Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Road Design And Construction

Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s
employees. Any material contained in this document which is not
already in the public domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given,
or disclosed to third parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part,
without the written permission of the Vice President, Engineering
Services, Saudi Aramco.

Chapter : Civil For additional information on this subject, contact

File Reference: CSE11101 A.M. Al-Khunaini on 8732653
Engineering Encyclopedia Civil

Road Design and Construction

CONTENTS PAGE

Road Terminology, Standards And Materials..................................................1

Material Properties.........................................................................................15

Road Layout And Design...............................................................................36

Drainage.........................................................................................................63

Pavement Design ...........................................................................................83

Road Construction Techniques ....................................................................113

Work Aid 1 ..................................................................................................133

Work Aid 2: Determining Peak Runoff (Discharge)...................................134

Work Aid 3: Ditch Design Nomograph ......................................................136

Work Aid 4 ..................................................................................................137

Work Aid 5 ..................................................................................................138

Glossary .......................................................................................................139

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ROAD TERMINOLOGY, STANDARDS AND MATERIALS

This lesson addresses the common terminology used in road construction, it describes the
components of the road, it discusses the pertinent Saudi Aramco standards for road
construction, and it reviews some of the common materials encountered in road construction
in Saudi Arabia.

Pavement Types

Rigid

Rigid pavements are seldom used in Saudi Arabia, and therefore their discussion will be
limited. A rigid pavement has a portland cement concrete (PCC) surface. Rigid pavement is
typically supported by a granular base material that is porous enough to allow water that gets
under the pavement to drain quickly away. The granular base material rests on compacted
soil (subgrade).

Freshly-placed concrete cools quickly and loses a large amount of water in the first hours
after construction. These events cause concrete to contract, resulting in cracks. Transverse
contraction joints are sawed every 4-12 m (12-40 feet) in the rigid pavements soon after
construction. This causes cracks where they can be controlled and maintained. The area
between joints is termed a slab.

Each PCC slab is considered to be "rigid", as the deflection of the slab under the load is very
small. Concrete pavement is designed thick enough that the traffic loads are almost uniformly
distributed along the top of the granular base. This stress is small enough so that the base and
subgrade are only lightly stressed by the tire loads. The base under a PCC pavement performs
primarily as a drainage layer instead of a structural layer. Figure 1 shows the distribution of
stresses and the typical layers present in a rigid pavement roadway.

Rigid pavements have higher construction costs than asphalt (flexible) pavements. However,
rigid pavements may be preferred in the following instances:

• For heavily-traveled roads in large cities. Rigid pavements last longer before
major maintenance is required (20-30 years). This means fewer maintenance
caused traffic interruptions will occur compared to the shorter life of flexible
pavements (10-20 years).

• For pavements in fueling areas and chemical processing areas. PCC pavements
generally will not be harmed by spilled fuel or chemicals, but asphalt is
dissolved by petrochemicals and will deteriorate.

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STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN RIGID PAVEMENT

Tire Tire Contact

Stress

Uniform Stress Distribution

PCC Slab

BASE (SUBBASE)

Subgrade (Foundation Soil)

FIGURE 1

STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

Tire Contact
Stress

Tire

Surface

Base

Subbase

Subgrade

FIGURE 2

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Flexible

A flexible pavement has an asphaltic concrete (AC) surface consisting of aggregate bound by
asphalt cement. Below this surface, the pavement structure consists of several AC or
unbound granular layers which rest upon the compacted subgrade soil.

Because AC is much more flexible than the PCC (rigid) pavement, the vehicle loads spread
out much more slowly through the AC pavement structure. Thus, the layers beneath the AC
surface may need to be stronger than layers beneath a PCC surface. Figure 2 shows the
general distribution of stresses and typical layers present in a flexible pavement.

In a flexible pavement layers typically decrease in strength from surface to subgrade since
the amount of stress decreases as the depth below the load increases. The pavement structure
should
be thick enough so that the stress at the top of the subgrade is small and does not affect it.

Asphalt concrete is the most commonly used road building material: it is found in over 75%
of pavements. Because of cost factors even PCC pavements are routinely "overlaid" by 2.5-
10.0 cm (1-4 inches) of AC when they require major maintenance.

Unpaved

Unpaved roads are often constructed when the expected volume of traffic is low, as in remote
locations. They consist of one or more granular layers resting on compacted subgrade. Loads
are distributed through the layers of an unpaved roadway in much the same manner as
flexible pavements. Because none of the layers contain an added binder (such as asphalt
cement), the unpaved road depends upon a natural binder (usually clay) to hold the larger
aggregate together. The combination of clay and large aggregates give the unpaved structure
several desirable properties:

• Stability: The type and quality of fines (binder clay) should be sufficient to
bind the large aggregate but not cause it to lose the aggregate-to-aggregate
contacts which carry the load.

• Abrasion resistance: The larger aggregate should provide necessary surface

roughness so that friction at tire/surface contact points will allow a vehicle to
stop and turn curves safely.

• Watertightness: Rainfall should drain off the surface quickly and not permeate
the pavement structure.

• Water retention: Some moisture must be retained so that air-borne dust caused
by traffic will be kept low. This may require application of an admixture, such
as calcium chloride or sodium chloride, in dry regions.

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Road Cross-Sections/Components

Once the road project has been designed, a set of plans and specifications are developed to
instruct the project contractor in the details of the project. One important part of these plans is
the typical section. The typical section gives information on pavement layer thicknesses and
materials, side slopes, side ditch dimensions, and many other important details. Figure 3
shows a typical simple cross-section for a roadway with its components. Information
regarding these components is generally given in a set of plans.

Non-Pavement Cross-Sections/Components

The pavement cross-section is different for the three types, but the remaining cross section
components are similar for all pavement types. Items such as shoulder slope and pavement
slope are specified so that the pavement will drain properly. The slopes outside the shoulder
in fill areas, the fore and back slopes in cut areas, and the shoulder widths are specified so that
the roadside will be safe for any errant vehicle that may leave the traveled way. Ditch widths
and types, although set by the drainage needs, must be considered along with the side slopes
when evaluating roadside safety.

Flexible Pavement Cross-Sections/Components

Flexible pavements have four basic layers, as shown in Figure 4b.

Subgrade

The subgrade is the soil upon which the pavement structure is constructed. It is sometimes
referred to as the foundation soil. It may be material which is brought to the project site and
placed (for fill sections) or material found in place (for cut sections). Subgrade materials
range from weak clays to strong sands and gravels. These materials affect the pavement
design thickness, with weaker subgrades requiring a thicker pavement structure than stronger
subgrades. The top portion of a weak subgrade may be strengthened by mixing it with better
aggregates or with a stabilizing material, which changes the chemical composition of the
subgrade, and then compacting it to a greater density.

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 fill pavement fore side back
slope shoulder traveled way shoulder slope ditch slope
existing

ground
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slope

slope slope
slope slope
( not to scale )

FIGURE 3
base
slope slope

subbase (if desired)

existing
GENERALIZED ROADWAY CROSS SECTION

subgrade
ground

typical typical

fill cut

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PAVEMENT LAYER TERMINOLOGY

PCC Surface

Granular Base (Subbase)

Subgrade

a) Rigid

AC Surface
Base (Granular or AC)
Note: subgrade can be
Subbase (Granular or AC) stabilized if desired.

Subgrade

b) Flexible

Granular Surface with

Some Clay Binder

Granular Base

Subgrade

c) Unpaved

FIGURE 4

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The subgrade is not designed to carry much load. The layers above the subgrade are designed
to spread the load out so that the pressure caused by traffic is very small when it reaches the
top of the subgrade. Very little consolidation or settlement of the subgrade should occur
under these small loads.

Subbase/Base

The subbase is sometimes omitted from the pavement structure. If present, it is placed
immediately above the subgrade. This layer consists primarily of an untreated aggregate
(coarse sand or lower quality stone) with a small amount of clay to add stability to the layer.
Subbase material should be locally available, strong enough to carry some load, and
inexpensive.

The base layer is located between the subbase and surface layers. It is similar to the subbase
except that the aggregate particles are stronger than those found in the subbase. Base
materials may have to be shipped from a distant location to the project site. This can
significantly increase the cost of constructing the base layer. On pavements supporting heavy
loads, the base layer may consist of an AC mixture to provide necessary added strength.

Surface

The surface of a flexible pavement is constructed of asphaltic concrete and must be able to
resist the high stresses encountered near the roadway surface. The AC consists of a strong
aggregate that is held together by asphalt cement to give the aggregate the required stability.
It must also provide a safe, smooth riding surface with good skid resistance.

A surface layer is often divided into two layers with two distinctly different purposes. Both
layers are made of asphaltic concrete. The lower surface layer is called the binder layer. It is
made of relatively large pieces of aggregate held together by asphalt cement, and it provides
the strength necessary to resist the large surface loads. The upper surface layer is the wearing
course. Its primary function is to provide skid resistance. The aggregate size in the wearing
course is typically smaller than that found in the binder. It also contains more asphalt cement
to help repel water.

Unpaved Road Cross Section Components

Low traffic volume roadways often are not paved. The unpaved surface layer is similar to the
base layer found in a flexible pavement in both its construction and performance. Figure 4c
shows the layers found in an unpaved road. Sometimes a granular base of lower-quality
materials is placed between the surface and subgrade, but often a thick layer of surface
material is placed directly on the subgrade.

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The surface must also have the right combination of clay fines and aggregate to achieve the
stability, abrasion resistance, watertightness, and water retention properties previously
mentioned in the section describing "Pavement Types."

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Rigid Pavement Cross Section Components

Rigid pavements have some of the same layers that are found in flexible pavement. However,
the function of the pavement is different. Figure 4a shows the typical cross section of a rigid
pavement.

The surface consists of portland cement concrete which carries virtually all of the applied
loads. Little stress is transferred to the base, which serves primarily as a drainage layer for
removing water from under the pavement. The subgrade will carry little additional load,
because the pavement structure spreads the load out over a large area at the subgrade surface.

Summary

There are three main types of pavements: rigid, flexible, and unpaved. Flexible pavements
are the type most frequently built by Saudi Aramco. They consist of a top surface of asphalt
laid directly over an aggregate layer called the base. Another aggregate layer of lower quality
material called the subbase is frequently placed beneath the base. The soil on which the
pavement layers rest is called the subgrade.

Drainage

The construction of a road across an existing piece of land causes special drainage problems.
The roadway, including the pavement, shoulders, and side slopes, must be properly drained.
Drainage across the land where the road is built will be disrupted, so flow of water from one
side of the road to the other side must be allowed.

When a road is constructed, one of the primary concerns is to get water off the pavement
quickly so that standing water will not create a driving hazard. Some of this water may seep
through joints or cracks in the pavement and infiltrate the lower pavement layers, which can
soften and weaken the subgrade. Water that falls on the shoulders and cut and fill slopes must
be drained as well. Figure 5 illustrates some of the typical drainage techniques for roadways:

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 existing ground
(cut)
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pavement shoulder

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intercepting
granular base/subbase channel
(not to scale)

existing ground
(fill)

FIGURE 5
roadside
ROADWAY DRAINAGE COMPONENTS

channel

cut section

fill section
toe-of-slope
channel

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• Toe-of-slope channel: Sometimes used at the bottom of fills, this channel

collects water from a fill slope and carries it to the nearest drainage area.

• Intercepting channel: Water from the existing ground slope drains into this
channel in a cut at the top of the back slope and is deposited in the nearest
chute for transport to a drainage area.

• Chutes: Chutes carry water runoff from existing ground at the top of cut,
down the side of the hill in the cut area, and into the nearest drainage area.
They may be lined with PCC or riprap to prevent erosion.

When a road is built across a strip of land, the natural drainage pattern of the land is
interrupted. The design engineer should insure that water can collect on the uphill side of the
roadway, drain from that side to the other, and disperse on the downhill side, without
negatively affecting the land on either side of the highway. Depending upon the amount of
water to be carried, bridges, box culverts, or pipes may be placed so that water may flow
properly without disturbing the roadway traffic or weakening the ground on which the
roadway is placed. Additional details will be covered later in the section of this module titled
"Drainage".

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Saudi Aramco Standards/Design Practices

Saudi Aramco Engineering Standards (SAES) set forth the minimum requirements for design,
construction, and testing of various components found on a road or highway project.

Saudi Aramco Design Practices (SADP) expand upon and explain the information provided in
the Saudi Aramco Engineering Standards. When applicable, SADPs provide detailed, step-
by-step design procedures or background explanations on computer programs used for
design.

Several SAES and SADPs are directly applicable to road and highway design, construction,
testing, and analysis:

SAES-Q-006 Asphalt Concrete Paving

SAES-Q-006 prescribes the minimum mandatory requirements governing the design and
installation of asphalt concrete paving. It is based on three well known pavement design
documents which are listed below. SAES-Q-006 does not contain those documents; instead it
lists exceptions and additions to them. Some of those changes will be discussed in the
module.

Document Source Topic

Guide for Design of American Association of State Structural Design of

Pavement Structures Highway & Transportation Officials Pavements
(AASHTO)

MS-1 Asphalt Institute Traffic Analysis

General Specifications for Kingdom of Saudi Arabia All roadway

Road and Bridge construction
Construction

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SAES-S-030 Storm Water Drainage Systems

This standard establishes the minimum requirements for storm water drainage systems under
the operation and maintenance of Saudi Aramco. Stormwater drainage design is applicable to
roads because the road often interrupts natural drainage basins. This necessitates the
specification of box culverts, bridges, and pipe culverts for transporting storm water from the
upstream to the downstream side of a drainage basin. Secondly, the road alignment creates a
new area with different drainage characteristics. This area must be drained for traffic safety
and to ensure the structural integrity of the pavement.

In the design of storm water drainage systems, determinations must be made of time of
rainfall concentration (using the Kirpich Formula) on the drainage area, frequency of storm
return used in design of various facilities, rainfall intensity, rainfall quantity (using the
Rational method), and flow velocity (using Manning's Equation) in both pipes and open
channels. These items can then be used in determining the type and size of the drainage
structure and the type of protection required at the ends of a pipe or culvert.

The standard also specifies minimum pipe sizes, headwall requirements at pipe ends, manhole
sizes and locations, shape and protection of open channels, and materials from which storm
drains and road crossing culverts shall be constructed.

Installation and testing of pipes and culverts is not covered in detail in this standard. The
following standards are specified for installation and testing:

• SAES-S-020 for storm drains that are part of an oily water sewer system.

• SAES-S-070 for general storm drains and culvert crossings.

• SAES-Q-001 for construction of concrete structures used in the road drainage

system.

Simple calculations for determining the quantity of flow used in storm water drainage system
design will be covered in a later section of this module. Saudi Aramco Design Practice
SADP-S-030 provides a detailed description of and several example problems using the
formulas discussed in SAES-S-030. It also describes in some detail the applications and
limitations of these formulas.

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MATERIAL PROPERTIES

The materials which comprise the pavement layers are very important in design. The
following paragraphs will describe design properties of the subgrade, aggregate, and asphalt
layers of a pavement.

Subgrade

The subgrade is the supporting soil that the pavement lies on. In cut sections, subgrade
consists of the naturally occurring soil exposed when the topsoil is removed. The surface of
the material is then compacted. In fill sections, soil is brought in to form the subgrade. It is
compacted in 6" (15 cm) layers.

Subgrade soils are described in descending order of grain size. They are composed of sand,
silt, and clays. Sand makes the strongest subgrade, and it is least affected by water. If sand
can be prevented from blowing, it is the preferred subgrade material. Most Saudi Aramco
subgrades are sands. Clay is the least desirable subgrade because it is the weakest and most
affected by water. Water causes clay to lose strength, and it causes some clays to swell,
leading to cracking of the paved surface.

Several other terms are used to describe soils. Clay is called a cohesive soil because it sticks
together naturally. Sand and silt are not cohesive. They are called cohesionless soils.

Sand is composed of large particles. It is called a granular material, as are the bases and
subbases above it. Silts and clays are composed of small particles that cannot be individually
identified without a microscope. They are called fine-grained soils, or "fines."

Subgrade Classification

In the field, a subgrade soil is not usually composed of only one soil type. It is a mixture of
sand, silt, and clay. Classification systems group together soils which exhibit similar
properties. Once a soil has been classified, the road designer or road builder can predict the
performance of that soil because he knows what to expect from soils in that classification.

Gradation Analysis

Two laboratory tests are used to help classify soils. They are Gradation Analysis and
Atterberg Limits. Gradation Analysis gives the particle size percentage breakdown of the soil
being tested. This is achieved by sifting the soil through sieves with various sized openings.
The #200 sieve (75 micron opening size) separates sand particles from silt and clay particles.
The lower the sieve number, the larger the particle size.

Figure 6 shows the results of a Gradation Analysis test. The percentages of the soil passing
certain sieve sizes are joined by a smooth curve.

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TYPICAL GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE

Sand
Gravel Silt Clay
Coarse to
medium Fine

U.S. Standard Sieve Sizes

No. 100
No. 200
No. 10

No. 20

No. 40
No. 4

100

90

80

70

60
Percent Finer

50

40

30

20

10

0
0

19

0.850

0.420

0.150
0.075

0.010

0.002
0.001
4.75
2.00

Grain Diameter (mm)

FIGURE 6

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Atterberg Limits

The Atterberg Limits laboratory test is also used in the soil classification process. Water is
added to a mass of dried subgrade soil in small increments. The percentage of moisture at
which the soil changes from a dry solid to a liquid consistency is noted. Figure 7 shows the
relationship of the Atterberg Limits.

For classification, the two most important moisture content points are the plastic limit and the
liquid limit. The plastic limit (PL) marks the % water where the soil changes from the
semisolid state to the plastic (easily deformable) state. The liquid limit (LL) marks the %
water at which the soil changes from the plastic state to the liquid state. The plasticity index
(PI) is defined as LL-PL.

AASHTO Classification System

Several different systems can be used to classify soils. For road-building purposes, AASHTO
M-145 is most often used. Figure 8 gives the classification criteria.

There are 12 classification groups: A-1-a through A-7-6. Looking from left to right on
Figure 8, the particle sizes of the soils decrease. The soils go from very good (strong) soils at
the left side to poor soils on the right side. The A-1-a is the best soil to build on; the A-7-6 is
the worst to build on. Most Saudi Aramco soils are A-1 and A-2 soils.

Use the following procedure to properly classify subgrade soils:

• Assemble Atterberg Limit and Gradation Analysis test data.

• Start in either column A-1-a or A-4 to determine if the soil fits the requirements
in that column. Start in column A-4 only if more than 35% of the soil is
smaller than (passes) the No. 200 (0.075 mm) sieve.

• Move one column to the right if the soil does not satisfy the requirements of the
first column, then try again.

• Stop as soon as the soil meets the requirements given in one of the columns.

In Figure 8, N.P. stands for "non-plastic." That means the soil has a P.I. of 3 or less.

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 Plasticity
Index
(PI)
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Increasing
moisture
w=0

FIGURE 7
content
Solid Semisolid Plastic Liquid
state state state state
ATTERBERG LIMITS

Shrinkage Plastic Liquid

limit limit limit
(SL) (PL) (LL)

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 Granular Materials Silt-Clay Materials
(35% or less passing No. 200) (More than 35% passing No. 200)

A-1 A-2 A-7

General Classification
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A-7-5,
Group classification A-1-a A-1-b A-3 A-2-4 A-2-5 A-2-6 A-2-7 A-4 A-5 A-6 A-7-6

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Sieve analysis, percent passing:

No. 10 (2.00 mm) 50 max ...

... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
No. 40 (425 µm) 30 max 50 max 51 min ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
No. 200 (75 µm) 15 max 25 max 10 max 35 max 35 max 35 max 35 max 36 min 36 min 36 min 36 min

Characteristics of fraction
passing No. 40 (425 µ m):

Liquid limit ... ... 40 max 41 min 40 max 41 min 40 max 41 min 40 max 41 min
A
AASHTO SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

Plasticity index 6 max N.P. 10 max 10 max 11 min 11 min 10 max 10 max 11 min 11 min

Usual types of significant Stone fragments, Fine

constituent materials gravel and sand Sand Silty or Clayey Gravel and Sand Silty Soils Clayey Soils

General rating as subgrade Excellent to good Fair to poor

A Plasticity index of A-7-5 subgroup is equal to or less than LL minus 30. Plasticity index of A-7-6 subgroup is greater than LL
minus 30.

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EXAMPLE PROBLEM #1
AASHTO SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

Given: For a given soil, LL = 12, PL = 7, PI = 5

The gradation analysis of the soil follows:

Sieve % Passing

No. 10 60
No. 40 40
No. 200 20

Find: The soil classification by the AASHTO Soil

Classification System.

Solution:

• Try A-1-a. More than 50% passes No. 10 sieve, so it does not fit
this classification.

• Try A-1-b. It fits this classification

Answer: A-1-b

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Strength Characteristics

In general, sand is stronger than silt, and silt is stronger than clay. Stronger subgrade soils will
allow a thinner pavement to be designed. The strength of subgrade soils can be measured in
three major ways.

California Bearing Ratio - The California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test rates soil strength on a
numbered scale. Zero means no strength; 100 or greater is a high strength rating. The CBR of
most soils falls in the range of 1 to 30:

• The typical CBR range for clay is 1-15.

• The typical CBR range for silt is 1-15.
• The typical CBR range for sand is 10-30.

Soil Support Value - SAES-Q-006 specifies soil support value (S) as the soil strength
parameter for designing asphalt concrete pavements. It is a dimensionless number which
ranges from 1 to 10. The higher the number, the stronger the soil. Most Saudi Aramco soils
will have S values between 3 and 7.

There is no laboratory or field test for soil support value. It is found by first performing
another test (such as CBR), then correlating the two values. Saudi Aramco correlates CBR and
S using Figure 9.

CORRELATION OF S WITH CBR

SOIL SUPPORT VALUE (S)

1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0

1 2 3 4 5 10 20 30 40 50 100 200

CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO (CBR)

FIGURE 9

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Modulus of Subgrade Reaction, k - The modulus of subgrade reaction, k, is only used to

describe soil strength when designing a PCC pavement. The typical range of k value is 700-
4000 kPa (100-600) psi. The higher the value, the stronger the soil.

Soil Compaction

Road subgrades are compacted for two primary reasons:

• Increased density results in increased strength.

• Increased density leads to less settlement under wheel loads.

There are three main types of compaction equipment called rollers:

• Vibratory rollers. Vibration is the best way to compact granular soils such as
those found in most of Saudi Arabia.

• Sheepsfoot rollers. Projections (feet) on the rollers allow this type of

compactor to work especially well in clays or silt-clay mixtures.

• Pneumatic tire rollers. Rows of closely-spaced rubber tires roll over the
subgrade. Pneumatic tire rollers are used to compact both granular and
cohesive soils.

Compaction Requirements - A laboratory "moisture density test" (AASHTO T99 or

AASHTO T180) is performed on a soil to determine how well it can be compacted in the field.
T99 is usually called the "Proctor Test." T180 is usually called the "Modified Proctor Test."
The test gives two results: the maximum dry density and the optimum moisture content.

Maximum dry density is given in kg/m3 (pcf). It represents the density of the dry soil particles
if a good job of compaction is done in the field. The optimum moisture content is given in
percent. It represents the moisture content at which compaction of the soil will be easiest.

The construction crew is usually required to compact the soil to "95% of Modified Proctor."

For example, if the laboratory Modified Proctor test results for a soil are 1,700 kg/m3 (106
pcf) dry density and 8.7% optimum moisture content, the soil must be compacted to at least
95% of 1700 kg/m = 1615 kg/m . If the actual field compaction is 1650 kg/m3 or 1675 kg/m3
3 3

3 3
or 1725 kg/m , those results are acceptable; 1610 g/m is not acceptable.

The compacted soil does not have to meet a specification for moisture content. The crew tries
to reach a moisture content near optimum by spraying water onto the soil, but only because it
makes the compaction work easier. If the crew can achieve the required dry density at a low
moisture content, that is acceptable.

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Dry density and moisture content are checked at the job site by an inspector. He takes a small
sample of the soil and determines the dry density and moisture content according to AASHTO
T191.

Bases and Subbases

The next layer above the subgrade is the base or subbase. Bases and subbases are granular
materials such as sand and gravel which provide support for the asphalt concrete (AC) or
Portland Cement concrete (PCC). In some cases, the granular materials also drain rainfall
away from the pavement.

Subbases and bases are made of similar materials, but the quality of the subbase material is
usually lower than that of the base. Both layers are not always present in a pavement. Some
pavements have only one granular layer. The subbase may not be present if the subgrade soil
is firm. SAES-Q-006 states: "Where existing subgrade materials have a CBR of 5 or less, a
subbase with a minimum CBR of 15 shall be provided with a minimum thickness of 20 cm (8
in)."

The typical thickness range for a layer of base or subbase is 10 cm (4 in.) to 30 cm (12 in.).
They are placed in compacted lifts of 15 cm (6 in.) thickness or less.

If the available granular material is of low quality, strength can be improved by adding
approximately 2% asphalt cement. The resulting material is called "asphalt treated base." It is
like a low-quality asphalt concrete.

Strength

Any base material with a CBR greater than 40 is a good quality base. Standard SAES-Q-006
gives four classes of base materials:

• MOC Class A - CBR 100

• MOC Class B - CBR 50
• MOC Class C - CBR 50 Lime Treated
• MOC Class C - CBR 50 Portland Cement Treated

Because most treated bases are "asphalt treated base," MOC Class C Lime Treated or Portland
Cement Treated will almost never be used.

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Aggregate

Sand, gravel, and crushed stone are called aggregates. They are the materials most used in
road construction. Unpaved roads are composed entirely of aggregate (often with an
additional small amount of clay to bind the aggregate together.) Portland cement concrete and
asphalt concrete are both more than 85% aggregate.

The aggregates used in granular bases and subbases, unpaved roads, and rigid and flexible
surfaces share a common characteristic: dense gradation. Dense gradation means that big
aggregate particles and little aggregate particles are both present in sufficient quantity to give
the aggregate mix a high density. The holes between the big particles are filled by little
particles (see Figure 10). In general, the denser the aggregate mix the stronger the base,
subbase, unpaved surface, or asphalt concrete. For those uses, try to employ3 a densely graded
aggregate. For example, a compacted subbase with a density of 2,200 kg/m (137 pcf) is
usually a high density granular material.

In road construction, the maximum size of aggregate rarely exceeds 3.2 cm (1.25 in.). When
larger aggregate pieces are used, the aggregate mix is hard to work with. Fines (material
smaller than a #200 sieve) are usually not desired. However, because it is almost impossible to
exclude fines, a small amount (3-5% by weight) of fines is usually acceptable.

AGGREGATE GRADATIONS

(a) dense graded (b) open graded (c) excessive fines

FIGURE 10

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Asphalt Concrete

Asphalt concrete is composed of aggregate held together with a black-colored cementing agent
called bitumen. The proportions of materials in asphalt concrete are approximately 5%
bitumen and 95% aggregate. The thicknesses of the asphalt concrete portions of roads vary
widely, ranging from approximately 5 cm (2 in.) to 25 cm (10 in.), depending on the expected
traffic on the roads.

Bituminous Materials

The black material which holds flexible pavements together is called a bitumen or a
bituminous material. Saudi Aramco uses two kinds of bituminous materials: asphalt cements
and cutbacks.

Asphalt Cement - Asphalt concrete is usually made out of asphalt cement and aggregate.
Asphalt cement is a petroleum product which comes directly from the refinery. It is almost
solid at room temperature. Asphalt cement and aggregate are both heated to 250-325° F (120-
163° C) then mixed together.

The various types of asphalt cement are graded on the basis of their viscosity. The typical
grades of asphalt cement are listed below:

• AC-5
• AC-10
• AC-20
• AC-30
• AC-40

The number associated with the name describes the viscosity. AC-5 has low viscosity; AC-40
has high viscosity. The most important characteristic of bituminous materials is that their
viscosity changes as the temperature changes. If the temperature goes up, the asphalt cement
becomes softer. In a hot country such as Saudi Arabia, roads should be built with hard
(viscous) asphalt cements so that the road will not become soft and weak at high temperatures.
Thus, most roads in this climate will be built using a high viscosity asphalt such as AC-40.

Cutbacks - Asphalt cements must be heated to make them mix with aggregate. Sometimes,
there is a need for bituminous materials which do not have to be heated to be useful. For
these purposes, Saudi Aramco uses cutbacks. Cutbacks are asphalt cements which have been
diluted (cut) with a solvent such as gasoline or kerosene. The resulting material can be
sprayed onto surfaces or mixed easily with aggregate at relatively low temperatures.

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Cutbacks are usually used for two purposes: as prime coats and tack coats. In both uses, the
cutback is sprayed onto a surface. In a short time after being sprayed, the solvent evaporates,
leaving a thin, sticky layer of asphalt cement. The process of evaporation is called "curing."
Curing can take from minutes to days to occur.

A prime coat is sprayed onto the granular base material before the asphalt concrete is added.
The prime coat fills voids at the top of the granular base layer and helps the asphalt concrete
bond to the granular layer. Tack coats are sometime used between layers of asphalt cement.
They help one asphalt concrete layer bond to another.

SAES-Q-006 specifies four types of cutbacks. Cutback RC-250 and cutback RC-800 are used
for tack coats. MC-70 and MC-250 are used for prime coats. The "C" in the designation
indicates a cutback. The "R" stands for "rapid curing," that is, the solvent will evaporate
rapidly after spraying. The "M" stands for "medium curing." The numbers indicate the
viscosity of the cutback, with a higher number indicating higher viscosity.

Cutbacks are much more dangerous than asphalt cements because cutbacks contain explosive
solvents such as kerosene. They must be kept cool, and cigarette smoking near them is
prohibited.

Specifications - Bituminous materials used in pavement construction must meet product

specifications. Figure 11 presents typical specifications for a bituminous material, in this case
RC-250. The specifications in Figure 11 are divided into two areas. Tests run on the cutback
itself are shown on the top half of the figure. The bottom half of the figure shows tests run on
the RC-250 after the solvent has been boiled (distilled) away. The asphalt cement that is left
after the distillation process is called the "residue from distillation." The distillation
specifications ensure that the proper type and amount of solvent has been used in the cutback.

Flashpoint is important. If the cutback is not stored at temperatures below the flashpoint, any
spark can cause its fumes to ignite. (The flashpoint is usually well below the temperature
where spontaneous combustion occurs.)

Viscosity is measured at a standard temperature, in this case 140° F. The unit of measure is
centistokes (cST). Note that minimum viscosity for an RC-250 is 250 cST.

Penetration value is another measure of viscosity. The test is performed at a standard

temperature by allowing a sharp needle of known weight to sink vertically into a sample of
bituminous material for five seconds. The depth of penetration is measured in units of 0.1
mm. An asphalt cement of low viscosity has a high penetration value.

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SAUDI ARAMCO STANDARD A971

CUTBACK ASPHALT RC-250

TEST GUARANTEE METHOD

DISTILLATION
Distillate, % by ASTM D-402
Volume of Total
Distillate to 680° F
to 437° F 35 Min.
to 500° F 60 Min.
to 600° F 80 Min.

Residue from Distillation 65 Min.

to 680° F, % volume by difference.

Flashpoint, 80 + Min. ASTM D-3143

(Tag Open Cup), °F

Viscosity, Kinematic 250 Min. ASTM D-2170

@ 140° F, CST 500 Max.

TESTS ON RESIDUE FROM DISTILLATION:

Penetration @ 77 °F 80 - 120 ASTM D-5

100G, 5 Sec.

Ductility at 77 F, CM 100 Min. ASTM D-113

Solubility in Trichloroethylene, % 99.0 Min. ASTM D-2042
Water, Vol. % 0.2 Max. ASTM D-95

FIGURE 11

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An asphalt cement must be flexible, so its ductility is measured. The ductility test involves
stretching a sample of asphalt cement at a known rate of speed in a tank of water at 77° F. For
RC-250, the residue must stretch at least 100 cm before it breaks.

The test for solubility in trichloroethylene checks for impurities. Pure bitumen dissolves 100%
in trichloroethylene. If 1% of the residue from RC-250 does not dissolve, it is 99% pure.

Bitumen is allowed to contain only a very small amount of water. If much water is present,
when the bitumen is heated, the water will boil and cause foam. Foaming is unacceptable,
therefore only 0.2% water is allowed in RC-250.

Figure 12 gives the test specifications for MC-250 as opposed to the RC-250 of Figure 11. In
many respects, the two cutbacks are alike. For example, they have the same viscosity (250-
500 cS) and ductility. However, the "medium curing" MC-250 is less volatile than the "rapid
curing" RC-250, making its flashpoint higher (150°F compared to 80 + °F).

Figure 13 presents Saudi Aramco Standard A-970 for penetration grade paving asphalt
cement. It includes specifications for ductility, flash point, penetration, and solubility in
trichloroethylene. The only item in Figure 13 not previously discussed requires that some of
the tests are run "after the thin film oven test." The thin film oven test is a procedure designed
to simulate the harmful effects of being in the heat and sun for several years. A small sample
is heated in the oven, and then the residue is tested. Exposure in the oven makes asphalt
cement harder and more brittle, decreasing ductility and penetration.

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SAUDI ARAMCO STANDARD A-974

CUTBACK ASPHALT MC-250

TEST GUARANTEE

DISTILLATION
Distillate, % by
Volume of Total
Distillate to 680° F Min. Max.
to 437° F -- 10
to 500° F 15 55
to 600° F 60 87

Residue from Distillation 67 Min.

to 680° F, % volume by difference.

Flashpoint, 150 Min.

(Tag Open Cup), °F

Viscosity, Kinematic 250 Min.

@ 140° F, CST 500 Max.

TESTS ON RESIDUE FROM DISTILLATION:

Penetration @ 77 °F 120 - 250

100G, 5 Sec.

Ductility at 77 °F, cm 100 Min.

Solubility in Trichloroethylene, % 99 Min.

Water, Vol. % 0.2 Max.

FIGURE 12

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SAUDI ARAMCO STANDARD A-970

PENETRATION GRADE PAVING ASPHALT

TEST GUARANTEE
°
Ductility at 77 F, cm 100 Min.

Ductility after thin 50 Min.

film oven test
°
Flash Point, C.O.C., F 450 Min.
°
Penetration at 77 F 60 - 70
(100 g, 5 sec.)

Retained penetration after 52 Min.

Thin Film Oven Test, %

Solubility in trichloroethylene, 99.0 Min.

wt. %

FIGURE 13

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Geosynthetics

Geosynthetics is a general term for a wide variety of materials being used in road construction.
These materials are usually man-made polymers derived from petroleum products.

Geosynthetics are used in several ways in road construction:

• To "bridge" a weak subgrade soil so that the soil can support the load applied
by a road embankment.

• To reinforce an earth embankment.

• To serve as a filter or partition between two dissimilar materials.

In any application, the lifetime of the geosynthetic can be affected by various chemical,
biological, or climatic conditions. Prolonged exposure to ultraviolet radiation from the sun can
also reduce the expected life of the material. These conditions should be carefully studied
before specifying a geosynthetic for a particular purpose.

Geogrid and geotextile are two primary types of geosynthetics that are commonly used in road
construction. The geogrid is a fairly recent innovation which is being used in many
reinforcement applications. The geotextile is the oldest of the geosynthetics and has been used
successfully as both a reinforcing and a filter/separation material.

Geogrids

A geogrid is a flat polymer material with horizontal members that are typically orientated
longitudinally (in the major stress direction) and transversely (perpendicular to the major stress
direction) within a soil mass. These longitudinal and transverse members enclose openings,
called apertures, which aid in the geogrid performance.

Geogrids are used primarily for reinforcement of soil layers; thus, they are applicable for two
of the three common uses for geosynthetics mentioned previously. The soil is reinforced by 1)
soil/polymer friction on the horizontal members and 2) soil bearing between soil in the
apertures and the transverse members. When the reinforced soil mass moves, the members are
tensioned and begin to support the load.

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Bridging Weak Subgrade Soils - Often when a weak soil is encountered in the field, it is
removed and replaced to a specified depth, usually at great expense, so that a suitable
foundation can be provided for a proposed highway embankment.

By placing geogrids in several layers throughout the lower portion of an embankment on top
of a soft soil, the stresses can be distributed more uniformly through the embankment to the
soft soil instead of being concentrated under the highest (and heaviest) portion of the fill. As
the embankment begins to settle under the heavy portion of the fill, the geogrid becomes
tensioned, and stresses are transferred through the geogrid from the embankment center to the
embankment edges. The highest stress is significantly reduced so that embankment settlement
will decrease. The weak soil will also then be strong enough to support the distributed
embankment stress so that a failure is avoided.

Reinforcing Earth Embankment Slopes - Slipping failure on earth embankment slopes is a

concern on many road projects. Sometimes soil in the embankment is not strong enough to
support its own weight at the side slopes. Geogrids may be used to anchor the soil so that it
will be unlikely to fail at the embankment edges. Figure 14 shows how the geogrids perform
in the embankment slope. The geogrid material is placed in layers in the embankment,
embedded well past the location of a potential failure plane. If the soil begins to move along
the failure plane, the geogrid becomes tensioned. The portion of the geogrid buried well into
the embankment will help to support the wedge of soil that has begun to slip. Soil friction (s)
along the potential failure plane also helps to support the soil wedge so that the entire load is
not carried by the geogrid.

Geogrids may be used to help achieve a steeper embankment slope where necessary. They can
also be used with concrete or similar panels to provide a vertical face on a fill.

In either case, the geogrid reinforcement decreases the amount of space needed for a road
embankment.

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GEOGRID REINFORCED SLOPE

T
1 S Geogrids
T2
S
T
3
S
T4
S Potential Failure Surface
Embankment T
5
S
T
6
S
T
7

FIGURE 14

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Geotextiles

Geotextiles are composed of polymeric fibers which have been bonded either by weaving
(woven fabrics) or by heat treatment, chemical treatment, or needle punching (nonwoven
fabrics). Unlike the geogrid, geotextiles can be made so that they have only very small
openings in the fabric. Thus, geotextiles can not only be used for reinforcement of soil layers
but also as a filter or separation material between two dissimilar layers.

