplinary measures, including punishment. Calitz
(1987:82) mentions inter alia the following disciplinary measures:
. verbal punishment (not sarcasm)
. withdrawing privileges
. punishment work
. isolation
. suspension

Disciplinary measures or punishment will not help to correct disorderly

behaviour caused by ineffective classroom management. Teachers should try to
get pupils' cooperation and trust through effective classroom management.

b
Activity
Now that you have studied 3.6, how do you think the situation described in
the sketch could have been prevented?
...........................................................................................................................

3.7 CLASSROOM ADMINISTRATION

Effective classroom administration is essential if teachers are to perform their
teaching task and everything that goes with it. Some teachers regard classroom
administration as a chore, yet the administrative part of their classroom
management task not only facilitates their teaching task but also supplements it
meaningfully. The following are some advantages of effective classroom
administration (Kruger & Van Schalkwyk 1993:161):
. orderliness and good discipline
. a neat and efficient classroom environment
. less strain in the classroom
. effective and well-structured teaching

b
Activity
Make a list of your administrative duties in the classroom.
...........................................................................................................................

EDA201±W/1 55
 All aspects of classroom management require effective administration, and the
following are usually part of the administrative task. How many of them did
you identify in your own situation?
. Subject teaching matters: subject file, evaluation, correction of homework
and follow-up, educational excursions
. Teaching media: preparation, storage, ordering
. Classroom stock: books, stationery
. Discipline: school procedures regarding discipline
. School matters: guardianship, class finances, attendance register, furniture
inventory
. Filing: a neat filing system

An important aspect of classroom administration is the handling of money as

teachers are often obliged to handle money. Handling money should be
accurately administered.
Examples of money or finances handled by the teacher in the classroom include
the following:
. school fees that are paid in by the teacher
. travelling fees
. money for class activities

The teacher should design and apply an effective system for the accurate
handling of money. Important aspects of such a system would be:
. keeping a record of payments
. responsible spending of funds
. safekeeping of money

b
Activity
Study chapter 21 of your prescribed book and design a system or procedures
that you would use for handling money in your classroom.

3.8 EFFECTIVE USE OF TEACHING

TIME
There is a positive relationship between the time pupils spend on learning and
their test scores. The greatest challenge to every person, teacher and pupil, is
how well and effectively he or she uses their time. Time that is wasted is
irrevocably lost and might go hand in hand with wasting other resources and
other people's time.
Of all the professions, teaching best lends itself to using time optimally or to
wasting it. If you as a teacher do not carry out your work (teaching) effectively,
you waste the time of forty or fifty pupils.
The following are advantages of optimal utilisation of time:
. the objectives are more easily attained

56
 . productivity is increased
. more time becomes available
. the optimal use of time makes optimal use of resources possible

The time of a lesson period may be divided into allocated time and time-on-
task.
. Allocated time: this refers to the time allowed for the subject on the school's
timetable. It includes the time that you, the teacher, plan to spend on
teaching during that period. (You may have planned other activities for that
period such as routine tasks that have to be discussed with the pupils.)
. Time-on-task: this refers to the percentage of the allocated time that pupils
actually spend on learning activities.

The following are guidelines to increasing pupils' time-on-task (Levin & Nolan
1996:107):
. apply interactive teaching methods Ð discussion, ask questions, give
feedback, and so on
. constantly monitor all activities
. make sure that pupils are able to cope with class activities
. give pupils clear directions about what to do and how
. tell pupils that you are aware of their behaviour
. provide a variety of class work activities
Your prescribed book lists the following general strategies for using time
optimally:
. make use of all the available time
. thoroughly plan an activity
. apply self-management
. compile objectives and work according to them
. concentrate, be alert, show interest
. do things in the correct manner
. do everything at the right time
. set time limits
. set tasks clearly and ensure that the pupils know how to carry them out
. motivate the pupils
. avoid interruptions
. delegate tasks

b
Activity
Discuss how you as a teacher would apply each of the above general strategies
for time utilisation.
...........................................................................................................................

3.9 POSITIVE INTERPERSONAL

RELATIONS IN THE CLASSROOM
Interpersonal relations in the classroom refer to the relationship between the

EDA201±W/1 57
 pupils and the teacher and among the pupils themselves. Teachers should use
their management skills to promote good relations among the pupils. The
relationship between the teacher and his or her pupils is basic to successful
teaching and learning and includes every aspect of his or her influence on the
pupils. Jones and Jones (1990:64) write as follows about the relationship
between teacher and pupils:
A significant body of research indicates that academic achievement and
students' behaviour are influenced by the quality of the teacher-student
relationship.

Mutual respect between teacher and pupils provides a basis for healthy
relations.

b
Activity
Mention some things that you do in class in order to earn respect from your
pupils.
...........................................................................................................................

The following behaviour of the teacher could earn the pupils' respect. (Did you
think of these actions?)
. set a good example
. have positive and realistic expectations
. behave consistently
. explain classroom management rules
. be open and accessible to pupils

Another important aspect of establishing positive interpersonal relations in the

classroom is the teacher's ability to create opportunities for group work.
Teaching and learning usually occur in a classroom with a particular group of
pupils. In the classroom context the term ``group dynamics'' means organising
and managing the class group with a view to realising educational goals. This
implies that teachers should have the necessary management skills to transform
the class group into an effective, productive group. By applying management
techniques and skills in handling a group of pupils, teachers could utilise the
forces and qualities that are present in the class group to benefit educative
teaching.
The teacher should be familiar with the characteristics of the group:
. developmental level of the group
. group goals
. group norms
. solidarity of group members
. structure of the group
. communication and interaction in the group
. leadership and participation in the group

Management abilities for handling groups

Cooper et al (Calitz 1987:3±64) divide the management activities that are
required for dealing with groups into process activities and product activities.
Process activities relate to the leader's task of keeping the group members task-

58
 oriented, and product activities are aimed at ensuring the quality of the
outcome of the group's efforts.
(1) Process activities relate to the leader's role as:
. creator of an atmosphere
. mediator
. analyst
. encourager and initiater
(2) Product activities relate to the leader's role in:
. training
. summing up
. explaining
. time allocation
. accountability

The teacher's role as a group leader

Bernard (1981:39±40) writes that an educational leader (teacher) should lead
group members in such a manner that they will cooperate in order to achieve
certain fixed goals. The following are some general activities that the leader or
teacher could perform in the classroom to achieve this aim:
. Help pupils to set goals and define them.
. Create an atmosphere conducive to participation.
. Use the talents and abilities of different pupils.
. Motivate the pupils to find their own solutions.
. Plan the procedures for meetings or teaching-learning situations.
. Inspire pupils to participate in group activities.
. Delegate leadership to certain pupils as appropriate.
. Apply the management abilities discussed above to handle groups.
. Be sensitive to interpersonal relations in the group.
. Be aware of the group task roles mentioned by Calitz (1987:64±65) and use
them: initiator, developer, orientator, interpreter, encourager, harmoniser,
setter of standards, listener, reliever of tension, aggressor and joker.

Formal and informal relations in the group, as well as individual pupils'

experience of the class as a group, will influence their self-images and will help
to create a particular classroom atmosphere.

3.10 SUMMARY
The teacher's basic management responsibility is to create a classroom
environment that is characterised by order and a positive atmosphere in which
teaching and learning can proceed. An efficient teacher-manager should be able
to integrate his or her teaching and management activities so thoroughly in a
personal teaching management style that the teaching and learning aims are
attained effectively. Although the division of the teaching-learning situation
into a number of management areas is largely artificial, it is useful for a study of
how the teacher's classroom management activities can help to create a
positive, learning-friendly classroom environment. Note, however, that all the
management areas together make up the teaching-learning situation and that
the teacher's management task is to ensure that these different areas form an

EDA201±W/1 59
 interactive whole. Evans et al (1991:4) describe the teacher's responsibility as
follows:
... instructional management is the process of blending behaviours and
environmental variables to produce educational conditions that are
rewarding and result in a maximum amount of learning accomplished in
an efficient manner.