One advantage of using geotextiles to bridge weak foundation materials is that they can
separate the poor foundation soil from the good embankment material. As traffic begins to use
the road constructed on the embankment, it can cause the embankment to deflect under load.
This repeated deflection can cause finer particles from the poor material to move up into the
pores of the good material, causing the good material to be weakened. A tightly woven
geotextile placed between the two layers can act as a filter to prevent this movement and
preserve the integrity of the good embankment.

Geotextiles can generally perform many of the same reinforcement functions as previously
described for geogrids. The primary difference is that geotextiles reinforce the soil using the
soil/geotextile friction to cause tension in the geotextile upon movement of the soil. The
interlocking component is not very pronounced, so the granular base reinforcement would not
likely be as successful with the geotextiles as with the geogrids. Geotextiles can be used
successfully, however, to bridge weaker materials and to reinforce embankment side slopes.

Summary

Lesson I introduced road terminology, road design standards, and typical roadbuilding
materials. Pavement layer names and layer construction materials for rigid, flexible, and
unpaved roads were emphasized. SAES-Q-006 on asphalt concrete paving and SAES-S-030
on storm water drainage were described as important engineering standards. Soil, aggregate,
and asphalt concrete were all described in detail as the most important road construction
materials for Saudi Aramco.

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ROAD LAYOUT AND DESIGN

This section contains basic information on factors that affect the layout of a roadway, a
parking lot, or a loading area. It will emphasize design elements such as sight distance,
horizontal and vertical alignment, roadway cross section, and design controls such as design
vehicles, driver performance, and highway capacity. Designing safety into a facilities will be
stressed in each of these areas.

Geometric Design and the Roadway Cross Section

Stations

Stations are fundamental units used in designing and constructing a roadway. One station is a
unit of length equal to 1000 m or 1 km. A project that is 10.8 stations long is 10,800 m or
10.8 km long.

Distances between exact station numbers are noted by adding "+xxx" or "+xxx.xxx" to the
lower station number. For example, the station exactly halfway between station 5 and station
6 on a project is 500 m from both station 5 and station 6. The correct notation for this station
is 5 + 500. As an additional example, if a point between stations 5 and 6 is to be located
740.30 m "up-station" from station 5, then the station number would be 5 + 740.30. (Note
that this same point could be found if it was defined as the point 250.62 m "down-station"
from Station 6.)

When it is necessary to find the distance between two stations, simply subtract the lower
station number from the upper station number after dropping the "+" sign. For example, if a
curve begins at station 219 + 018.13 and ends at Station 225 + 078.32, the length of the curve
is:

225078.32 - 219018.13 = 6060.19 m

On highway projects, stationing is generally labeled along the centerline of the project. On
east/west roads, stations increase from west to east; on north/south roads, stations increase
from south to north.

Often the position of an object that is off the centerline must be addressed. This is done by
giving the station or range of stations for the object and then the perpendicular distance left or
right of the centerline to the object. To establish "left" and "right", face in the up-station
direction. For example, on the roadway plan view shown in Figure 15, a 300 mm diameter
concrete pipe is placed under a driveway for drainage. The pipe happens to be parallel to the
centerline of the roadway, making it the same distance from the centerline at all points.
The notation shown in the figure is typical and can be interpreted as "There is a 300 mm
diameter concrete pipe running from station 5 + 023 to station 5 + 041 that is 35 m to the right
of the centerline."

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Stations are affected by the horizontal distances along the roadway. Vertical changes in
elevation do not affect the stationing on a project.

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LOCATING POINTS OFF THE CENTERLINE

edge of pavement

centerline
5 6

35 m driveway

+ 023 to +041, 35m Rt.

300 mm Ø concrete pipe

FIGURE 15

Plan and Profile Views

In a standard set of highway plans, plan and profile views of a roadway section are shown on
the plan and profile sheets. Each sheet shows plan and profile details for a portion of the
roadway. Stations are used to match the sheets and provide continuity. The plan view shows
the roadway and all related elements as if the observer was above the roadway looking down.
The horizontal dimensions of a project can be easily observed. Items such as direction of the
centerline, horizontal curves, drainage culvert lengths and locations, work limits, right-of-way
limits, and many other features can be defined.

The profile view shows the roadway and all related elements as if the observer was looking at
a vertical slice taken out of the roadway at the centerline. The vertical dimensions of a project
can be easily observed. Items such as the slope of the centerline, vertical curves, areas where
soil is removed (cut) or added (fill) to obtain the desired elevation, elevations of various
roadway elements, and many other features can be defined.

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Horizontal Curves

Horizontal curves on a roadway are used to allow vehicles to smoothly change horizontal
directions from a straight line (tangent) in one direction to a tangent in another direction.
Generally, the horizontal curve is circular--the curve has a constant radius--and it begins and
ends at points tangent to the tangent lines. These curves are shown on the plan views.

Figures 16 and 17 show the basic components of a horizontal curve.

P.I. = Point of intersection. The P.I. is the point (station) where the two tangents on
either side of the curve intersect. The P.I. is s point on a line that bisects he arc
of the curve.

P.C. = Point of curvature. The P.C. is the point (station) where the roadway changes
from a straight-line section to a curve section. Also sometimes called
beginning of curve (B.C.)

P.T. = Point of tangency. The P.T. is the point (station) where the roadway changes
from a curve section to a straight section. Also sometimes called end of curve
(E.C.)

T = Tangent length. For a circular curve, T is either the length along the back
tangent from the P.C. to the P.I. or the length along the ahead tangent from
from the P.I. to the P.T.

R = Curve radius. R is the radius of the circular curve. A smaller value of R

indicates a sharper curve. Most curves are designed with integer values of R.

D = Degree of curvature. D is a very common way to refer to the sharpness of a

curve. If a 100 m length of curve is drawn and if a radius is placed through
each end of and extended to the origin of the circular curve, the angle formed at
the intersection of these radii is called the degree of curvature (Figure 17). This
nomenclature is losing favor with modern highway design.

L = Curve length. L is the distance along the curve from the P.C. to the P.T.

∆ = Interior angle. This angle is formed by the P.C., the centerpoint O, and the
P.T. (Figure 17 and Figure 16).

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HORIZONTAL CURVE NOTATION

P. I.

T T

Circular curve
P. C. P. T.

Back tangent R R Ahead tangent

FIGURE 16

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HORIZONTAL CURVE NOTATION (CONT'D)

if L = 100 m
then ² = D

FIGURE 17

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When a circular curve is encountered on a roadway, the P.C. marks the beginning of two
types of stationing (Figure 18). Curve stationing measures stations of the curve along the
centerline of the project. This is the standard used throughout the design and construction of
a roadway to identify points on the roadway.

CURVE AND TANGENT STATIONING

tangent station

P.I.
tangent tangent
stationing stationing

stationing
curve = tangent
curve station
Curve stationing

P.C. P.T.

FIGURE 18

Tangent stationing is often used by location surveying crews in intially laying out the
roadway, since straight lines are easier to plot than curves. The tangent stations are measured
along the tangents from the P.C. to the P.T. This technique allows survey crews to locate the
proposed line of the roadway as quickly as possible near the completion of the design stage.
The P.T. station is always defined using the curve stationing method.

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Superelevation

Superelevation involves tilting the roadway toward the inside of a horizontal curve. It is
sometimes required to allow a vehicle to safely negotiate the curve at the design speed of the
highway. As the vehicle enters a horizontal curve, its tendency is to keep going in a straight
line. However, the friction between the tires and the pavement will resist this tendency and
keep the car on the pavement. If the maximum friction between the tires and pavement is
exceeded, the driver will lose control of the vehicle, and it will leave the road.

Figure 19 shows a normally crowned pavement (which is sufficient for drainage) and a
superelevated pavement. Superelevation tilts the car so that gravity works with friction to
hold the vehicle on the road. Superelevation should be great enough so that the driver feels
comfortable going around the curve at the design speed.

Superelevation must be limited so that a slow-moving or stopped vehicle does not slide to the
inside of the curve. Typically, the maximum superelevation is 0.1 foot (meter) of vertical rise
for every foot (meter) of horizontal distance across the pavement. Because of this limit in the
amount of superelevation, the allowable degree of curvature must also be limited for each
design speed.

Usually, the pavement is rotated gradually around either the pavement centerline or pavement
edge on the tangent approach to a curve so that full superelevation is obtained on the curve
itself.

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SUPERELEVATION

Normal Superelevated
section section

C
L
Cross slope

C
L

Origin
Lanes Lanes

FIGURE 19

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Grades

Because roadways are sometimes constructed in hilly terrain, they must rise and fall to
generally conform to the terrain. Usually, the rate of change in elevation remains constant for
some length of roadway before a vertical curve is needed to allow a vehicle to go over the top
of a hill or to change from one slope to another. This constant rate of change in elevation is
called the roadway grade.

Grades are usually expressed in percent. The grade is defined as the vertical rise in the
roadway divided by the horizontal distance over which this rise occurs. This quotient is then
multiplied by 100 to obtain the percent grade. For example, if a highway rises 3 m (9.84 ft)
over a horizontal distance of 100 m (328 ft), the grade is calculated as (3/100 x 100) = 3%
(see Figure 20). The grade is positive if it is uphill and negative if it is downhill looking up
station.

Because heavy vehicles tend to slow down on a grade, a maximum allowable grade must be
set so that the roadway can continue to carry a certain number of vehicles per hour past a
given point. For example, the maximum allowable grade would be lower on a freeway than
on a two-lane service road at an oil refinery because the speeds are expected to be much
higher on the freeway. Figure 21 shows maximum allowable grades for a) local streets and b)
freeways.

Grades are shown on the profile portion of the plans.

DEFINITION OF "GRADE"

3 % Grade
3m

100 m

FIGURE 20

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MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE GRADE

__________________________________________________________

Design Speed (mph)____________

Type of Terrain 20 30 40 50 60
Grades (percent)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Level 8 7 7 6 5
Rolling 11 10 9 8 6
Mountainous 16 14 12 10 --
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

a) Local Streets

_________________________________________________________

Design Speed (mph)____________

50 60 70____

Type of Terrain Grades (percent)

Level 4 3 3
Rolling 5 4 4
Mountainous 6 6 5

b) Freeways

FIGURE 21

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Vertical Curves

Vertical curves are used for transition when the roadway grade changes. These transitions
occur in three situations:

• At the top of a hill, where the grade changes from positive to negative. These
are called crest vertical curves.

• At the bottom of a valley, where the grade changes from negative to positive.
These are called sag vertical curves.

• At a change in steepness of the grade, either uphill or downhill.

The vertical curve is generally a parabola, which simplifies the calculations and layout
procedure for the construction surveyor. Half the curve is on one side of the P.V.I. and half
on the other. The details are shown on the profile views of the plans.

Figure 22 shows the basic components necessary for understanding roadway design and
construction of a vertical curve. Note that although a crest vertical curve is shown, the
notation is the same for other vertical curves.

P.V.I. = Point of vertical intersection. The P.V.I. is the point (station) where the two
grades on either side of the curve intersect.

P.V.C. = Point of vertical curvature. The P.V.C. is the point (station) where the roadway
changes from a constant grade to a vertical curve.

P.V.T. = Point of vertical tangency. The P.V.T. is the point (station) where the roadway
changes from a vertical curve to a constant grade.

L = Length of curve. The length of the vertical curve is the horizontal distance
from the P.V.C. to the P.V.I. Stationing on the curve length is also based upon
the horizontal distance.

The elevation of the P.V.I. is usually shown on the plans, so any other point on the curve or
grade may be calculated from that value.

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VERTICAL CURVES

( 1/2 ) L ( 1/2 ) L

P.V.I.

grade grade
P.V.C. P.V.T.

FIGURE 22

Earthwork

Earthwork calculations are used to determine the amount of embankment, or fill, material
required to build up the road to the required grade, and to determine the amount of
excavation, or cut, needed to cut the road to the necessary grade.

Fill can be obtained from either embankment locations on the site or from a nearby borrow
pit. Cut may have to be hauled away from the site if it is not required at some location on the
project. An economic analysis is required to determine how the earthwork quantities should
be handled.

Locations of cut and fill can be easily recognized on the centerline profile sheets. Usually, the
existing ground lines are shown as dashed lines and the required highway grade lines are
shown as solid lines. Elevations of each are often shown every 50 m. When the existing
ground is higher than the proposed, then the area will likely be cut. When the opposite
occurs, the area will likely be fill.

"Built-in" Safety

When designing a facility, the safety of roadway users should be kept foremost in the
engineer's mind. The geometric design, traffic engineering, cross section elements, and actual
facility construction all should allow for the safety of vehicles and their occupants.

The safety techniques that are used are too numerous to mention in their entirety, but several
have proven to be quite effective.

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Clear Zone Concept - The clear zone is the area from the edge of the pavement to the
closest obstruction or hazard. The farther the distance from the pavement edge to the hazard,
the better chance the driver of an errant vehicle has to recover.

Flat Side Slopes - When possible, the side slopes should be 6:1 (6 length units horizontally to
1 vertically) or flatter to allow the driver a chance to recover.

Coordination of Horizontal and Vertical Curves - These two curve types should be
coordinated so that unexpected geometrics do not occur. For example, a horizontal curve
should never be placed just over a sharp crest vertical curve because vehicles may be unable
to negotiate the curve and will run off the road.

Cross Slope on Pavement - Water is not only a hazard to the pavement structure but also to
vehicles if it is allowed to stand on the pavement. The vehicle could hydroplane, or lose
contact with the pavement, if it is going at a high rate of speed when it hits this water. Proper
pavement cross slope helps to rid the pavement of water. The shoulders must also be well
maintained so that water can run off the pavement, onto the shoulders, and away from the
roadway.

Intersections

An intersection is an area where two or more roads or streets cross, with vehicles on each
street or road competing for movement through the intersection area. Since many of these
movements tend to cross, traffic control devices are often used if traffic volumes are high
enough so that these crossing conflicts regularly occur.

There are two types of intersections from a traffic control viewpoint. The first is the
unsignalized intersection. Control methods for unsignalized intersections may vary from no
control at locations with extremely low traffic volumes to a stop control on all approaches to
the intersection for higher volumes of traffic.

The signalized intersection is typically one which has volumes that are high enough to meet
some minimum standard of traffic volume. An intersection may also require a signal because
of pedestrian volume, accident experience, or excessive delays to the user. The signal is used
to force the sharing of movement time by all vehicles on all approaches to the intersection and
to serve all vehicles whose drivers desire to go through the intersection.

In intersection analysis, the intersecting streets are divided into the major and the minor
movements. The major movement occurs on the street with the highest traffic volume.

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Capacity

The capacity of an intersection is the maximum hourly rate of vehicles which can be
reasonably expected to proceed through the intersection. The capacity varies depending upon
a number of factors:

• Number of lanes. The number of lanes for each movement affects the number
of vehicles which can pass through the intersection. For example, if one
movement has one lane, then a maximum of X cars can make that movement in
one hour. If another lane is added, then a maximum of 2X cars might be
expected to make the movement in the same hour.

• Clearance from the edge of the pavement. If a concrete wall or a line of parked
cars isextremely close to the traffic lane, drivers will move more slowly
because of the perceived hazard. Thus, capacity is reduced.

• Grades. Starting from a stopped position on an uphill grade affects both

passenger cars and big trucks. Because it takes longer to start and establish a
constant flow of vehicles through the intersection, capacity is decreased in
comparison to a level grade. Conversely, capacity increases slightly if vehicles
start on a downhill grade.

• Heavy vehicles. Because heavy vehicles (semi-trucks, buses, and recreational

vehicles) take longer to accelerate, the capacity decreases as a greater
percentage of the total traffic consists of heavy vehicles.

• Traffic control devices. Highway sections with flow that is interrupted because
of some external control such as a stop sign or a traffic signal, has lower
capacity than highway sections with uninterrupted flow. This is because time
is lost during the starting and stopping movements.

• Right turning and left turning traffic. Turning traffic will often block a lane
that might otherwise be used by vehicles that have movements which are free
to flow. Right turning vehicles may have to wait for pedestrians to cross before
the turn can be completed. Left turning traffic also may have to wait for
pedestrians, but, more importantly, will have to wait on the opposing through
and right-turn traffic.

Highway capacity on a facility with uninterrupted flow is generally 2,000 passenger cars per
hour per lane (pcphl). At signalized intersections under ideal conditions, capacity will be
around 1,800 passenger cars per hour of green per lane (pcphgpl). However, traffic flow at
capacity is very slow and congested, so the design engineer generally prefers that an
intersection operates at some volume less than capacity.

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Unsignalized Intersections

The capacity analysis at an unsignalized intersection depends on the concept of how the
driver reacts to traffic gaps that allow him to make his desired movement. There are four
movements that drivers may have some difficulty in making at an unsignalized intersection.
They are listed below from easiest to most difficult. The order of difficulty was based
primarily on the number of gaps available to make each movement. Figure 23 lists these
movements and illustrates the traffic conflicts for each.

• Right turn from the minor street. Conflicting movements are one through and
one right turn movement on the major street approach.

• Left turn from the major street. Conflicting movements are all movements on
the opposite major street approach to the intersection.

• Through movement from the minor street. Conflicting movements are all the
movements on both approaches to the intersection of the major street.

• Left turn from the minor street. Conflicting movements are all through
movements on the major street and the through and right turn movements on
the opposing minor street approach to the intersection.

As traffic becomes heavier on the approaches to the intersection, the delays experienced by
drivers making these movements will increase because of the decrease in available gaps in the
traffic. Intersection capacity will decrease. Once the delay reaches a certain level, and once
capacity is reached or exceeded by the traffic demand, signalization will become necessary.

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MOVEMENT HIERARCHY AT UNSIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS

a) right turn from minor street b) left turn from major street

c) through movement from minor street d) left turn from minor street

conflicting mvt.
desired mvt.

FIGURE 23

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Signalized Intersections

The saturation flow rate (S), or the number of vehicles that can get through a signal during all
available green time, determines what the capacity of that intersection will be. Saturation
flow rate is affected by heavy vehicles, grades, and all other factors listed previously.

The ideal saturated flow rate is 1,800 vphgpl, as mentioned earlier in this section. This rate is
adjusted for each factor which is different from the ideal. For example, for heavy vehicles,
the ideal situation is 0% heavy vehicles. No adjustment to the ideal saturation flow rate
would be required if no heavy vehicles were present at an intersection. For 4% heavy
vehicles, the correction factor is 0.98 (multiply the ideal saturation flow rate by 0.98 to get the
equivalent vehicles per hour of green per lane); for 10% the adjustment is 0.95.

Tables of adjustment factors have been developed from experience over the years. The ideal
saturation flow rate is adjusted by all factors that are different from ideal. For example,
assume all conditions at an intersection are ideal except for heavy vehicles and grade. The
adjustment factor for 4% heavy vehicles (fHV) is 0.98. The adjustment factor for a 2%
downhill grade at the intersection (fg) is 1.01. The actual saturation flow rate (S) is calculated
by

S = 1800 x fg x fHV
= 1800 x 1.01 x 0.98
S = 1782 vphgpl

This value is the capacity of the intersection. As long as the sum of the major volumes which
must pass through the intersection during signal green times does not exceed this total
volume, the intersection should function properly. Generally, the traffic design engineer
wants the per lane traffic to be substantially less than this saturation value so the signal will
function without major congestion.

The traffic engineer develops critical lane volumes. This is the heaviest lane volume for a
particular traffic movement. It helps to determine how long the traffic signal should be green
for each approach. Each time the light turns green for a traffic movement, the length of that
green time will have been determined by the critical lane volume. In this way, all traffic that
needs to pass through the signal will be able to get through the signal.

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Intersection Geometrics

The size of an intersection and the turning radii required at an intersection are controlled by
the design vehicle. The design vehicle is the largest vehicle that is expected to regularly use
an intersection. Typical design vehicles can range from a passenger car (type P vehicle) to a
semi-truck pulling two trailers (type WB-60 vehicle).

Figure 24 shows turning dimensions of a WB-50 vehicle, the standard 18-wheel single trailer
semi-truck. Other figures are available for additional design vehicles, such as a passenger car,
a bus, a recreational vehicle, a single unit truck, and two other design trucks. The design
engineer is responsible for making the appropriate selection before the design process begins.

The vehicle turning radii affect two aspects of intersection design. First, the minimum truck
turning radius affects the radius of the pavement edge or curb found at the intersection
corners. When a truck turns right, it should be able to complete the turn in the proper lanes if
this minimum radius is used. It is not desirable for the truck to swing into another lane when
making a wide turn or to "jump" the curb with its tires. From Figure 24, the minimum radius
at the intersection corners should be 19.8 feet (6.0 m) to accommodate a WB-50 truck as the
design vehicle.

Second, the maximum turning radius is used in setting the width of the intersection. If two
design vehicles make opposing left turns at the same time, both should be able to turn with
several feet of clearance between them as they pass in the intersection. If the design vehicle is
the WB-50 shown in Figure 24, the maximum turning radius of 46.2 feet (14.1 m) for all left
turn movements will allow two vehicles making opposing left turns to complete the turns by
just touching. By using a design radius of, say, 50 feet (15.2 m), there will be about 7.5 feet
(2.3 m) of clearance between the two trucks.

Summary: Geometric Design and Roadway Cross Section

This section has introduced the terminology and concepts for geometric design and roadway
cross section. Knowledge of such items as stationing and vertical and horizontal curve
terminology will be useful when reading road construction plans. Knowing how roads and
intersections are planned to ensure they will carry adequate traffic volumes aids in
understanding the design process. However, the treatment of these subjects has not been in
sufficient depth for the participant to design such facilities himself.

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WB-50 TRUCK TURNING RADII

46.2 Ft.

19.8 Ft.
minimum

WB-50
Semitrailer

FIGURE 24

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Parking and Loading

Parking and loading areas are associated with almost every Saudi Aramco facility. Careful
design of these facilities may be overlooked when attention is focused on other areas. The
following sections describe the basic design of these facilities, with emphasis on parking.

Thickness Design

SAES-Q-006 provides excellent guidelines for the thickness design of parking and loading
facilities. Unless a special design has been performed, use the thickness design information
provided in Figure 25.

DESIGN FOR PARKING LOTS AND LOADING FACILITIES

Minimum Maximum Thickness of

Thickness of Combined Binder and
Base Course Surface Course
Pavement Category __________________ ____________________________

With Class B or C With Class A

base material base material
cm (in) cm (in) cm (in)

Parking and Storage Lots

Sedans and Small Trucks 15 (6.0) 9 (3.5) 6 (2.5)

Parking and Storage Lots

Heavy Traffic (Truck Terminals, etc.) 23 (9.0) 14 (5.5) 12 (5.0)

FIGURE 25

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Drainage

Most roads are built with a 0.5% longitudinal slope to keep rainfall from standing in the road.
The minimum slope for parking and loading areas increases to 1.0 or 1.5%. This slope will
prevent large accumulations of water.

Parking Lot Layout

There are four important criteria to remember when laying out a parking area:

• Use rectangular areas if possible.

• Make the long sides of the parking area parallel.
• Place parking spaces (not traffic lanes) along the perimeter.
• Place traffic lanes so that they serve two rows of parking spaces.

The number of parking spaces in the parking lot will be maximized if you use those four
rules.

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Traffic Lanes in parking lots should be a minimum of 24 feet (7.2 m) wide for two-way
traffic. Large circulation lanes that lead from one part of the parking lot to another should be
a minimum of 30 feet (9m) wide.

The minimum entrance for two-way traffic into a parking lot should be 25 feet (7.6 m)wide.
The minimum radius of the entrance curb is approximately 10 feet (3 m). See Figure 26 for a
picture of these typical facilities.

Parking Spaces - A typical minimum parking space size is 19 feet long by 9 feet wide (5.7 m
by 2.7 m).

There are three main ways to arrange parking spaces: at a 90° angle, at a 60° angle, and at a
45° angle. Figure 27 shows those parking arrangements. The 90° arrangement is the most
efficient use of space; it places more parking spaces in a given area of land. However, the 90°
arrangement is hardest for the driver to use; it requires a sharper turn to drive the car into the
space. Thus, the 90o arrangement is used when the people who park there will usually stay
the entire day.

If many people enter and leave each parking space every day, the 60° arrangement is the most
often used because it is easier for people to park their cars. However, this arrangement has a
lower car capacity than the 90° arrangement. The 45° arrangement is not often used. Its car
capacity is the lowest.

Figure 28 shows the required dimensions for lots using any of the three parking angles. The
"single unit" parking lot has one-way traffic, and there are no other rows of additional parking
spaces on both sides. The "overlapping units" parking lot has rows of other parked cars on
either side of the row shown.

Figure 28 is extremely helpful in laying out a parking lot on a given area of land. The value
'M' can help you determine how many rows of parked cars can fit into the given area. The
value 'a' tells the smallest width for a one-way traffic lane that can be used in the facility. The
value 'c' allows you to calculate the number of parking spaces that can be put into each row of
the parking lot.

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PARKING PLAN--90Þ PARKING

62'-0" Wall to Wall

19'-0" 24'-0" 19'-0"
2'-0"

6" Raised curb line

90Þ
Typical
9'-0"

Wall
or
property
line
Painted parking lines

.
.. .. .
Entrance R = 10'-0" min.

Streetcurb 25'-0"
Street

FIGURE 26

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PARKING ANGLES

60Þ 45Þ 90Þ

Traffic

FIGURE 27

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PARKING LAYOUT DIMENSIONS

M M'

s a s s' a' s'

Single unit Overlapping units

n s a c M s' M' a'

90° 19'0" 24'0" 9'0" 62'0" 19' 62'0" 24'

60° 21'0" 18'0" 10'5" 60'0" 18'9" 55'6" 18'

45° 19'10" 13'0" 12'9" 52'8" 16'7" 46'2" 13'

FIGURE 28

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Loading Facilities

It is not possible to give general rules for the design of loading facilities because of the large
variety of commodities to be loaded and the variety of design vehicles to be docked. When
designing those facilities, the individual characteristics of the design vehicle will largely
determine the design.

Parking and Loading Summary

It is not easy to design a useful and efficient parking facility. However, following the
guidelines in Figures 25-28 and the four criteria listed below will help the designer attain his
goal:

• Use rectangular areas if possible.

• Make the long sides of the parking area parallel.

• Place parking spaces (not traffic lanes) along the perimeter.

• Place traffic lanes so that they serve two rows of parking spaces.

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DRAINAGE

You may be asked to design road facilities that will be subjected to rainfall. These facilities
will include ditches and culverts.

The land upon which rain falls is broken into drainage areas. Each small area of land which
drains into one channel is called a watershed. Each watershed may send a stream of water
toward the road. When it reaches the road, it is diverted by one of two means:

• The stream of water is channeled under the road through a culvert, or

• The water is channeled into a ditch which runs beside the road.

Several types of calculations are important when dealing with drainage. First, the maximum
rate of water expected to flow toward the road must be quantified. Second, the ditch must be
designed to be big enough to hold the water without flooding. Third, the culvert must be
made large enough to carry the water under the road without flooding. Simple calculations
for the first two items will be covered in this module. Culvert design is too complicated to be
adequately covered here.

Peak Runoff

SAES-S-030 specifies use of the Rational Method as the way to calculate peak runoff. Peak
runoff is the highest flow rate of water expected to come from a watershed. The value is
expressed in cubic feet per second (cfs) or cubic meters per second (cms). If structures are
designed for peak runoff, then they will not flood during most storms.

The Rational Method only works for watersheds smaller than 500 acres (202.3 ha). The main
sources of additional information concerning it are SAES-S-030 and SADP-S-030.

This module will describe only the simple case of one watershed flowing directly toward the
road. If more complicated situations occur, the participant may check the references in the
previous paragraph or consult a more experienced engineer.

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The Rational Formula

The Rational Formula is the equation used to calculate peak runoff.

Q = 0.002755 CIA

where: Q = Runoff quantity in cubic meters per second

C = Runoff coefficient
I = Rainfall intensity in millimeters per hour
A = Area in hectares

The Rational Formula works on the principle that peak runoff occurs when all areas of the
watershed (drainage area) are contributing to the runoff at the point of discharge.

Runoff Coefficient C - The runoff coefficient is a measure of the percentage of rainfall which
eventually flows down to the stream, ditch, culvert, or other point of discharge. The
coefficient accounts for rainfall infiltration into the ground, type of vegetation, land use, and
other factors which either absorb part of the rainfall or which prevent it from becoming
runoff.

Figure 29 gives suggested values for C under various land use conditions. The higher the C
value selected, the higher the calculated value of runoff in cubic meters per second.

RUNOFF COEFFICIENTS

Character of Drainage Area C

Pavement, roads and parking lots 0.9

Compacted marl or open rocky areas 0.8
Commercial or Community Services areas 0.7
Residential areas 0.6
School sites 0.5
Parks and open sandy areas 0.3

FIGURE 29

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In the event that a watershed is composed of several types of drainage area, C is a weighted
coefficient depending on the relative sizes of the subareas within the watershed. The designer
divides the large area into small subareas of each drainage area type. The weighted
coefficient C is then determined by dividing the summation of the product of each subarea
times its appropriate C value by the total area of the watershed. This calculation will be
demonstrated in Example Problem #2.

Area of Watershed A - In the Rational Method equation, A stands for area of watershed in
hectares (ha). The value can normally be obtained from a topographic map. First, identify
the boundaries of the watershed (see Figure 30). Then, either use a planimeter to calculate the
area, or use an engineer's scale to measure the lengths of the boundary edges in order to
calculate the area by hand. Often a field trip is necessary to adequately define the boundaries
of the watershed; this is especially true in urban areas.

WATERSHED AREA

Watershed
boundary

Outlet

FIGURE 30

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Rainfall Intensity I - Rainfall intensity I is given in millimeters per hour. It is determined

from the following formula which is given in SAES-S-030.

(A + B Tc)
I = (1 + C Tc)

where: A, B, and C are given in Figure 31. Tc is calculated as described below.

VARIABLES FOR INTENSITY EQUATION

Return
Frequency A B C

5 years 166.148 0.519 0.119

10 years 202.151 0.570 0.111
25 years 248.192 0.662 0.107
50 years 291.948 0.732 0.106

FIGURE 31

A, B, and C vary depending on how often the facility will be allowed to flood. A flood so
large that it occurs on the average of once every twenty five years is called the 25-year flood.
The 25 year value is called the return frequency or design frequency. The appropriate value
to be used with Figure 30 for ditch or culvert design is ten years.

Time of concentration is the longest amount of time required for runoff from any remote point
of a flow path of the drainage area to arrive at the outlet. It is expressed in minutes and varies
with the size and shape of the drainage areas, the slope of the land, and many other factors. It
is directly dependent upon "L," the distance in meters along a flow path between the most
remote point in the drainage area and the discharge point, and "H," the difference in elevation
in feet between the two points. Notice that L is measured along the path of flow, even if this
is not a straight line. The relationship is expressed by the empirical formula:
Tc = K(L2/H)0.2
where: Tc = Time of concentration (minutes)
K = Constant value given in Figure 32
L = Length of drainage path (meters)
H = Difference in elevation of drainage
area (meters)

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VALUES OF K FOR Tc CALCULATION

Character of Drainage Area K

Pavement, roads and parking lots 1.11

Compacted marl or open rocky areas 1.25
Commercial or Community Service area 1.43
Residential areas 1.67
School sites 2.00
Parks and open sandy areas 3.33

FIGURE 32

Sometimes there are two or more flow paths in a drainage area which could give a time of
concentration. When that occurs, both are checked and the one that gives the longest time is
used.

The minimum value for Tc which can be used is 10 minutes.

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EXAMPLE PROBLEM #2
PEAK DISCHARGE BY RATIONAL METHOD

Given: Watershed area is 4.7 ha.

0.7 ha of the area is a residential area
4.0 ha of the area is a school site
L = 100 m, H = 7 m

Find: Peak runoff for a 10-year return period.

Solution:

Coefficient C:

C residential = 0.6
C school = 0.5
C (weighted) = 0.6(0.7) + 0.5(4.0) = 0.51
4.7

Time of Concentration:

From Figure 32, K = 2.00

Tc = K (L2/ H)0.2
= 2.00 (1002/7)0.2 = 8.6 minutes
= use the minimum of 10.0
minutes

Intensity:

From Figure 31, A, B, and C = 202.51, 0.570, and 0.111

respectively

I = (A + B Tc)/(1 + C Tc)
202.15 + 0.57 (10)
= 1 + 0.111 (10)
= 98.5 mm/hr.

Peak runoff:
Q = 0.002755 CIA
= 0.002755 (0.51) (98.5) (4.7)
= 0.65 cms

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Ditch Design

Ditch design has two major objectives. The first is to make the ditch large enough to carry the
flow rate expected for the 10 year flood. This means setting values for B and d (see Figure
33). After depth of water d has been set, the total height of the ditch must be increased by 18
inches (0.46 m) as an added safety factor. The extra 18 inches is called freeboard.

Where ditches are required, they normally run beside the road on the same longitudinal slope.
Saudi Aramco requires (SAES-S-030) that the ditches be trapezoid-shaped.

Ditches may be lined with natural soil only, or they may be lined with Portland Cement
Concrete (PCC) or riprap. Riprap is solid stone or broken concrete. The PCC or riprap
linings are added to prevent erosion of the ditch by the water flowing through it. If the ditch
sides and bottom are natural soil, the maximum water velocity V allowed in the ditch is 2.5
fps (0.76 m/s). If the ditch is PCC or riprap lined,the maximum allowable V increases to 5.0
fps (1.52 m/s).

If the ditches are not lined, side slope Z must be 3:1. If the sides are lined with PCC or riprap,
the side slope is set at 2:1.

TRAPEZOIDAL DITCH

I
d
Z

FIGURE 33

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Establishing Ditch Dimensions

The Irish engineer Manning formulated the basic equation for dealing with flow in open
channels such as ditches. An easy method to solve the Manning equation for trapezoidal
ditches is found in Figure 34 on the next page. To use the figure, you must know or
approximate the following data:

• Q = Flowrate (cfs).
• S = Longitudinal ditch slope (ft/ft).
• Z = Side slope ratio (2:1 or 3:1).
• B = Bottom ditch width (ft). For roadside ditches, 2 ft - 10 ft are typical values.
• n = Manning's roughness coefficient for the lining material of the ditches (see Figure
35).

Figure 34 allows you to determine d, depth of water in the ditch. Add 18 inches (0.46 m) of
freeboard to arrive at the total depth of the ditch. Example Problem #3 will demonstrate this
process.

MANNING'S ROUGHNESS COEFFICIENTS

Surface n
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Vitrified clay or RTR pipe 0.013

Concrete or steel pipe 0.015
Paved streets with curb and gutter 0.015
Concrete lined open channels and box culverts 0.016
Constructed open channels with concrete side slopes 0.019
Constructed open channels with earth side slopes 0.023
Constructed open channels with rip-rap side slopes 0.027
Smooth natural stream channels 0.040
Rough or rocky natural stream channels 0.050
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

FIGURE 35

Checking Velocity

After preliminary ditch dimensions are established, check that the design does not violate
maximum flow velocity limits. Those limits are 2.5 fps for unprotected ditches and 5.0 fps
for lined ditches. Use the following equation to find the velocity associated with the
preliminary ditch dimensions:

V = Q/A

where: V = Velocity (fps)

Q = Flowrate (cfs)

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A = Cross-sectional area of flow (sq. ft.)

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DITCH DESIGN NOMOGRAPH

FIGURE 34

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If the velocity is below the limit, the design is acceptable. If the velocity exceeds the limit,
increase B and repeat the procedure. Example Problem #3 demonstrates the calculation.

EXAMPLE PROBLEM #3 DITCH DESIGN

Given: Q = 10 cfs
S = 1% = 0.01
Z = 2:1

Lining material is rock riprap.

Find: Appropriate ditch dimensions

Solution: From Figure 35 n for rock riprap is 0.027.

Assume B = 3 ft as a "typical" ditch width.

Enter Figure 34 with S = 0.01 and Qn = (10)(0.027) = 0.27.

Connect S and Qn and mark a point on the turning line.

Connect the turning line point with B = 3 ft and place a mark on the
Z = 0 scale. Read horizontally to the Z = 2 line to find that d/B = 0.22.

d/3 = 0.22, so d = 0.66 ft of water depth, or 0.7 ft.

Add 1.5 ft (18 inches) as freeboard.

1.5 + 0.7 = 2.2 ft as total ditch depth.

Check for V:

1
2
0.5' 0.7'

1.4' 3' 1.4'

 (3 + 5.8) 
 
A=  2 x [0.7] = 3.1 sq ft
Q 10
=
V= A 3.1 = 3.2 fps

3.2 ² 5.0, so velocity checks.

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Culverts

The function of a culvert is to carry surface water underneath a road. This module will
describe the shapes of culverts and the materials culverts are made from. It will describe the
proper placement of culverts and some aspects of culvert construction. However, culvert
design is too complicated to be described completely here. Only the parameters affecting
design will be described.

Materials of Construction

Portland cement concrete is the most common construction material for culverts.

Figure 36 shows common culvert shapes. Both circular culverts and box culverts are used by
Saudi Aramco, but the box culvert is used much more frequently. Both culvert types may be
pre-cast construction, that is,they are made in advance and hauled to the site. This technique
provides low cost, fast, simple construction. Box culverts that are quite long or of large size
may also be cast-in-place.

COMMON CULVERT SHAPES

circular box box with

(rectangular) 2 barrels

FIGURE 36

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Location

Culvert location deals with the horizontal and vertical alignment of the culvert with respect to
the stream and to the highway. Figure 37 shows how to locate the horizontal alignment of a
culvert. In each example in the figure, notice that the downstream end of the culvert
discharges water which is traveling in the same direction as the natural streambed. This
practice reduces erosion at the culvert outlet.

PROPER HORIZONTAL LOCATION

Channel
Channel Channel

Highway
Centerline

FIGURE 37

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Figure 38 shows two common ways to establish the vertical alignment of the culvert. In
Figure 38a, the designer has aligned the culvert on the same slope as the natural channel. In
this way, the velocity of the water leaving the culvert is approximately the same as was the
velocity of water in the channel before the culvert was built. This approach helps prevent
erosion at the culvert outlet. Alignment should be done this way when possible.

Figure 38b shows a culvert with its inlet depressed below the level of the natural channel bed.
Thus, the slope of the culvert is not as steep as the slope of the natural channel. Exit velocity
is kept low, avoiding erosion at the outlet. However, the presence of erosion protection on the
steep slope just before the inlet is very important. Water will flow faster down that steep
slope. If protection is not present, the slope could erode badly.