This observation by Evans et al highlights the unity of the different activities

and situations in the classroom as well as the comprehensiveness of the
teacher's classroom management task. The management activities and
management areas model therefore provides a framework for a comprehensive
view of the teacher's classroom management task.

3.11 REVIEW QUESTIONS

(1) Explain how classroom management can be a key element in school
management.
(2) Discuss the relationship between teaching and management in the
classroom.
(3) Discuss discipline as one of the management areas in the classroom
situation.
(4) Explain how a teacher can create a positive atmosphere in his or her
classroom.
(5) Briefly discuss classroom management practice for one lesson.

3.12 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Badenhorst, DC (ed). 1993. School management: the task and role of the teacher. 2nd
edition. Pretoria: HAUM.
Brophy, JE. 1988. Educating teachers about managing classrooms and students.
Teaching & Teacher Education 4(1):1±18.
Calitz, LP. 1984. Die bestuursbevoegdhede van die onderwyser. Suid-Afrikaanse
Tydskrif vir Opvoedkunde 4(4):151±156.
Calitz, LP. 1987a. Klaskamerbestuur: fundering, in Badenhorst, DC (red).
Skoolbestuur: die rol en taak van die onderwyser. Pretoria: HAUM.
Calitz, LP. 1987b. Riglyne vir doeltreffende klaskamerbestuur, in Badenhorst,
DC (red). Skoolbestuur: die rol en taak van die onderwyser. Pretoria:
HAUM.
Cangelosi, JS. 1993. Classroom management strategies. New York: Longman.
Conradie, JJ. 1990. Die wesensaard van klaskamerbestuur: 'n multidissiplineÃre
benadering. Ongepubliseerde DEd-proefskrif. Pretoria: Universiteit van
Suid-Afrika.
Curzon, LB. 1986. Onderrig in verdere onderwys: 'n oorsig van beginsels en praktyk.
Pretoria: Van Schaik.
Doyle, W. 1986. Classroom organization and management, in Wittrock, MC
(ed). Handbook of research on teaching, 3rd edition. Oxford: Pergamon.

60
 Doyle, W. 1990. Classroom knowledge as a foundation for teaching. Teachers
College record 91 (3):347±360.
Evans, WH, Gable, RA & Schmid, RE. 1991. Instructional management for
deflecting and correcting special problems. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Emmer, ET, Evertson, CM & Anderson, LM. 1980. Effective classroom
management at the beginning of the school year. The Elementary School
Journal 80(5):219±231.
Evertson, CM. 1989. Improving elementary classroom management: a school-
based training program for beginning the year. Journal of Educational
Research 83(2):82±90.
Fraser, BJ & O'Brien, P. 1985. Student and teacher perceptions of the
environment of elementary school classrooms. The Elementary School
Journal 85(5):568±580.
Jones, VF & Jones, LS. 1990. Comprehensive classroom management. 3rd edition.
Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Kruger, AG & Van Schalkwyk, OJ. 1993. Klaskamerbestuur. Pretoria: Academica.
Kruger, AG. 1992. Die skepping van 'n positiewe klaskamerklimaat as
bestuurstaak van die onderwyser. Ongepubliseerde D.Ed.-proefskrif.
Pretoria: Universiteit van Suid-Afrika.
Levin, J & Nolan, JF. 1996. Principles of classroom management. Boston: Allyn &
Bacon.
Lewis, R & Lovegrove, M. 1984. Teachers' classroom control procedures: are
students' preferences being met? Journal of Education for Teaching
10(2):97±105.
Murphy, C. 1995. Managing students: building positive attitudes in the
classroom. Schools in the Middle 4(4):31±33.
O'Reilly, R 1975. Classroom climate and achievement in secondary school
mathematics classes. The Alberta Journal of Educational Research
21(3):241±248.
Paoletti, I 1990. Interpreting classroom climate: a study in a year five and six
class. Qualitative studies in Education 3(2):113±137.
Soar, RS & Soar, RM. 1979. Emotional climate and management, in Peterson, PL
& Walberg, H J (eds). Research on teaching. Berkeley: McGutchan.
Van der Westhuizen, PC & Steyn, IN. 1983. Bestuur- en onderrighandelinge in
die klaskamer. Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Opvoedkunde 3(4):165±171.
Walberg, HJ & Anderson, GJ. 1968. Classroom climate and individual learning.
Journal of Educational Psychology. 59(6):414±419.
Waterhouse, P. 1983. Managing the learning process. London: McGraw-Hill.