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PROPER VERTICAL LOCATION OF CULVERT

Road surface

Culvert

Natural
streambed

a) Streambed location

Road surface

Natural
streambed

Concrete or
riprap Culvert
erosion
protection
required on
this slope

b) Depressed inlet

FIGURE 38

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Headwalls

SAES-S-030 specifies that all culverts will have headwalls at the inlet and outlet. Figure 39
shows a culvert with a headwall. The headwall holds the fill material in place behind the
culvert mouth. It also acts as an anchor when the rushing water exerts lift on the culvert.

Cut-off walls are required at each end of the culvert. Cut-off walls are cast-in-place concrete
walls attached to the bottom of the headwall. They extend vertically down into the ground a
minimum of two feet (0.6 m). Their purpose is to help prevent erosion.

CONCRETE HEADWALL

Road Headwall

FIGURE 39

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Erosion

Erosion at the culvert inlet and outlet have already been described. Erosion at the outlet is
called scour. The type of inlet erosion prevented by the slope protection in Figure 38b is
called headcutting. SAES-S-030 attempts to limit both types of erosion by requiring a
minimum of 3 m (10 feet) of solid grouted riprap in the stream channel both upstream and
downstream of concrete box culverts. The riprap absorbs the erosive energy of the flowing
water and prevents it from eroding the soil. The same measures can also be used for circular
pipe culverts (see Figure 40).

Culvert Design Parameters

Figure 41 illustrates the important parameters affecting the performance of a culvert. To

deliver the flowrate Q through the culvert, the culvert barrel has diameter D and slope S. The
roughness n of the pipe wall and the length L of the pipe determine the amount of friction
force which slows the flow. The levels of headwater HW and tailwater TW also affect how
rapidly water will flow through the culvert.

SAES-S-030 specifies that those factors must combine to give the flow a velocity between 0.9
m/s to 3 m/s (3 fps and 10 fps). Velocity below 3 fps will allow sand and earth to collect in
the culvert and decrease or stop flow. This is called siltation. An exit velocity above 10 fps
could cause erosion.

SAES-S-030 specifies two more requirements for culvert design. First, the minimum
diameter must be 0.3 m (12 inches). Second, the cross-sectional area of the pipe must be 50%
greater than the area required from hydraulic calculations. This increase is made to
compensate for siltation.

Pipe or box culvert strength is another important design consideration. Two situations can
cause large stresses in the culvert. The first is a culvert close to the road surface, where large
axle weights put high stresses on the culvert. The second situation is when a culvert is placed
at the bottom of a high fill. The weight of all the earth above the culvert places high stresses
upon it. Strength calculations are too complicated to be explained here, but examples may be
found in the Concrete Pipe Design Manual published by the American Concrete Pipe
Association, 1987.

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EROSION AT CULVERTS

Road surface

Headcutting

Scour
Culvert
running
full

FIGURE 40

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CULVERT DESIGN PARAMETERS

D = Dimensions of the culvert

HW = Headwater depth at culvert entrance
L = Length of culvert
n = Surface roughness of the pipe wall
S = Slope of the culvert pipe
TW = Tailwater depth at culvert outlet

HW

D TW

S
n
L

FIGURE 41

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Construction

Several aspects of proper construction have already been discussed. The slope must be
appropriate to maintain a water velocity of 0.9 - 3.0 m/s (3-10 fps). Headwalls and cut-off
walls are required for all culverts. Ten feet of riprap is required at the entrance and exit of
concrete box culverts.

Another important item is bedding and backfilling. Bedding is the material the culvert rests
on. Ideally, bedding should be granular material such as gravel or sand. If the culvert is to be
placed on rock, it is best to over-excavate the rock by 10 - 15 cm (4 to 6 inches) and add 4 to
6 inches of bedding before laying the pipe.

Backfilling concerns compacting the fill material around and over the pipe. Good compaction
around the sides of the pipe is particularly important because the pipe is strengthened by
lateral support from the soil. If a trench has been dug to place the pipe, good backfill is very
important. If the fill is not well-compacted, it may settle, leaving a depression in the road
surface.

Drainage Summary

Drainage considerations for Saudi Aramco will generally involve using the Rational Formula
to calculate rainfall runoff amounts. The trapezoidal ditches and rectangular culverts which
carry the runoff are then designed according to principles listed in this section. Erosion must
be constantly guarded against through such techniques as minimizing slopes and placing rock
riprap in areas of potential erosion.

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PAVEMENT DESIGN

Pavement design involves the determination of materials of construction and layer

thicknesses for the road. The principle Saudi Aramco Engineering Standard concerning
asphalt concrete (AC) pavement design is SAES-Q-006, Asphalt Concrete Paving. SAES-Q-
006 specifies use of the AASHTO Interim Guide for Design of Pavement Structures
(published in 1972) for AC pavement design. A more recent version of the AASHTO guide
(1986) has been published, but its pavement design method is far more complicated and has
not been adopted by Saudi Aramco. This module will use procedures from the 1972 version.

Data must be gathered before design can begin. The two most important types of data
concern the size and number of trucks which are expected to travel on the road and the
strength of the subgrade soil. The amount of truck traffic is very important because the road
must be thicker and stronger as the number of trucks or the weight of trucks expected to use
the road increases. Subgrade strength is important because the pavement must be thick if the
subgrade strength is low.

Truck Traffic Data

The total number of automobiles (trucks and passenger vehicles) which are expected to travel
the road each day is called the average daily traffic (ADT). ADT includes the vehicles which
travel in both directions on the road. However, a vehicle only travels on one side of the road,
so the road only has to be thick enough to carry one-half of the ADT. Therefore, divide ADT
by two when calculating the amount of traffic to be used in design.

Passenger automobile traffic is unimportant when calculating the amount of traffic expected
on a road. Only the number and weight of trucks, which are much heavier than cars, usually
need to be considered in design calculations. The number of trucks on the road is often
expressed as a percentage of the ADT.

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Truck Axle Loads

Each truck has two or more axles. The weight which is carried by each axle is very
important. If the axles are loaded very heavily, only a small number of trucks traveling over
the pavement will break (fail) it. For that reason, trucks are counted by the number of axles
they have and the load on each axle.

There are two types of axles: single axles and tandem axles. See Figure 42a for a drawing of
a truck with two single axles. In Figure 42a, the rear axle carries 15,000 pounds (67kN) and
the front axle carries 6,000 pounds (27 kN). Figure 42b shows a drawing of a truck with three
axles. Two of the axles are tandem axles. A tandem axle has two axles so close together that
they are considered to be only one axle. The tandem axles in the figure each carry 34,000
pounds (151 kN). The steering axle in the front is a single axle which carries 12,000 pounds
(54 kN).

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SINGLE AXLES AND TANDEM AXLES

67 kN 27 kN
15,000 Lbs. 6,000 Lbs.

a) Truck with two single axles

151 kN 151 kN 54 kN
34,000 Lbs. 34,000 Lbs. 12,000 Lbs.

b) Truck with 2 tandem and one single axle

FIGURE 42

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Equivalent Axle Loads

Because there are so many types of vehicles and weights of axles, all the different axles which
are expected on a road are converted to a standard: the 80 kn (18-kip) equivalent axle load
(EAL). Then, the road is designed to carry that much traffic before it wears out. The
conversion factors for the different axles are given in Figure 43. The figure is given in two
sections--one for single axles and one for tandem axles. Multiply the appropriate Load
Equivalency Factor by the number of axles expected in that category to arrive at 80 kn (18-
kip) EAL. The number of EAL's which travel on the road during its life is the traffic data
used for road design. This number is called the design EAL.

Design EAL

Saudi Arabian roads are designed to last 20 years before they must be rehabilitated. Twenty
years is called the design life. It would seem correct to multiply EAL/day x 365 days/year x
20 years to arrive at design EAL. However, traffic usually increases as time goes by, usually
at the rate of 2% to 10% per year. Thus, when calculating design EAL, multiply by a factor
somewhat larger than 20 years. The appropriate growth factors are given in Figure 44.

As a pavement thickness designer, you may obtain the design EAL in several ways:

• The planners may give you the design EAL value to use.

• If a traffic analysis has not been made by the planners, use the values from
Figure 45. The figure comes from SAES-Q-006.

• The planners may give you a list of the number and type of axles they expect to
travel on the pavement per day. You must convert that list to 80 kn (18-kip)
EAL. The procedure is shown in Figure 46.

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LOAD EQUIVALENCY FACTORS

Load Equivalency Load Equivalency

Gross Axle Load Gross Axle Load
Factors Factors

Single Tandem Single Tandem

lb lb
Axles Axles Axles Axles

1,000 0.00002 41,000 23.27 2.29

2,000 0.00018 42,000 25.64 2.51
3,000 0.00072 43,000 28.22 2.75
4,000 0.00209 44,000 31.00 3.00
5,000 0.00500 45,000 34.00 3.27
6,000 0.01043 46,000 37.24 3.55
7,000 0.0196 47,000 40.74 3.85
8,000 0.0343 48,000 44.50 4.17
9,000 0.0562 49,000 48.54 4.51
10,000 0.0877 0.00688 50,000 52.88 4.86
11,000 0.1311 0.01008 51,000 5.23
12,000 0.189 0.0144 52,000 5.63
13,000 0.264 0.0199 53,000 6.04
14,000 0.360 0.0270 54,000 6.47
15,000 0.478 0.0360 55,000 6.93
16,000 0.623 0.0472 56,000 7.41
17,000 0.796 0.0608 57,000 7.92
18,000 1.000 0.0773 58,000 8.45
19,000 1.24 0.0971 59,000 9.01
20,000 1.51 0.1206 60,000 9.59
21,000 1.83 0.148 61,000 10.20
22,000 2.18 0.180 62,000 10.84
23,000 2.58 0.217 63,000 11.52
24,000 3.03 0.260 64,000 12.22
25,000 3.53 0.308 65,000 12.96
26,000 4.09 0.364 66,000 13.73
27,000 4.71 0.426 67,000 14.54
28,000 5.39 0.495 68,000 15.38
29,000 6.14 0.572 69,000 16.26
30,000 6.97 0.658 70,000 17.19
31,000 7.88 0.753 71,000 18.15
32,000 8.88 0.857 72,000 19.16
33,000 9.98 0.971 73,000 20.22
34,000 11.18 1.095 74,000 21.32
35,000 12.50 1.23 75,000 22.47
36,000 13.93 1.38 76,000 23.66
37,000 15.50 1.53 77,000 24.91
38,000 17.20 1.70 78,000 26.22
39,000 19.06 1.89 79,000 27.58
40,000 21.08 2.08 80,000 28.99

FIGURE 43

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GROWTH FACTORS

Annual No
2% 4% 5% 6% 7% 8% 10 %
Growth Rate Growth

Growth Factor 20.0 24.3 29.8 33.1 36.8 41.0 45.8 57.3

FIGURE 44

DESIGN EAL'S IF TRAFFIC IS NOT KNOWN

EQUIVALENT TRAFFIC AND LOAD 18 KIP LOADS

PAVEMENT CATEGORIES

Residential Streets Typical Subdivision 2 x 10**4

Access Roadways Sedans to trucks up 1 x 10**5

to 20 tons/axle

Main Roadways Sedans to trucks up Traffic count

to 20 tons/axle required

Parking & Storage Sedans and small 1 x 10**5

Lots trucks

Parking & Storage Heavy Traffic (Truck 2 x 10**6

Lots Terminals etc.)

Plant Areas Occasional Heavy Loads 1 x 10**6

FIGURE 45

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EXAMPLE PROBLEM #4 TYPICAL DETERMINATION OF DESIGN EAL

Given: 100 6-Kip single axles and 200 34-Kip axles are expected to travel on the road every day
in the first year. These numbers are for one direction of traffic only. Traffic will increase
2 % per year.

Find: Design EAL

Solution:

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

Load Equivalence Growth Factor EAL
Axle Group Axles/Day Factor (Fig. 43) Days/Year (Fig. 44) (2 x 3 x 4 x 5)

Single Axle 100 0.01043 365 24.3 9,250

6-Kip

Tandem Axle 200 1.095 365 24.3 1,942,500

34-Kip

Design EAL = 1,950,000

FIGURE 46

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Subgrade Strength

The AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures uses resilient modulus, Mr, as the
subgrade strength design parameter. Mr is expressed in psi (kPa). Mr is very similar to
modulus of elasticity (Young's Modulus), except that the test is performed dynamically rather
than statically. Values typically range from perhaps 1,000 psi (7,000 kPa) for a weak clay to
perhaps 20,000 psi (140,000 kPa) for a strong sand subgrade.

Most agencies do not have the devices capable of measuring resilient modulus, so a variety of
conversion charts and equations are used to convert another strength value (such as CBR) to
Mr. One estimate of Mr is frequently used when CBR is 10 or less.
Mr (in psi) = CBR x 1500

The equation given above sometimes overestimates Mr. Thus, a potentially superior second
method of estimating Mr from CBR is to use Figure 47.

The resilient modulus of a subgrade soil can change during the seasons of the year. For
example, if a geographic area receives much rain during one month of the year, but little rain
during the other 11 months, the subgrade will be weakened during the rainy month because
water has saturated the subgrade. Figure 48 shows how the "effective resilient modulus of the
subgrade" (a value to show the average Mr for an entire year) is calculated. The "effective"
Mr value is the one to be used during design. In Figure 48, the year can be divided into as
many as 24 units or as few as 2 units. For our example, it is divided into 12 equal time
periods. The monthly Mr values are placed in the first column. The values in the "Relative
Damage" column of the chart are found by matching the Relative Damage value on the scale
at the right side of the page with the corresponding value of Mr on the scale. Be careful when
using the scale: it is a log scale, and values may be difficult to read.

The sum of the Relative Damage values is placed at the bottom of the column. It is then
divided by the number of units into which the year was divided (12 in this case). The average
Relative Damage is then plotted on the scale, and the corresponding Mr is the effective
subgrade resilient modulus. This value will be used for that soil in that climate area. Figure
49 is a blank chart to be used in future subgrade strength calculations.

Please note that the average value for subgrade samples is used. For example, if 15 samples
of one type of soil are taken along the proposed centerline of the road, after all 15 have been
tested, the average of those 15 values should be used. No factor of safety is added.

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METHODS TO ESTIMATE SUBGRADE Mr

FIGURE 47

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EFFECTIVE SUBGRADE RESILIENT MODULUS EXAMPLE

FIGURE 48

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EFFECTIVE SUBGRADE RESILIENT MODULUS FORM

FIGURE 49

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Other Design Inputs

Traffic and subgrade strength are two very important inputs to pavement design. The
following paragraphs describe some additional parameters which must be used in the
AASHTO flexible pavement design process.

Reliability

Design reliability refers to the degree of certainty that a given design will last throughout the
analysis period. If a road is designed for Reliability = 50%, then there is a 50:50 probability
that the road will last as long as it is intended to last. The reliability value is selected by the
designer from the values in Figure 50. If the road will have a relatively low volume of traffic,
it is not extremely important that the road last for the analysis period of 20 years. In that case,
a value from the lowest row in the table (50% - 80%) would be selected. If the road to be
designed is an important one, perhaps a multiple-lane divided highway, then a value from one
of the top two rows might be selected. The higher the reliability selected, the thicker the
resulting pavement will be. Often, a value in the middle of the range on the row is selected.
For example, a value for a rural, collector road might be 85%.

GUIDELINES FOR DESIGN RELIABILITY

Functional Classification Urban Rural

Interstate and Other Freeways 85 - 99.9 80 - 99.9

Principal Arterials 80 - 99 75 - 95
Collectors 80 - 95 75 - 95
Locals 50 - 80 50 - 80

FIGURE 50

Overall Standard Deviation

Overall Standard Deviation So, is a number that accounts for the variability in materials and
construction, the chance variation in the traffic prediction, and the normal variation in
pavement performance for a given number of EAL applications. The range of possible values
runs from 0.40 to 0.50. The higher the value selected, the thicker the resulting pavement will
be. If a designer is very certain of his traffic prediction and is very certain that the
construction crew can build the road exactly to specifications, a value of 0.40 might be used.
However, a designer is almost never in that position: there is almost always uncertainty and
variability in design and construction procedures. Thus, a value of So= 0.49 is recommended
for use by Saudi Aramco.

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Design Serviceability Loss

The serviceability of a pavement is defined as its ability to serve the type of traffic for which
it was designed. The primary measure of serviceability used in the AASHTO design
procedures is the Present Serviceability Index (PSI), in which the pavement condition is
subjectively rated from 0 (impassable) to 5 (perfect). The AASHTO design procedure
requires an input called ÆPSI, which is the difference between the initial PSI when the
pavement is first constructed and the terminal PSI when it is worn out and requires
rehabilitation. The initial serviceability index (po) is a function of pavement design and
construction quality. The terminal serviceability index (pt) generally varies with the
importance or functional classification of the pavement. New pavements are usually assigned
a po of 4.2, not a "perfect" 5. SAES-Q-006 states that pt is 2.5. Thus,
ÆPSI = 4.2 - 2.5 = 1.7.

AASHTO Design Procedure

Once pavement design inputs have been obtained, the design procedure from the AASHTO
Guide for Design of Pavement Structures is used to design the road. In this case, design
means to select the materials used to build the road and the thickness of each material.

The top layer is asphalt concrete. It is usually made of approximately 3.8 cm (1.5 in.) of
surface mix asphalt plus a layer of binder asphalt beneath it. The next layer down is granular
base material. The subbase is usually omitted if the CBR of the subgrade material is greater
that 5. If the existing subgrade has a CBR of 5 or less, Saudi Aramco specifies that a subbase
with a minimum CBR of 15 will be provided, with a minimum subbase thickness of 20 cm (8
in.).

Design Chart

SAES-Q-006 specifies the use of the design chart in Figure 51 to design the pavement. Start
at the left side of the nomograph and use the values of R, So, traffic, effective subgrade
resilient modulus, and design serviceability loss as shown on Figure 51. The result is a value
for SN, structural number.

Structural number expresses how strong the pavement must be to last for 20 years. If the SN
is high, the road must be quite thick and strong. If the SN is low, the road does not need to be
as thick. Once an SN value has been found from Figure 51, the designer specifies a road
which has a strength of SN or greater.

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AASHTO DESIGN NOMOGRAPH

FIGURE 51

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Achieving SN

How do you achieve the required SN? The SN of the materials and layer thicknesses you
specify is found using the following equation:

SN = aD+aDm+aDm

where: D1, D2, D3 = Actual thicknesses of surface, base, and subbase layers,
respectively (in.)

a 1 , a2 , a3 = Layer coefficients for the surface, base, and subbase,

respectively (see Figure 52) (unitless)

m2 and m3 = Drainage coefficients for the base and subbase respectively

(see Figure 53) (unitless).

The layer coefficients give a relative measure of the strength of the material in the pavement
layer. SAES-Q-006 specifies the use of the layer coefficient values given in Figure 52. That
figure shows that the asphalt concrete in the surface is much stronger that the MOC Class B -
CBR 50 base material (0.16 compared to 0.04).

SAUDI ARAMCO LAYER COEFFICIENTS

Coefficient
PAVEMENT COMPONENT Per cm Per inch

Hot mix Asphalt (High Stability) 0.16 0.41

MOC Class A - CBR 100 0.06 0.14
MOC Class B - CBR 50 0.04 0.11

FIGURE 52

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Drainage coefficients provided in Figure 53 provide the means to adjust layer coefficients to
take into account the effects of varying drainage conditions on pavement performance.
Guidance concerning the design or effectiveness of various drainage approaches is not
provided by AASHTO, however. The design engineer must identify the level or quality of
drainage that will be achieved under the design drainage conditions. Figure 54 provides
definitions for the various level or quality of drainage.

RECOMMENDED DRAINAGE COEFFICIENTS

Percent of Time Pavement Structure is Exposed

Quality of to Moisture Levels Approaching Saturation
Drainage

Less than 1% 1 - 5% 5 - 25% Greater than 25%

Excellent 1.40 - 1.35 1.35 - 1.30 1.30 - 1.20 1.20

Good 1.35 - 1.25 1.25 - 1.15 1.15 - 1.00 1.00
Fair 1.25 - 1.15 1.15 - 1.05 1.00 - 0.80 0.80
Poor 1.15 - 1.05 1.05 - 0.80 0.80 - 0.60 0.60
Very Poor 1.05 - 0.95 0.95 - 0.75 0.75 - 0.40 0.40

FIGURE 53

QUALITY OF DRAINAGE FOR PAVEMENT DESIGN

Quality of Drainage Water Removed from Pavement Structure Within

Excellent 2 hours
Good 1 day
Fair 1 week
Poor 1 month
Very Poor Water will not drain

FIGURE 54

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To use Figure 53, the designer must also know "percent of the time pavement structure is
exposed to moisture levels approaching saturation". If the water table in the area is quite
high, the percent of saturated time may be high. If the pavement structure is saturated only
when it rains, then the percent approaching saturation may be calculated in the following
manner:

% Approaching Saturation = (Days of rain per year) *100

365

The application of an mi is only valid for nonstabilized materials; that is, the values in Figure
53 apply only to the effects of drainage on untreated base and subbase layers. Although the
effects of drainage are certainly beneficial for stabilized layers, the effects of drainage for
flexible pavements are not as pronounced as for unbound materials.

Final Design

Since the layer coefficients, the drainage coefficients, and the value of SN which must be met
or exceeded are known, the only remaining part of the design is to establish D1, D2, and D3,
the thicknesses of the layers. Many combinations of layer thicknesses are possible. However,
D, is usually 0 if the subgrade CBR is above 5. If you set D2 at 30 cm (12 inches), which is a
common base thickness, then only one variable remains in the equation: D1. Solve the SN
equation for D1, and you have an acceptable design.

However, your set of layer thicknesses is only one of many sets which will give the desired
value for SN. You may wish to make other designs, then choose the best one. If good
granular base material is scarce, you might set the base thickness at 10 cm (4 inches). Solving
the SN equation for D1 would then yield a different design which also satisfies the strength
requirement for the road. To decide which is the better design, you may wish to choose the
one which costs less to build.

If a road has 10 cm of asphalt, 15 cm of Class B base, and the m2 value is 0.90, what is SN?

SN = 10(0.16) + 15(0.04)(0.90) = 2.24

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Design Check

Figure 55 presents the AASHTO Guide guidelines on minimum pavement layer thicknesses.
It is generally impractical to build layers of lesser thickness for economic or structural
reasons.

MINIMUM PRACTICAL THICKNESSES FOR PAVING MATERIALS

Minimum Thickness, mm (in)

Traffic, EALS Asphalt Concrete Aggregate Base

Less than 50,000 25 (1.0) 102 (4)

50,000 - 150,000 51 (2.0) 102 (4)
150,001 - 500,000 64 (2.5) 102 (4)
500,001 - 2,000,000 76 (3.0) 152 (6)
2,000,001 - 7,000,000 89 (3.5) 152 (6)
Greater than 7,000,000 102 (4.0) 152 (6)

FIGURE 55

What should you do if your design includes layer thickness values smaller than those in
Figure 55? For example, you are designing a road with design EALs of 60,000. Your design
includes 12 in. (30 cm) of base and 0.75 in. (2 cm) of asphalt concrete. You can tell from
Figure 55 that the surface asphalt must be at least 2 in. (5 cm) thick. You should do two
things:

• Reduce subbase thickness to 10 cm (4 in.), because more than the minimum

thickness will probably not be required.

• Re-calculate D1, the thickness of the surface layer. If it is still less than 5 cm (2
in.), you must still specify 5 cm.

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Default Designs

SAES-Q-006 gives a table of default designs (Figure 56). If a design cannot be completed
before the project is built, use the layer thicknesses given in Figure 56.

DEFAULT DESIGN THICKNESS

Minimum Thickness of
Base Combined Binder and
Course Surface Course

With Class With

B or C Class A
cm (in) cm (in) cm (in)

Residential Streets 15 (6.0) 8 (3.0) 5 (2.0)

Access Roadways 15 (6.0) 9 (3.5) 6
(2.5)

Main Highways TRAFFIC COUNT REQUIRED

Parking and Storage Lots 15 (6.0) 9 (3.5) 6 (2.5)

Sedans and Small Trucks
Parking and Storage Lots 23 (9.0) 14 (5.5) 12 (5.0)
Heavy Traffic (Truck Terminals, etc.)
Plant Areas Occasional Heavy Loads 23 (9.0) 14 (5.5) 12 (5.0)

FIGURE 56

Alternative Design Method

Pages II-35 to II-37 of the AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures presents an
alternative method for pavement design. The method uses the same design chart and layer
coefficients as the method previously described. However, it is more complicated and will
not be described here.

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Pavement Design Summary

Pavement design includes several steps. First, the volume of traffic which will travel on the
road must be calculated. Then, the strengths of the various paving materials to be used
(including the subgrade) must be obtained. Finally, the structural number SN which the road
must have is determined from an AASHTO design chart. The required SN is then converted
into required layer thicknesses through an equation of the form SN = a1D1 + a2D2m2 +
a3D3m3.

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EXAMPLE PROBLEM #5
AASHTO FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN

Given: - Proposed urban 4-lane flexible pavement on sandy clay subgrade.

For 3 months of the year, the subgrade is wetted by rain, and its Mr is
5,000 psi. For the remaining 9 months, the subgrade is dryer, and Mr
is 10,000 psi.

- No subbase is used because CBR is above 5.

Base is MOC Class A
Surface is asphaltic concrete

- Design Traffic: 3,500,000 18-kip EAL

- Pavement drainage is "fair", and the pavement will be

saturated about 20% of the time during the year.

Find: An acceptable pavement thickness design.

Solution: - Reliability: from Figure 50, use 90%

- Standard deviation:0.49

- Effective subgrade resilient modulus: using Figure 48

find that Mr (effective) = 7,500 psi.

- Change in PSI = 4.2 - 2.5 = 1.7

- From Figure 51, SN = 4.4

- From Figure 52, a3 = 0.11; a2 = 0.14 ; a1 = 0.41

- From Figure 53, drainage coefficients m2 and m3 = 0.85

- From Figure 55, use minimum surface asphalt thickness of

3.5 inches and use minimum base material of 6 inches.

- 4.4 = 0.41(3.5) + 0.14(6)(0.85) + 0.11(D )(0.85) D = 24 inches

- Thus, a possible solution is 3.5 inches asphalt,

3 6 inches
3 aggregate
base, and 24 inches subbase. However, you may want to reduce the
subbase thickness and increase the other layers for practical reasons.

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Overlay Design

During the life of a pavement, routine maintenance such as crack sealing and pothole filling is
performed. When the PSI of a road deteriorates to 2.5, rehabilitation is required. This
rehabilitation usually takes the form of 1 inch to 5 inches (2.5 cm to 12.5 cm) of asphalt
concrete laid on the old surface. This new layer is called an overlay.

When More Must Be Done

There are several instances when the pavement may be so deteriorated that overlaying is
insufficient to repair the road. In these cases, reconstruction of some or all the pavement
layers may be required:

• When the amount of high-severity alligator cracking is so great that complete

removal and replacement of the existing surface is dictated.

• When excessive rutting indicates that the existing materials lack sufficient
stability to prevent recurrence of severe rutting.

• When an existing granular base must be removed and replaced due to

infiltration of and contamination by a soft subgrade.

• Stripping in the existing surface dictates that it should be removed and

replaced.

The 1993 edition of the AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures presents three
different methods of designing the thickness of asphalt overlays of asphalt pavements:

• Nondestructive Test (NDT) Method. This method involves the use of an

expensive falling weight deflectometer (FWD) device which is currently
unavailable to Saudi Aramco.

• Remaining Fatigue Life Method. This method is the least reliable of the
methods because it requires an accurate estimate of the number of EALs which
the road has already sustained. It is also not directly applicable to any road
which has already received one or more overlays.

• Condition Survey Method. This method involves observations of distresses on

the surface of the pavement and visual observations (and sometimes laboratory
testing) of materials samples taken from the existing pavement.

Only the Condition Survey Method will be presented in this text.

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Condition Survey Method

The 1993 edition of the AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures lists seven steps to
design flexible overlays of flexible pavements using the Condition Survey Method.

Step 1: Existing Pavement - Obtain the thickness and material type of each pavement layer
from cores, construction records, etc. Also obtain as much subgrade data as possible from
construction records or from sampling.

Step 2: Traffic Analysis - Predict the future EALs in the design lane during the life of the
overlay. (Traffic calculations were described earlier in the Pavement Design section.)

Step 3: Condition Survey - A condition survey involves the determination of the type,
quantity, and severity of distresses visible on the surface of the existing pavement. Sampling
along the project in the heaviest trafficked lane is used to estimate the quantity of distresses.
The following distresses should be measured during the condition survey:

• Percent of the surface area covered with alligator cracking.

Observe the percentage of the road surface which is covered by alligator

cracking of three types.

- Low-severity alligator cracking exhibits longitudinal, disconnected

hairline cracks running parallel to each other. The cracks are not
spalled. Initially there may only be a single crack in the wheel path.

- Medium-severity cracking exhibits further development of low-severity

alligator cracking into a pattern of pieces formed by cracks that may be
lightly surface-spalled. Cracks may be sealed.

- High-severity alligator cracking occurs when cracking has progressed so

that pieces are more severely spalled at the edges and loosened until the
cells rock under traffic. Pumping may exist.

• Percent of the road surface which is covered by transverse cracking (cracks

which run transverse to the centerline of the road).

Record the amount of cracking for the following three types.

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- Low-severity cracks have either minor spalling or no spalling, and

cracks can either have been sealed or still be nonsealed. If nonsealed,
cracks have a mean width of 1/4 inch (6 mm) or less; sealed cracks are
of any width, but their sealant material is in satisfactory condition to
substantially prevent water infiltration. No significant bump occurs
when a vehicle crosses the crack.

- Medium-severity occurs when one of the following conditions exists:

(1) cracks are moderately spalled and can either be sealed or nonsealed
of any width; (2) sealed cracks are not spalled or have only minor
spalling, but the sealant is in a condition so that water can freely
infiltrate; (3) nonsealed cracks are not spalled or have only minor
spalling, but mean crack width is greater than 1/4 inch (6 mm); (4) low-
severity random cracking exists near the crack or at the corners of
intersecting cracks; or (5) the crack causes a significant bump to a
vehicle.

- High-severity occurs when: (1) cracks are severely spalled and/or

medium or high-severity random cracking exists near the crack or at the
corners of intersecting cracks; or (2) the crack causes a severe bump to a
vehicle.

The percentage of transverse cracking is determined as follows:

(linear feet of cracking) 100

ft2 of pavement

or

(linear meters of cracking x 0.3048) 100

m2 of pavement

• Mean rut depth.

• Evidence of pumping at cracks and at pavement edges.

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Step 4: Coring and Materials Testing - This step is optional, but it does provide additional
information to the design procedure.

Subgrade samples obtained by coring or augering may be re-molded and tested for CBR.
Figure 47 can be used to convert CBR to resilient modulus. This data will be very helpful in
step 5.

Samples of granular bases and subbases are visually examined. A gradation analysis is also
performed to assess degradation and contamination by fines from an adjoining layer. Either
event produces a decrease in the load carrying capacity of the material.

Asphalt concrete layers and stabilized base layers are visually examined to assess asphalt
stripping and degradation. Asphalt stripping is a process which takes place at the bottom of
the asphalt layer. Water sometimes "strips" asphalt cement away from the aggregate, leaving
only a gravel material instead of good asphalt concrete.

Step 5: Determination of Required SNY for Future Traffic - The required Structural
Number (SNY) is computed using the flexible pavement nomograph found in Figure 51. Use
the design method described in the Pavement Design section to design a new pavement which
will carry only the traffic expected to be carried by the overlay. Use Mr of the existing
subgrade.

Step 6: Effective SN of the Existing Pavement - The condition survey method uses the
structural number equation which we learned earlier to estimate the remaining effective
"strength" of the existing pavement, SNeff:

Sneff = a1D1 + a2D2m2 + a3D3m3

where: D1, D2, D3 = Actual thicknesses of surface, base, and subbase layers,
respectively (in.)

a 1 , a2 , a3 = Layer coefficients for the surface, base, and subbase,

respectively (see Figure 52) (unitless)

m2 and m3 = Drainage coefficients for the base and subbase respectively

(see Figure 53) (unitless).

Layer thicknesses are known from the previous steps, and drainage coefficients can be
determined from Figure 53. The layer coefficients are assumed to have decreased over time,
and they are determined from Figure 57. The only exception to the loss in layer coefficient
value over time might be for unbound base and subbase materials that show no signs of
degradation or contamination.

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Step 7: Determination of Overlay Thickness - The thickness of the asphalt overlay is

computed as follows:

SNo1 (SNY - SNeff )

Do1 = =
a o1 a o1
where:

SNo1 = Required overlay structural number

ao1 = Structural coefficient for the asphalt overlay
Do1 = Required overlay thickness (in, cm)
SNY = Required structural number for future traffic determined in Step 5
SNeff = Effective structural number of the existing pavement determined from
Step 6

The overlay thickness determined from the seven-step procedure should appear reasonable to
the designer. However, the method used -- selecting from pre-established ranges of layer
coefficients -- could result in unreasonable overlay values. If so, the designer may choose to
modify his design. Remember, there is no substitute for engineering judgment.

Please note that if the calculated overlay thickness is above approximately 5 cm (2 inches), it
may be placed in more than one layer. For example, a 10 cm (4 inch) overlay may consist of
3 cm of surface asphalt and 7 cm of binder asphalt.

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SUGGESTED LAYER COEFFICIENTS FOR EXISTING AC PAVEMENT

Material Surface Condition Coefficient

Little or no alligator cracking and/or only low-severity 0.35 to 0.40
transverse cracking
< 10 percent low-severity alligator cracking and/or
0.25 to 0.35
< 5 percent medium- and high-severity transverse cracking
> 10 percent low-severity alligator cracking and/or
AC < 10 percent medium-severity alligator cracking and/or 0.20 to 0.30
Surface > 5-10 percent medium- and high-severity transevrse cracking
> 10 percent medium-severity alligator cracking and/or
< 10 percent high-severity alligator cracking and/or 0.14 to 0.20
> 10 percent medium- and high-severity transverse cracking
> 10 percent high-severity alligator cracking and/or
0.08 to 0.15
> 10 percent high-severity transverse cracking
Little or no alligator cracking and/or only low-severity 0.20 to 0.35
ransverse cracking
< 10 percent low-severity alligator cracking and/or
0.15 to 0.25
< 5 percent medium- and high-severity transverse cracking
> 10 percent low-severity alligator cracking and/or
Stabilized < 10 percent medium-severity alligator cracking and/or 0.15 to 0.20
Base > 5-10 percent medium- and high-severity transverse cracking
> 10 percent medium-severity alligator cracking and/or
< 10 percent high-severity alligator cracking and/or 0.10 to 0.20
> 10 percent medium- and high-severity transevrse cracking
> 10 percent high-severity alligator cracking and/or
0.08 to 0.15
> 10 percent high-severity transverse cracking
No evidence of pumping, degradation, or contamination by 0.10 to 0.14
Granular fines
Base or Some evidence of pumping, degradation, or contamination by 0.00 to 0.10
Subbase fires

FIGURE 57

Notes:

• Patching all high-severity alligator cracking is recommended. The asphalt concrete and
stabilized base layer coefficients selected should reflect the amount of high-severity
cracking remaining after patching.

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• Besides evidence of pumping noted during the condition survey, samples of base material
should be obtained and examined for evidence of erosion and degradation and
contamination by fines. The base material should also be evaluated for drainability, and
the layer coefficients reduced accordingly.

• Other types of distress may exist that, in the engineer's opinion, would detract from the
performance of an overly. This distress should be considered through an appropriate
decrease of the structural coefficient of the layer exhibiting the distress (e.g., surface
raveling of the AC, stripping of an AC layer, freeze-thaw damage to a cement-treated
base.)

• Coring and testing are recommended for evaluation of all materials and are strongly
recommended for evaluation of stabilized layers.

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Pre-Overlay Repair

The following sections present the types of distress that should be repaired before placing an
asphalt overlay. Failure to repair these distress types can greatly reduce the service life of the
overlay placed.

Alligator Cracking

All areas of high-severity alligator cracking must be repaired. Localized areas of medium-
severity alligator cracking should be repaired unless a paving fabric or other means of
reflective crack control is used. The repair must include removal of any soft subsurface
material.

Linear Cracks

High-severity linear cracks should be patched. Linear cracks that are open greater than 6 mm
(0.25 in) should be filled with a sand-asphalt mixture or other suitable crack filler. Cracks
that are open less than 6 mm (0.25 in) and cracks that do not experience substantial opening
and closing do not require any preoverlay repairs.

Rutting

Rutting is removed by milling or placement of a leveling course. If rutting is severe (greater

than 6 mm [0.25 in]), an investigation into which layer is causing the rutting should be
conducted to determine whether an overlay is feasible. Failure to correct the cause of the
problem can lead to premature failures in the overlay.

Surface Irregularities

Depressions, humps, and corrugations require investigation and treatment of their causes.
Usually, removal and replacement will be required.

Surface Milling

If the asphalt pavement is milled before overlaying, the depth of the milling should be
reflected in the SNeff analysis. SNeff may be reduced by an amount equal to the depth milled
times the layer coefficient of the asphalt.

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EXAMPLE PROBLEM #6
ASPHALT OVERLAY ON ASPHALT PAVEMENT

Given: An asphalt overlay is being designed for a collector street. The existing
pavement consists of a 110-mm (4.25-in) asphalt surface course and a
200-mm (8-in) granular base course. The proposed overlay is expected
to handle 2.4 million flexible pavements EALs in the design lane.
Materials recovered from the existing subgrade showed CBR = 6 in
laboratory testing. A condition survey showed only 3% low-severity
alligator cracking and 4% low-severity transverse cracking. There was
no evidence of contamination or degradation of the aggregate base.

Find: The required thickness of the asphalt overlay using the conditon survey
method.

Solution: Step 1: 4.25 inches of asphalt

8 inches of granular base course

Step 2: Predicted overlay traffic is 2.4 million EALs

Step 3: See condition survey data above.