EDA201±W/1 61
62
SECTION 4

CRITICAL ISSUES IN THE MODERN CLASSROOM

EDA201±W/1 63
 SECTION 4
CRITICAL ISSUES IN THE MODERN
CLASSROOM
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The teaching task of teachers cannot be isolated from circumstances outside the
classroom and the school. In the nineties much has occurred on the political and
social front that indirectly influences conditions in the classroom.
The following are examples of changing conditions that may affect the
classroom:
. increase in the use of drugs
. challenging authority
. misuse of time
. increasing involvement of pupils in the management of school aspects
. accessibility of other sources of knowledge such as the television and
computers

Factors such as these have necessitated more classroom management skills in

the modern teacher. In this section we address some of these contemporary
demands on teachers.

g
Learning outcome
You should be able to discuss how contemporary issues should be handled in
the modern classroom.
Objectives
. understand and discuss dealing with conflict in the teaching-learning
situation
. describe how you will handle an overcrowded classroom
. discuss parents' involvement in classroom activities
. develop skills that will enable you to manage contemporary problems in
your classroom

4.2 OVERCROWDED CLASSROOMS

The physical arrangement of the classroom can either be conducive to, or

64
 militate against, effective teaching, and part of the art of the classroom is to
use the room itself. Its arrangement alone can contribute significantly to
the control, the learning, the relationships, and the pleasure of working
together (Rajkaran 1992:13).

The teaching situation is sometimes unsuitable for effective teaching and

learning, but several factors hamper the creation of a favourable classroom
environment:
. too many pupils per classroom (overcrowded classrooms)
. lack of discipline
. lack of means such as desks, notice boards and other apparatus
. external disturbances such as street noise, noise in neighbouring classrooms
. an ugly environment such as unpainted walls, broken windows, et cetera

You will often have little control over matters such as those mentioned above. If
you are a creative and motivated teacher, however, you will not be able to teach
with so many deficiencies and will therefore devise plans to correct these
matters as far as possible Ð you do know that a favourable classroom
environment contributes to the success of your teaching.
Overcrowding is a problem that many teachers have to face, and they try to
do something constructive about it. Remember that the classroom is not the
only learning environment in a school. Spaces outside the classroom could be
utilised to ease the situation in an overcrowded classroom.

b
Activity
Explain how teachers can teach effectively in such difficult and unnatural
circumstances.
...........................................................................................................................

You could consider the following suggestions:

. demonstrative teaching methods such as narrating and lecturing
. interactive teaching methods such as teaching/learning discussions, class
discussions and group work
. setting tasks for groups of pupils outside the classroom
. working with some groups inside and some groups outside the classroom
. exceptionally good planning
. using all available resources
. using your briefcase as a desk

In such difficult circumstances a positive attitude and the ability to manage

yourself are crucial to establishing a learning environment.