Step 4: Mr of subgrade = 6,600 psi (from Figure 47)

Step 5: SNY = 4.5 from Figure 51

using: R = 90%, So = 0.49, ÆPSI = 1.7,
traffic = 2,400,000, and Mr = 6,600 psi

Step 6: From Figure 57, choose a1 = 0.35 and a2 = 0.14

Because no information is given concerning drainage
conditions, choose m2 = 1.00
SNeff = a1D1 + a2D2 m 2

= 0.35(4.25) + 0.14(8)(1.00)

= 2.61

SNY − SNeff
Step 7: Do1 = a o1

= 4.5 - 2.61
0.41

= 4.6 inches

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ROAD CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES

Previous chapters contain information on pavement layers, the materials which comprise
these layers, and the properties of these materials. Neither the finest construction materials
nor the best pavement design will support the design traffic if the pavement has not been
properly constructed. This chapter explores current construction practices for subgrades,
bound and unbound subbases and bases, stabilized pavement layers, and flexible (asphalt
concrete) surfaces.

Subgrade

Function

The purpose of the subgrade is to support the pavement structure. The pavement structure in
turn prevents stresses caused by traffic loads from significantly loading the subgrade, thus
avoiding subgrade compaction. This compaction would likely show up in the surface as ruts.
Weak subgrades can withstand only small loads before this compaction occurs; strong
subgrades might support fairly large loads before any compaction results. Weak subgrades
thus require a much thicker overlying pavement structure than strong subgrade in order to
prevent excessive stresses at the top. It follows, then, that the subgrade should be constructed
of high quality subgrade materials using proper construction techniques before the pavement
structure is placed on top of it.

General Material Requirements

A subgrade can consist of virtually any type of material. In a fill area, where soil is
transported from a borrow pit or from another part of the roadway where soil is removed
(cut), the quality of subgrade can be fairly well controlled. A soil with a high amount of
organic material in it should never be used, since the organics tend to decompose and cause
pavement settlement. Topsoil must first be removed both in the area to be filled and in the
area from which the fill material is obtained.

In a cut area, excess soil is removed down to approximately the proposed subgrade elevation.
If the soil at that elevation is unacceptable (containing organic material or material likely to
swell when moisture is added), then it is removed and replaced with good material.
Otherwise, the soil is mixed and recompacted to an acceptable density.

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Hauling and Placing

Much of the hauling of earth is done using equipment specifically designed for that purpose.
Scrapers, or "pans", are able to move large quantities of earth fairly rapidly. The soil is
scraped up from the bottom of a large holding area in the center of the scraper. Once the
holding area is full, the bottom is closed, and the scraper transports the soil to the fill
location. It is deposited there in a fairly uniform layer by raising the holding area and opening
it from the bottom. The soil is deposited as the scraper moves slowly forward.

Spreading

After the material is roughly in place, the layer is made more uniform using a bulldozer or a
motor grader before the soil layer is compacted. The motor grader allows better control of the
spreading operation, so it is generally used in the top portion of the fill. Layers should not
exceed 1 foot (0.30 m) in thickness or they may not compact to the required density using
standard compaction equipment.

Compaction

Soil with a good proportion of clay materials can be compacted using a roller. The sheepsfoot
roller consists of a steel wheel with metal protrusions or feet, equally spaced around the
wheel. As the roller turns, the feet sink into the soil and compact the bottom of the layer first.
As more passes are completed and the soil is compacted, the feet sink less and less into the
layer of soil. The soil is compacted when the feet "walk" on the surface of the layer, with
little protrusion into the layer.

Soil with little or no clay particles will be better compacted with a smooth, steel-wheeled
roller. A vibrating device can also be used to aid in the densifying process. The vibrator will
cause the wheel to move up and down on the soil very rapidly, resulting in the movement of
soil particles into a denser pattern.

In cut sections, a motor grader or a rotary mixer is used to prepare the subgrade for the
pavement structure. Generally, the top 2 feet (0.61 m) to 3 feet (0.91 m) of existing soil is
reworked in this manner to assure proper uniformity of materials and adequate density
directly under the pavement. After grading, the soil is then compacted as described
previously.

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Density Testing

Compaction tests are conducted in the lab using materials that will be placed under the
pavement. The density required in the field is based upon that obtained in the lab, and a
target water content is identified to allow this density to be achieved. After compaction of a
layer in the field, the density of the layer will be measured using one of several accepted
methods and compared to the required density. If it meets the minimum density requirements,
the next layer can be applied and compacted. If not, the layer must be reworked so that the
desired density is obtained.

Density Deficiency and Correction

Sometimes the required density is not obtained on the first try. This situation can occur if any
one of the following problems are encountered.

• Moisture content is incorrect. If the soil is too dry or too wet, the required
density cannot be obtained. If too dry, water should be added to the soil and
mixed using harrows, motor graders, or rotary mixers, and the soil
recompacted. Soil that is too wet, such as after a rainfall, should be aerated by
working with a harrow, motor grader, or rotary mixer. The soil is recompacted
after the moisture content has been uniformly adjusted throughout the layer.

• Improper roller weights. If the roller is too light, it will not apply enough
compactive effort to achieve the required density. If too heavy, the soil may be
pushed and shoved by the roller instead of being compacted, so that required
density cannot be obtained.

• Incorrect tamping foot size (sheepsfoot roller). If the feet are too large, the load
of the roller will be spread over a large surface area, causing the stress at the
contact between the soil and the feet to be too small to compact the soil
properly. If the feet are too small, the stress at the soil/foot contacts will be
very large, causing displacement of the soil instead of compaction.

• Soil layer too thick. If the layer of soil is too thick, the roller cannot compact
the entire depth. Density requirements can be met at the top of the layer, but
not at the bottom.

• Surface crusting. Sometimes the top of the layer will compact quickly and
bridge over the bottom portion of the layer. This results in low density in the
lower portion.

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Whenever the density is too low, the contractor should usually rework the layer by breaking it
up, modifying the water content if necessary, and recompacting. Sometimes, the contractor
may be able to achieve the density simply by rolling the layer a few more times with the same
device, or by compacting a layer of inadequate density with a heavier roller.

Finishing

After the subgrade has met all density requirements, it can be cut to final grade. This is done
using a motor grader with a very experienced operator or, on large projects, an automatic
grade control trimming machine.

Proof-rolling

After the subgrade has been compacted to the required elevation, proof-rolling may be
required to locate soft areas. A heavy roller will ride the compacted subgrade. In areas where
the roller tends to sink into the soil, the subgrade must be reworked and recompacted before
the pavement is placed.

Sealing

If the subgrade is not to be immediately covered by the first pavement layer, it should be
sealed in some manner to keep the moisture in the soil so that its consistency can be
maintained until the end of the subgrade preparation. A prime coat of asphalt cement is
commonly used for this purpose.

Unbound Subbases and Bases/Unpaved Roads

Function

The subbase is located just above the subgrade and is designed to support the traffic load after
it has been distributed through the surface and base materials. The base is located just above
the subbase and just below the surface. It should support larger loads than the subbase
because of its location nearer the pavement surface.

The major requirement of a subbase, or a base, in a flexible pavement is to add structural

support to the pavement.

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General Material Requirements

Subbases, which are often omitted on roads with lower traffic volumes, are constructed of
fairly low quality, locally available materials. They consist primarily of granular particles but
often contain some clay particles to aid in stability. Bases are similar to subbases except they
often contain higher quality aggregate particles which must often be transported from a quarry
and hauled some distance to the project site.

Figure 58 shows three potential soil/aggregate mixtures that can be used. The soil in (a)
contains little or no fines and is very difficult to handle during construction because of its
instability and high aggregate friction. Water can move easily through it because of the voids
between the aggregates. In (b) the voids between the aggregate are filled with clay, which
binds the particles together to maintain layer strength and substantially reduce the ability of
the soil to drain. This material is difficult to compact because of the friction developed
between aggregate particles. When the amount of clay is increased, the soil in (c) results. As
in (b), this soil is difficult to drain. It also has lost much of its strength because the aggregate
now "floats" in the clay, and little contact occurs between aggregate particles. This mixture is
very easy to handle and compact during construction.

FIGURE 58

Soil (a) is the most desirable for bases under rigid pavements, soil (b) is good for bases under
flexible pavement and possibly for the surface of unpaved roads, and soil (c) is undesirable
for any road construction.

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Hauling and Placing

This operation is crucial in order to assure proper performance of the subbase or base.
Subbase and base materials must be transported from a rock quarry, sand or gravel pit, usually
by dump truck. The truck is loaded either from a pug mill, if final mixing of aggregates is
required just before hauling to the site, or from a carefully constructed stockpile at the quarry.
The material is then hauled directly to the roadway site and immediately placed in position.
Segregation of the aggregate (the separating of large aggregate from the small aggregate,
resulting in lower material strength and different compaction requirements) can become a
major problem if it is dumped in stockpiles at the project site and then reloaded for transport
to the road bed. The less a material is handled in the hauling and placing process, the better
the chances of placing a properly graded mix into the road bed.

Spreading

Once the subbase and base materials arrive on the site they must be spread before being
compacted. In most projects the materials are loaded directly into the hopper of a spreading
machine. This machine uses automatic grade control to evenly spread the granular materials
in a consistent thickness ready for compacting. The "Tailgating" method of base placement is
not recommended, because the base materials are dumped into a pile on the roadway and the
material is then spread with a motor grader resulting in segregation of aggregates. This
segregation is most common when base materials are spread over a long distance by a motor
grader.

Compacting

The subbase and base can be compacted using either a vibratory steel-wheeled roller or a
pneumatic-tired roller. Because of the energy produced by the vibratory roller, thicker layers
of up to 25.4 cm (10 inches) can be compacted. The operator must be careful not to over
vibrate these layers or segregation of the aggregate will result. The smaller particles will tend
to rise to the top while the larger ones will settle to the bottom. Layer thicknesses compacted
by the pneumatic-tired rollers should not exceed about 15.3 cm (6 inches).

Each layer should be compacted from the center of the roadway pavement to the edge. This
will allow any horizontal stresses produced in the pavement to be released at the open edge.
Each pass of the roller should overlap the previous pass by about one-third.

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Density Testing

Pavement layers that are comprised primarily of granular materials gain most of their strength
from particle-to-particle contact and friction. Denser materials will typically have more
contacts between particles and, thus, more strength. It is important that strict density
requirements be maintained in pavement construction or the layer strength, and ultimately
pavement life, may be impaired.

Trimming

After the base is compacted and tested for density, the final trimming occurs using a motor
grader or mechanical trimming machine.

Special Construction Problems

Parking and loading areas may require special handling and compacting of subbase and base
materials. Long straight-line distances are not common except in some of the largest of these
areas. Hand placement and compaction of materials may be necessary.

Many parking areas carry only light vehicles with an occasional heavy truck. In these cases, a
lower layer density may be acceptable and smaller equipment could be used. Hand operated
vibratory tampers may be required. Loading areas carry primarily slow-moving or stationary
trucks, so the strength of the subbase and base are particularly important when having to carry
traffic loads for longer periods of time. In all cases, concrete sidewalks, curbs, and similar
structures should be carefully avoided during use of heavy equipment, or damage to these
structures could result.

Surface Treatments

If light-weight vehicles (passenger cars) are the main type of traffic, a surface treatment of the
roadway might be considered. A surface treatment does not add strength to the pavement but
adds stability and provides a better wearing surface. It also seals the pavement to prevent
water from getting into and weakening the pavement. If properly constructed and vehicle
weight and volume does not increase, a surface treated roadway can reduce the amount of
maintenance required.

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There are six basic steps required for construction of a single layer surface treatment (seven
steps if multiple layers are required). The job specifications should be used to determine
exact construction procedures.

1. Repair all damaged areas. Damage can usually be related to excess moisture. Make sure
that these areas are dried to a water content that will allow proper compaction. The
surface must be smooth and properly compacted before the surface treatment is applied.

2. Sweep the surface. If the base material is held in place with a small amount of clay, it
can be lightly broomed to remove all loose particles.

3. Apply the asphalt cement. The application rate of asphalt cement can vary from a
minimum of 0.45 liters per square meter (0.10 gallons per square yard) for a sand
aggregate to a maximum of 2.26 l/m2 (0.50 gal./yd2) for a 19 mm aggregate. The rate of
application also depends upon the type and grade of asphalt cement used. The height of
the spray bar, the setting of the nozzles, and the speed of the asphalt cement distribution
truck should be checked so that a uniform application is obtained. Uniformity is critical
to the performance of the surface treatment.

4. Spread the aggregate. Rates of aggregate application vary from 5.43 kilograms per
square meter (10 pounds per square yard) for sand to 27.2 kg/m2 (50 lb/yd2) for 19
mm top-sized aggregate. Aggregate can be spread from a spreader box or from a
dump truck moving at a constant rate of speed to achieve the desired rate of
application. Aggregate should be applied in the same direction as the asphalt cement.

5. Compact the aggregate. Immediately after the aggregate is placed, it should be

compacted with a pneumatic-tired roller. A steel-wheeled roller can be used, but is not
as effective. Roll from the outside edge to the inside edge. Overlap each pass about 1/3
to 1/2 the width of the previous pass. Continue compacting until the aggregates are
embedded in the underlying asphalt.

6. Apply the next surface treatment layer. Sometimes multiple layers of surface treatment
courses are used. Repeat the previous three steps for each treatment layer. The
aggregate size of the current layer should be about half the size of the previous layer so
that a smooth, consistent surface can be obtained.

7. Sweep the surface. After the treatment has cured overnight, the loose aggregate should
be swept aside with a power broom before traffic is allowed to use the new surface.
Early morning is the best time for sweeping because the asphalt cement will be harder
and will hold aggregate better.

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Stabilization

Stabilization of the subgrade, subbase, or base materials is used to obtain a variety of

improvements in material properties. Soil stabilization is generally used to perform one of
four functions:

• Cementing: The stabilizer increases the material strength.

• Modifying: The stabilizer reduces the potential swelling of the material.

• Waterproofing: The stabilizer prevents movement of water into a soil layer.

• Water-retainin: The stabilizer helps the soil to retain moisture.

The typical materials used in stabilization are asphalt, calcium chloride, fly ash, lime, Portland
cement, and sodium chloride.

General Stabilization Procedure

The procedure for stabilizing a soil or granular layer is basically the same regardless of the
type of stabilizing agent used. Variations occur in the specific details of the procedure. There
are six basic steps in stabilization:

1. Scarifying. The layer which is to be stabilized must be uncompacted and loose so that it
can be mixed easily with the stabilizing material. Scarifying involves the use of discs or
spikes that dig into the ground to break up a compacted layer. The depth of scarifying
should equal the depth of required stabilization.

2. Adding new material. If more material is needed before stabilizing begins, it should be
added and spread in a uniform layer over the surface to be stabilized. The new material
should be similar to the material already in place. The stabilizing agent may not be as
effective if new and existing material are significantly different.

3. Placing the stabilizing agent. The stabilizing agent should be added uniformly over the
project site before mixing so that the stabilized layer is as uniform as possible.

4. Mixing. For the best possible results, the soil and stabilizing agent should be mixed
immediately after the stabilizer has been placed The material may be mixed in the field
using a rotary mixer or a motor grader. It may be necessary to make more than one
mixing pass to obtain a well mixed product to the desired depth. The stabilizing agent
may also be added and mixed at a central plant, hauled to the site, and placed by a
mechanical spreader. This approach is especially useful for granular materials.

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5. Blading and Shaping. The stabilized material must be shaped so that it is uniformly
distributed to the proper depth over the project site. This will insure that the material,
when compacted, will be close to the required elevation. Care must be used not to
overblade the material so that it does not segregate.

6. Compacting. The stabilized material should be compacted using standard equipment.

For fine-grained soils, a sheepsfoot roller is preferable. For coarse-grained soils, either
the pneumatic-tired roller or a, smooth, steel-wheeled vibratory roller is appropriate.
Specifications usually state the density requirements for the layer. The procedures for
rolling and taking density measurements are similar to those found in previous sections
on subgrades, subbases, and bases.

Asphalt Stabilization

Stabilization of pavement layers using bituminous materials, such as asphalt cements,

cutbacks, road tars, and emulsions, are common when attempting to add strength to the soil or
to waterproof it. Both fine-grained and coarse-grained soils can be stabilized using asphalt,
but the purpose for stabilizing is different for the two soil types.

Fine-grained Soils - When asphalt is used to stabilize silts and clays, its primary purpose is to
waterproof the soil. If small particles of soil can be isolated and surrounded by the asphalt,
then the asphalt can protect these lumps from additional moisture that can cause a loss in
strength of the soil layer.

Asphalt should be used only when fine-grained soils can be pulverized into very small
particles. The asphalt can then be thoroughly mixed into the soil. Moisture must be present
to help diffuse the asphalt throughout the mixture. Highly plastic soils are difficult to
pulverize, so asphalt stabilization should be avoided unless a modifier is first added to reduce
the plasticity of the soil.

In general, soil should have a plasticity index (PI) of no more than 18% for asphalt
stabilization to be attempted. Proper mixing becomes very difficult when the PI is that high,
so a more practical and preferable upper limit might be 12% to insure that asphalt stabilization
is effective. The amount of asphalt required to perform properly ranges from 4% to 8% by
weight depending upon soil characteristics and asphalt type.

Coarse-grained Soils - In coarse-grained soils, asphalt stabilization is primarily used to

cement the particles and provide added strength. If some fine-grained particles are present in
a primarily granular soil, the asphalt will also surround these smaller particles and waterproof
them.

Sands are probably the most common coarse-grained materials stabilized using asphalt.
Depending upon the type of asphalt material used and the plasticity of fines present in the
sand, the amount of asphalt added can range from 4% to 10% by weight.

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The sandy soil should have no more than 25% by weight of fine-grained particles and the PI
should not exceed 12% for the asphalt to perform its function.
Gravels and sandy gravels may be asphalt stabilized if they are locally available and
economical but are slightly outside of specification limits for granular bases or subbases.
Added asphalt can range from 2% to 6% by weight depending upon the amount of sand and
fine-grained soil present in the gravel and the type of asphalt used. The PI should not exceed
12% for the asphalt stabilizer to perform properly.
Asphalt Stabilization Procedure - The basic procedure for applying asphalt stabilizer is the
same as the general stabilization procedure presented previously. The existing soil must be
scarified and new material added, if necessary. The stabilization material is generally placed
just moments before the initial mixing occurs. A tanker truck often accompanies the mixing
machine and is connected to the mixer by a hose. The hose supplies the asphalt material to
the spray bar that uniformly distributes the asphalt just in front of the mixing blades. The
mixing must be completed before the asphalt loses its workability due to the evaporation of
the solvent (cutbacks) or water and emulsifying agent (emulsions).

A rotary mixer can provide final mixing to insure uniformity and allow aeration so that most
of the solvent or water and emulsifier can evaporate. Blading, shaping, and compacting are
completed using the general procedure discussed previously. If compaction is attempted
before the majority of evaporation occurs, densities may be difficult to obtain, and the
strength required for the design will not be achieved.

Asphalt Concrete Pavements

Pavements in which asphalt concrete is the primary structural material supporting the traffic
load is referred to as an asphalt concrete, or flexible pavement. For lower volume roads, the
top two inches of the pavement structure (the pavement surface) will be asphalt concrete, but
the base and subbase will be granular. For extremely high volume roads, full depth asphalt
concrete may be constructed, with the subbase, base, and surface layer all comprised of
different asphalt design mixes.
Function

Flexible pavements must perform three functions.