4.3 HANDLING CONFLICT IN THE

CLASSROOM
Conflict in the classroom is natural, and it is not always negative. However, the

EDA201±W/1 65
 way teachers handle conflict may be negative and damaging to relations in the
classroom.
Conflict in the classroom is unavoidable. Think about the following causes of
conflict and how often they occur in a classroom:
. conflicting interests
. conflicting values
. misunderstandings
. wrong perceptions
. poor communication
. differences of opinion

Schreuder et al (1993:57±61) mention the following five styles of conflict

management that teachers have to learn so that they may use different styles,
depending on the situation:
. Avoidance: avoiding conflict is a short-term solution because the conflict will
not go away. Sometimes, however, avoidance could be a temporary measure
to calm emotions.
. Giving in or accommodating: teachers who badly want the pupils to accept
them use this style. With this style the real differences are underemphasised.
Sometimes teachers have to give in to avoid hostility in the classroom and to
ensure that the work can get done.
. Domination: teachers who want to impose their will on pupils use this style.
In the long run this style is seldom effective, although teachers sometimes
have to dominate.
. Compromise or settle: this style is marked by a search for compromises and
settlement. The teacher will try to meet everyone halfway and to let the
majority view prevail. Because a settlement might not satisfy everybody, the
dissatisfaction could again cause conflict at a later stage.
. Integrate or collaborate: this style is also known as the problem-solving
approach. The parties cooperate in order to find a satisfactory solution.

In the classroom situation teachers could help pupils solve their conflicts, or
they could be part of the conflict themselves.

4.4 HANDLING DISRUPTIVE

BEHAVIOUR
Pupils display such behaviour when they disrupt the course of the teaching and
learning activities of the class group and thus trample on the right of other
pupils to learn. Disruptive behaviour is any pupil behaviour that seriously
interferes with teaching and learning.
Levin & Jones (1996:22) formulated the following comprehensive definition of
disruptive behaviour:
Disruptive behaviour is behaviour that:
. interferes with the teaching act
. interferes with the right of others to learn
. is psychologically or physically unsafe
. destroys property

66
 Regardless of how effectively you create positive learning environments and
apply a variety of teaching methods, some disruptive behaviour by pupils is
inevitable. Disruptive behaviour during the teaching-learning situation cannot
be ignored and should be dealt with promptly.

b
Activity
Before you continue, think for a moment about the different types of
disruptive behaviour or behavioural problems that you have experienced in
your career as a teacher.
...........................................................................................................................

You may have identified the following disruptive behaviours:

. disruptive talking
. interrupting
. noisiness in the classroom
. clowning
. avoidance of work
. being discourteous
. vandalism
. fighting/aggression/bullying
. rudeness to the teacher
. challenging authority
. violence against teachers

Disruptive behaviours may be divided into:

. minor behavioural problems
. serious disruptive behaviours
. chronic misbehaviour

b
Activity
Arrange the above disruptive behaviours into the three categories of
disruptive behaviour.
...........................................................................................................................

You should have some knowledge of the reasons for disciplinary problems in
order to be able to take the correct disciplinary steps. The causes of behavioural
problems in pupils may be attributed to the following factors:
. physiological factors
. social factors
. domestic circumstances
. personality traits of pupils
. the teacher and the teaching-learning situation
. school factors

EDA201±W/1 67
 b
Activity
Discuss the various ways in which you deal with disruptive behaviour in
your classroom.
. minor behavioural problems
. serious disruptive behaviour
. chronic misbehaviour

The following are some ways to deal with disruptive behaviour:

. verbal intervention
. calling on the pupil to redirect his or her attention
. making pupils aware of their actions
. appealing to pupils to behave properly
. reminding pupils of classroom rules
. personal interview
. keeping a record of pupil behaviour
. refer to head of department
. refer to principal
. contact parents

The following steps offer a simple, practical way of solving problems in the
classroom:
Step 1 Define the problem clearly: the teacher should have a clear grasp of
the actual problem.
Step 2 Collect information: Collect all information related to the problem.
Step 3 Look for alternative solutions: in the previous step the teacher may
have identified a possible solution; in this step the teacher should look
for several solutions to the problem.
Step 4 Choose the best solution: after considering all the possible solutions,
the teacher should choose the best solution. If possible, others (teachers
or pupils) should help to make a choice.
Step 5 Implement the solution: the plan of action the teacher chose should be
put into practice.
Step 6 Evaluate the solution: The problem is not really solved until the
solution has been put into practice and evaluated.

4.5 HOW TO BE AN INVITING

TEACHER
One way in which you can help students gain optimally from your teaching is
to create an inviting climate or atmosphere in the classroom. The word
invitational is derived from the Latin word invito which means to summon
cordially. From this word, ``invitational'', a new approach to improving the
quality of life in the school and classroom developed, namely that of
invitational education (Purkey & Novak 1984:2).

68
 Invitational education does not happen by chance. It is regarded as the product
of conscious and well-planned thought and regular evaluation, which are based
on a strong commitment to certain basic values about people and how they
should be educated. In order to define the invitational teacher, the concept of
invitational education, from which the term originates, should first be
understood. It is a process whereby people are politely asked to realise their
relatively endless potential. The emphasis is on what people are capable of
doing rather than on what they are unable to do. Purkey and Novak (1984:2)
define invitational education as a perceptually based self-concept approach to
education and professional activities that centres around four basic principles:
(1) People are competent, valuable and responsible and should be treated
accordingly.
(2) Education should be a cooperative activity between people.
(3) People have relatively untapped potential at all levels of human
development.
(4) This potential is best realised by people, places, policy, processes and
programmes that are composed and structured with a specific invitational
character.

How can one describe the invitational teacher? He or she is someone who is
extremely successful in guiding and facilitating the pupils' social, emotional,
physical and intellectual development (Russel et al 1982:35). He or she is able to
form a creative environment in which pupils can start to recognise their own
potential and abilities.
The hypothesis is that all people have a basic need for recognition, that is,
favourable recognition (Purkey & Novak 1984:35). As education is a process
where people are together, one may assume that both teacher and pupil aspire
to be regarded favourably by everyone else (especially the school principal).
This process of ``togetherness'' has a decisive influence on both teachers' and
pupils' ideas about themselves and their capabilities. Successful teachers realise
that pupils are in a developmental process.
The above-mentioned basic assumptions distinguish invitational education
from all other approaches to education.
The basic unit of analysis in the invitational theory is the message. Messages
have many dimensions and may be placed on a continuum on the basis of their
perceived tone Ð positive or negative, intentional (on purpose) or accidental.
Knowledge and understanding of the message system is useful for those
educational managers who consciously strive to be inviting. Applying this
knowledge enables them to adopt an inviting attitude, and by developing this
attitude educational managers are able to progress to deeper levels of
invitation Ð that is, beyond nodding and smiling.
Purkey and Schmidt (1987) developed an invitational model comprising five
components of ``fours'': four levels, four choices, four qualities, four areas,
and four factors. The four qualities form the nucleus of the model, and are
linked to the other ``fours'':
(1) Four levels
. Intentionally disinviting: when a teacher is angry, his or her attitude is
deliberately degrading and disinviting.
. Unintentionally disinviting: the teacher may be well meaning but
insensitive.

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 . Unintentionally inviting: the teacher is unaware that his behaviour invites
participation.
. Intentionally inviting: the teacher deliberately tries to be invitational.

(2) Four choices

. To send or not to send a message: an invitation is the result of the choice a
teacher makes and the risks that he or she takes (Purkey & Novak 1984:48).
There are several risks when others are invited: the risk of rejection or
misunderstanding or the risk of things not working out as was anticipated.
However, pupils can only learn to be competent, responsible and worthwhile
if a teacher takes the chance of inviting them to feel this way.
. To accept or not accept a message: invitations are not accepted for various
reasons, many of which have nothing to do with rejecting the inviter. By not
accepting invitations, teachers and pupils may wish to reflect on the sincerity
of the invitations, or to give themselves time to think. This is usually true of
pupils who have already experienced failures at school.

(3) Four qualities

These qualities are collectively seen as the teacher's stance (attitude). This
stance is a consistent framework of behaviour.
. Intentionality: teachers plan to apply the invitational model.
. Optimism: teachers do not judge pupils for what they are now, but for what
they may become. Optimism is the teacher's ability to remain positive, even
in the most difficult circumstances.
. Trust: when teachers treat their pupils as trustworthy they will live up to
expectations.
. Respect: respect is shown even if it is not earned. In the invitational
approach, respect is an undeniable birthright.

Reflect for a moment on the following:

. If I do not invite, you cannot accept.
. If you do not accept, you cannot receive.
. If you do not invite, I cannot receive.
. If there are no invitations, there is no development.

(4) Four areas

. Personally inviting to yourself: invitational education starts with a personal
invitation to himself or herself. People who realise that invitations are
important have to cultivate a positive attitude about themselves Ð only then
can they be invitational to others.
. Personally inviting to others: invitational education places a high priority on
interpersonal relationships.
. Professionally inviting to yourself: a teacher who does not invite himself to
develop professionally, runs the risk of becoming obsolete.
. Professionally inviting to others: being professionally inviting to others
means building on the opportunities provided by the other three facets. Clear
communication and fair evaluation are two methods a teacher can use to be
professionally inviting to others.

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 (5) Four factors
. People: it is easy to recognise people-oriented classrooms. These teachers
consider the needs of their pupils.
. Places: how inviting is your classroom? The physical climate, for which
teachers and pupils should accept coresponsibility, cultivates a sense of ``this
is ours''. The climate in an invitational classroom is based on respect and
trust instead of rules and regulations.
. Policy: this refers to the rules, regulations, codes and procedures that are
necessary to regulate the functioning of the classroom as an organisation. A
teacher's classroom policy conveys a strong message to the pupils about how
things are done in that classroom.
. Programmes: programmes refer to your teaching content and methods.
Teach in a positive way to ensure the interest and cooperation of the pupils.

Russel, Purkey and Siegel (1982:36±38) suggest a number of useful invitational

strategies which can be made applicable for the classroom situation:
. create a safe and comfortable classroom environment
. communicate positively
. respect the differences among pupils
. develop trust
. set positive expectations for the pupils
. be inviting

4.6 PARENT INVOLVEMENT IN

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES
During the past few years educators and teachers have become convinced that
the role and responsibility of parents in the education of their children should
not be neglected. Parent involvement has many advantages for the school
education of the child. There is a growing tendency to bring the parents back
into the education process, again not only in the superficial aspects of the
child's education, but in all respects.
Parent involvement may be defined as the active and significant involvement of
the parents in all aspects of their child's formal education. This means that the
parents have to be involved in the noncurricular as well as the curricular
aspects of the child's education. The latter mainly takes place in the classroom.
This is a complicated matter, however, because the teacher's professional status
could be affected.
The purpose of 4.6 is to discuss a few guidelines and ideas on parent
involvement that could benefit a child. However, the teacher should manage
the parents' involvement to the advantage of the child.

b
Activity
Name and explain the following four facets of the framework for parental
involvement in formal education. Use the information in your prescribed book
as a guideline.

EDA201±W/1 71
 (1) Helping families to fulfil their basic obligations
(2) Fulfilling the basic obligations of schools: communicating with families
(3) Family involvement in learning activities at home
(4) Family involvement in the classroom

Managing parent involvement in the classroom involves actions such as the

following:
(1) Planning: teachers should know exactly why (aim) and how (function) to
involve the parents. This requires careful planning.
(2) Delegation: a teacher is the manager of all activities in the classroom and
takes full responsibility for this management function. However, certain
tasks that can be handled by the parents may be delegated to them (after
some training). The teacher should see to it that the parents clearly
understand their assignments.
(3) Parent selection: competent parents should be selected for specific tasks.
(4) Preparation/training: parents who have been selected are individually or
jointly prepared by the teacher. The parents have to understand the exact
aim, task and method to be used.
(5) Control and directing: after having presented the lesson and when the class
group has been divided into smaller groups of 8 to 10 pupils around a
parent, the teacher moves from group to group to determine whether the
parent is acting correctly.

b
Activity
Explain each of the five types of actions which comprises the management of
parent involvement.
...........................................................................................................................

Parents are mainly concerned with their own child's education and are
therefore particularly interested in their child's class and class teacher. Utilise
this interest by involving your pupils' parents easily, meaningfully and to their
satisfaction. Remember that initiating parent involvement is mainly your
responsibility. The following guidelines may be followed:
(1) call the parents of your pupils together as early in the year as possible and
discuss the following matters with them:
. your policy and objectives, and what you expect from the parents, for
example supervising homework, after-care, and teacher support
. tasks that parents can help you with on a regular or ad hoc basis
(2) establish a parent-class committee
(3) compile a programme for meetings to discuss topics that may require
clarity (homework, sex education, home parties, leisure-time activities,
punishment, etc).

b
Activity
Identify a number of tasks in your classroom in which parents may be
involved.
...........................................................................................................................

72
 Parents may be involved in several activities in the classroom. Did you identify
some of the following?
(1) Teaching
Parents may be involved in teaching matters such as:
. lesson presentation
. keeping pupils occupied in a teacher's absence
. educational outings
. practising skills
. remedial teaching
. group work
. pupil transport

(2) Teaching media

Parents may assist with aspects such as:
. manufacturing media
. maintenance of media
. decoration of the class

(3) Administrative tasks

There are many administrative tasks that the parents can carry out to assist the
teacher, for example:
. filling in registers
. completing stock lists
. drawing up class budgets
. filling in forms

However, the teacher has to assume final responsibility for the accuracy of
these tasks. Documents such as school reports and children's progress reports
should be filled in by the teacher.

b
Activity
Think about your own teaching situation and indicate how parents can help
you in your classroom.
...........................................................................................................................

4.7 SUMMARY
In this section a number of contemporary issues in the classroom situation were
discussed. Once again division of the teaching-learning situation into a number
of elements or management areas was largely artificial. These issues, together
with all the other elements and management functions, make up the teaching-
learning situation. The teacher's management task is to ensure that these
different elements form an interactive whole.

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 4.8 REVIEW QUESTIONS
(1) Discuss how you will go about planning a lesson for an overcrowded
classroom.
(2) Explain how you might be a more inviting teacher.
(3) Explain how you would handle seriously disruptive behaviour in your
classroom.

4.9 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Badenhorst, J & Scheepers, L. 1995. School management training. Pretoria: Kagiso.
Jones, VF & Jones, LS. 1990. Comprehensive classroom management. 3rd edition.
Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Kruger, AG & Van Schalkwyk, OJ. 1993. Klaskamerbestuur. Pretoria: Academica.
Levin, J & Nolan, JF. 1996. Principles of classroom management. Boston: Allyn &
Bacon.
Purkey, WW & Novak, JM. 1984. Inviting school success. A self-concept approach to
teaching and learning. Belmont, Cal: Wadsworth.
Purkey, WW & Schmidt, JJ. 1982. Ways to be an inviting parent: suggestions for
the counselor-consultant. Elementary School Guidance and Counseling.
Steyn, GM. 1996. Invitational education. Section 10 of course ONB453-H:
Educational management. Pretoria: University of South Africa.

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