• Resist vertical compressive stress which tends to cause rutting within each
layer.
• Resist horizontal tensile stress which tends to form at the bottom of each
asphalt concrete layer and can cause cracks in the pavement.
• Reduce vertical compressive stresses so that they are dissipated when they
reach the top of the subgrade and present no danger of causing subgrade
compaction.

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The surface course in an asphalt concrete pavement is sometimes divided into two
components. These are the wearing course and the binder. The wearing course is a thin layer
with which the vehicle tires come in contact. This course must resist the high tire contact
stresses and provide good skid resistance. The binder is a transitional layer between the
wearing and base courses. As with the wearing course, it must resist and help disperse the
high loads that occur at the surface.

When an asphalt concrete base course is used in a pavement, it is usually because the traffic
loads are large and numerous. A normal granular base will not have the structural capacity to
resist these loads for the entire pavement design life. The asphalt cement in this material
holds the aggregate together to give it the strength needed to resist the loads.

General Material Requirements

A wide variety of materials can be used for construction of asphalt concrete pavements.
Coarse aggregate generally consists of crushed stone, crushed gravel, or uncrushed gravel free
of soluble salts and organic materials. Fine aggregate generally consists of naturally
occurring sand that is predominantly quartz in composition, or of sand manufactured from
crushed stone processing. All sand should be free of organic materials and large amounts of
fine-grained soils.

The bituminous material used in asphalt concrete is usually asphalt cement, although asphalt
emulsions, cutbacks, and road tars can be used. The amount of asphalt cement needed in any
asphalt concrete mix depends upon the amount of aggregate surface area and the porous
nature of the aggregates in a mix. For base materials, the amount of bitumen allowed by
weight can range from 3% for large aggregate mixes to 7% when the aggregates are smaller.
The top size aggregate in most base mixes will generally range from 1.9 cm (0.75 inch) to 3.8
cm (1.5 inches).

For surface materials, the typical asphalt content by weight can vary from 4% in larger
aggregate mixes to 9% in sand asphalt mixes. The top size of the aggregate in most surface
mixes will range from 0.475 cm (0.187 inch) in the sand asphalt mixes to 1.27 cm (0.5 inch)
in the coarser mixes.

Hauling and Placing

Before the asphalt concrete is mixed and hauled to the site, it is necessary to prepare the layer
on which the asphalt concrete will be placed. If this layer is soil or aggregate, it should
receive a prime coat to aid in bonding the asphalt concrete. The rate of application can range
from 0.9 to 2.3 l/m2 (0.2 to 0.5 gal/yd2), depending upon the absorbancy of the layer. A tack
coat is placed on an existing asphalt concrete layer to insure adhesion between the new and
existing layers. The tack coat is applied at a rate of 0.25 to 0.7 l/m2 (0.05 to 0.15 gal/yd2).

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Both the prime and tack coats are applied by pressurized distributers, with a spray bar located
at a height that allows uniform coverage of the surface being prepared.

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Paving Machine Components - Asphalt concrete is generally hauled to the site from the
plant in rear dump trucks and is placed using the asphalt concrete paver. The paver consists
of two parts, the tractor and the screed. The tractor powers the paver and moves the asphalt
concrete back to the screed. The screed spreads the material onto the pavement and strikes it
off to the correct elevation for compaction.

The tractor consists of 1) a hopper with movable sides or wings to prevent the accumulation
of segregated or cold mix in the hopper, 2) a conveyor to move material from the hopper to
the screw auger, 3) a screw auger to spread the asphalt concrete evenly in front of the screed
so that a smooth pavement results, and 4) a motor, electrical source, and hydraulic system to
operate the moving parts of the tractor and the screed.

The screed components include: 1) a screed plate to smooth the pavement, 2) vibrators or a
tamper bar to give the pavement an initial compaction, 3) thickness controls to adjust the
placement thickness, and 4) screed heaters to make sure that the asphalt material does not
stick to the screed due to cooling.

The pavement is initially compacted either by vibrating the full screed or by striking the
surface lightly with a tamper bar mounted just in front of the screed. At the bottom of the
compaction stroke, the tamper bar extends a short distance below the screed. The mix is
compacted to a level just below the screed, which can then pass smoothly over the compacted
pavement.

Paving Machine Operations - Several basic operations should be followed to insure that a
quality pavement is placed. The paver must move continuously and the dump truck carrying
the asphalt must not bump into the paver too hard when backing into the hopper to dump its
load. Either situation will result in an indentation in the pavement. When the paver stops, the
screed will settle slightly and cause additional compaction of the asphalt cement. When a
dump truck backs into the paver too hard, the paver is jolted and the screed tends to move
downward momentarily, causing compaction. Neither of these depressions can be
successfully rolled out during normal compaction.

The auger must be loaded properly. The asphalt concrete should be fed so that its level is
about even with the shaft in the middle of the auger. Overload will cause the screed to rise
and the pavement to thicken. Underload will cause the screed to settle and the pavement to
become thinner.`

An even distribution of asphalt concrete must be maintained in front of the auger. A good
paver operator will constantly monitor the auger and make adjustments to be sure that the
asphalt concrete is well distributed. Uneven distribution can result in streaks in the pavement
that are too low.

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Paver speed must be checked to be sure that it is constant. If it varies, the forces on the screed
will be continually changing, causing the screed to move up and down. Slowing down
causes the screed to settle and the pavement to thin. Speeding up causes the paver to rise and
the pavement to thicken.

Joints

There are two types of joints in an asphalt concrete pavement--longitudinal and transverse.

Longitudinal Joint - The longitudinal joint is the most common of the two types. On many
asphalt concrete projects, a paver that can place only one lane at a time is used. First, one
lane is placed and compacted, then the adjacent lane is placed and compacted sometime later.
The line where the two lanes meet is the longitudinal joint. This joint should be properly
constructed so that it is 1) smooth and 2) tight (no void areas between the two lanes).

Overlap between the two pavements should not be more than 5 cm (2 inches). Often a small
amount of new material is placed on the compacted surface of the layer already in place. This
material can be 1) trimmed and placed on the uncompacted material next to the joint or 2)
trimmed and placed back into the hopper. The first method assumes that it is difficult to place
the correct amount of new material right next to the compacted pavement, therefore, the
addition of the trimming material is needed to keep the adjacent pavements level after
compaction.

Longitudinal joints can be avoided if the full pavement width is placed in one pass.
Unfortunately, however, these large pavers are extremely expensive, and only the largest
asphalt contractors tend to own them. Proper longitudinal joint construction techniques will
continue to be extremely important to proper asphalt concrete pavement performance.

Transverse Joint - The transverse joint is commonly found at locations where the contractor
ends operations one day and begins the next. It is important to get this joint as smooth as
possible, since traffic will constantly be passing over it.

The bulkhead joint is one type of transverse joint. To build it, a piece of lumber about the
thickness of the pavement layer being constructed is located on edge across the path of the
paver and held in place. As the paver passes over it, the operator begins to ramp down to a
tapered edge. This ramp provides a temporary, relatively smooth transition for traffic until the
paving operation begins again. Before the next day's work begins, the lumber and the asphalt
ramp are removed, leaving a vertical face on the end of the previous day's pavement. New
pavement is placed, the joint is compacted by rolling on the end of transversely across it with
a steel-wheeled roller, and the smoothness is checked.

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The papered joint technique is another method of forming a transverse joint. One end of a
length of paper, usually a roofing felt or building paper, is placed on the compacted mat at the
end of the day. The paper covers the steeply sloped face of the pavement layer just placed
and extends onto the surface where the next day's paving will begin. A ramp of asphalt
concrete is placed on the paper next to the new layer to provide a temporary transition for
traffic. Before paving begins the next day, the paper and ramp are removed. New pavement
is placed and compacted, and the joint is checked for smoothness.

Compaction

Compaction controls the thickness of the asphalt concrete pavement placed in any one layer.
Generally, a 5 cm (2-inch) lift is the maximum allowed. In thicker layers, the effectiveness of
the compaction equipment is greatly reduced in the lower portion of the layer, and the
required density may not be achieved.

Compaction is utilized for the following purposes:

• To increase stability. The pavement must be stable so that it can support the load
without structural or compaction failure.

• To reduce air voids. By decreasing air voids, the pavement becomes less susceptible to
water intrusion through the surface and into the underlying layers.

• To increase density. Increased density results in more particle-to-particle contact and

more strength to support traffic loads.

• To smooth the surface. Compaction "works" the pavement so that some surface
problems can be eliminated or reduced.

Temperature - The pavement should be compacted at temperatures greater than 185oF

(71oC) so that the asphalt cement in the mix will be workable. If it is compacted at a lower
temperature, the required density may be hard to achieve. For this reason, the pavement
should be compacted immediately after placement.

Initial Compaction - Asphalt concrete pavement is initially compacted using a smooth, steel-
wheeled roller. Vibratory action may also be used for thicker pavements. The roller first
"pinches" the joint between the new layer and the previously placed layer. This pinching is
done by placing most of the wheel on the existing pavement and compacting a small section
of the new pavement with just the outside 6 inches (15.2 cm) to 12 inches (30.5 cm) of the
roller. Pinching the joint first allows it to remain stable during the remainder of the
compaction operations.

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When compacting the remainder of the pavement, about one-half of the wheel should be on
uncompacted material and the other half on compacted surface each time the roller travels
down the pavement. This overlap should be maintained throughout the compaction process.
Three to four passes across the full pavement width is necessary to obtain the required density
of the layer.

Final Compaction - The pneumatic-tired roller is used to compact the pavement in the final
stage. Because the tires on these rollers are made of the same material as vehicle tires, they
apply the same type of compaction, called "kneading" compaction, that vehicle tires will
apply. In this way, the pavement is prepared for the type of loading it will experience under
traffic. The density of the asphaltic concrete is not
greatly increased at this stage, but the quality of the compacted layer, particularly on the
surface, is improved.

Pneumatic-tired rollers also can reduce and sometimes eliminate surface irregularities that
may have been left by the more rigid steel-wheel roller. This results in a smoother pavement.

Tire pressure is an important factor in compaction when using pneumatic-tired rollers.

Pressure should be in a range that will ensure that the force applied to the pavement is very
uniform across the tire width. Low pressures will not allow the "kneading" action to work
properly to reduce surface irregularities. Too high a pressure may cause ruts to develop in the
pavement, and an irregular surface will again result.

As with the steel-wheeled roller, three or four passes of the pneumatic-tired roller are required
to achieve the desired results. The one-half roller width overlap applies to this compaction
stage as it did for the initial compaction stage. Contract specifications on compaction
techniques should provide specific details of the job compaction requirements.

Density Testing

As with all pavement layers, the density of the asphalt concrete must be checked and
compared to the required density as established in the lab. Density can be checked in the field
using either 1) the nuclear densometer or 2) a pavement core. Since its development, the
nuclear densometer has gained increasing acceptance because it is quick and easy to use and
because it does not require a portion of pavement to be destroyed in order to obtain a density
reading.

Density Deficiency and Correction

If a required density is not achieved in the field, one of two things usually happens. If the
measured density is not much less than that required, the material is allowed to remain, but
the contractor is paid a reduced price. If the density is substantially lower than required, the
material may have to be removed and replaced.

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Smoothness

The finished pavement should also be inspected for smoothness and rideability. Certain
provisions for reduced payment to the contractor can be written into the contract if certain
smoothness requirements are not met.

Special Construction Problems

Asphalt concrete operations can be difficult when performed in parking and loading areas.
These areas are generally small compared to roadway construction, so much time is spent
moving equipment. Special placement and compaction problems can result around curved
curbs or in corners where two sidewalks or curbs meet.

Manual placement is common in some places, so segregation of the mix becomes a major
concern. Hand-operated tampers may also be used in areas where normal compaction rollers
cannot enter, making the required density more difficult to obtain necessitating regular
checks. Special care is also required when using heavy equipment so that concrete curbs and
sidewalks are not damaged.

Recycling

During the past 15 or 20 years, recycling of asphalt pavement materials has become popular.
As asphalt supplies are depleted and costs rise, recycling will become increasingly necessary
in order to maintain and replace existing asphalt concrete roads.

The basic procedure for recycling an asphalt pavement generally consists of removing the old
pavement using a technique such as milling. Additional steps include saving the material for
use, hauling the material to a central plant for processing, adding new aggregate and asphalt
cement to rejuvenate the old mix, mixing the recycled material, and hauling it to the new site
for placement. Placing and compacting recycled asphalt pavement is basically the same as for
a new pavement.

Slurry Seals

Over a period of time, an asphalt concrete pavement begins to develop surface imperfections
called distresses. Small cracks begin to form, which allow water to enter the pavement. The
pavement surface becomes too smooth to help vehicles stop quickly when they brake. The
asphalt cement in the pavement becomes brittle due to exposure to air and sunlight. This
brittleness allows individual pieces of aggregate to break loose from the asphalt cement in a
process called ravelling. Applying a slurry seal to such a pavement may remedy all those
situations for a period of time.

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A slurry seal is composed of water, sand, mineral filler (such as limestone dust or portland
cement) and emulsified asphalt. Emulsified asphalt is made of tiny pieces of asphalt which
are suspended in water with the help of a chemical called an emulsifying agent. The resulting
slurry seal has the consistency of cream. When spread onto the road it fills the cracks and
adds a thin, new surface to the pavement. When the slurry dries, the new surface creates
added friction, is impermeable to water, and protects the old surface from the sun and air.

The slurry is usually applied in a thickness of 1/8 inch to 1/4 inch (3 to 6 mm) which is the
thickness of a single layer of the sand used in the slurry. Such a thin layer adds no strength to
the pavement, but it can make the pavement last much longer. It is a frequent maintenance
operation performed on Saudi Aramco roads.

Before applying the slurry, the road should be cleaned of dirt and other foreign material. In
many instances, a tack coat of diluted emulsified asphalt is sprayed on the pavement directly
ahead of the slurry operation.

Slurry seals are applied on one lane at a time from a truck that carries the slurry mixing
equipment. Such trucks are capable of applying slurry seal to 15 lane-miles of road per day.
As the slurry is made, it is dumped into a box which trails behind the truck. The box spreads
the slurry onto the road surface in a thin layer. The slurry must then be allowed to dry
completely before traffic is allowed to use the road again.

Road Construction Techniques Summary

The road construction techniques presented in this section covered subgrades, bound and
unbound bases and subbases, and asphalt concrete surfaces. Thus, they are too numerous to
summarize easily. However, the participant should remember that proper construction of all
these layers is crucial to the success of a roadway pavement.

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WORK AID 1

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WORK AID 2: DETERMINING PEAK RUNOFF (DISCHARGE)

Procedure: Given watershed area, L, and H

RUNOFF COEFFICIENTS

1. Select C: Character of Drainage Area C

Pavement, roads and parking lots 0.9

Compacted marl or open rocky areas 0.8
Commercial or Community Services areas 0.7
Residential areas 0.6
School sites 0.5
Parks and open sandy areas 0.3

2 0.2
2. Calculate Time of Concentration: Tc = K(L /H)

where: Tc = Time of concentration (minutes)

K = Constant value given below
L = Length of drainage path (meters)
H = Difference in elevation of drainage area (meters)

VALUES OF K FOR Tc CALCULATION

Character of Drainage Area K

Pavement, roads and parking lots 1.11

Compacted marl or open rocky areas 1.25
Commercial or Community Service area 1.43
Residential areas 1.67
School sites 2.00
Parks and open sandy areas 3.33

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3. Calculate rainfall intensity:

Rainfall intensity I is given in millimeters per hour. It is determined

from the following formula which is given in AES-S-030.
I = (A + B * Tc) / (1 + C * Tc)

where: A, B, and C are given below.

Tc is calculated as described above.

VARIABLES FOR INTENSITY EQUATION

__________________________________________

Return
Frequency A B C
__________________________________________

5 years 166.148 0.519 0.119

10 years 202.151 0.570 0.111
25 years 248.192 0.662 0.107
50 years 291.948 0.732 0.106
__________________________________________

4. Calculate Peak Runoff: The Rational Formula is the equation used to calculate peak
runoff.

Q = 0.002755 CIA

where: Q = Runoff quantity in cubic meters per second

C = Runoff coefficient
I = Rainfall intensity in millimeters per hour
A = Area in hectares

(See Example Problem #2)

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WORK AID 3: DITCH DESIGN NOMOGRAPH

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WORK AID 4

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WORK AID 5

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GLOSSARY

asphalt cement The major petroleum product that remains after all lighter-
weight products (gasoline, kerosene, and the like) have been
distilled from the crude oil. It is primarily used as a
cementing agent for aggregates in the construction of
pavements.

asphaltic concrete or A structural material containing a mixture of asphalt cement,

asphalt concrete (AC) aggregate (sand, gravel, or stone), and possibly mineral filler.
The asphalt cement coats the aggregate during mixing and
holds the aggregate particles in place when traffic loads are
applied.

Atterberg limits laboratory Several tests conducted on a soil. The common Atterberg
test limit tests used for engineering purposes are the liquid limit
and the plastic limit.

average daily traffic (ADT) The average 24-hour volume of traffic on a road. It is
calculated by dividing the total traffic volume during a
specified time period by the number of days during that
period. Unless otherwise stated, the traffic volume is usually
the total for both directions of travel.

base The pavement layer above the subbase and below the surface
in a flexible pavement. If thesubbase layer is not present, the
base rests directly on the subgrade.

binder A layer that provides the transition in strength between the

wearing course (when used) and the base course. The binder
is the bottom layer of the surface course and must resist the
high stresses caused by high tire pressures.

bitumen A black-colored cementing agent obtained from petroleum

that holds the aggregate particles together in an asphaltic
concrete pavement layer.

borrow pit An area generally away from but nearby a roadway

construction site from which soil can be removed for hauling
to a fill area in a roadway.

bridge To cross over a weak material with a stronger material so that

the weak material will not have to support a large load.

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bulkhead joint A transverse (perpendicular to the centerline) joint in an

asphalt pavement that is formed at the end of a paving day by
placing a piece of lumber across the path of the paver to form
a vertical bulkhead (wall) that holds the asphaltic concrete in
place. After the asphaltic concrete is compacted, the lumber
can be removed when the next day's paving operations begin.
The new material is placed and compacted right next to the
previous day's work to form a smooth vertical joint.

bulldozer A large, single-engine machine used for moving and

spreading soil. It operates on two metal crawlers and uses a
large metal blade mounted in front to shape and spread soil.

California bearing ratio A number often used to define the strength of a subgrade
(CBR) soil,unbound subbase, or unbound base material and used in
the design of an asphalt pavement structure. It can range from
0 (no strength) to over 100 (strong soil). The CBR of a soil
can be determined from a laboratory test, and its strength is
compared as a percentage to that of a standard (a high-quality
crushed stone).

centistoke (cST) The unit of measurement for kinematic viscosity of

bituminous materials. One centistoke is equal to one square
centimeter per second.

chute A ditch that carries runoff water from the existing ground at
the top of a roadway cut, down the side of the cut, and into the
nearest roadside channel or drainage area.

clear zone A distance measured from the edge of the pavement to the
closest roadside obstruction or hazard.

crest vertical curve A curve in which the grade changes from positive to negative,
as a roadway does when going over the top of a hill. The
curve provides a smooth transition for vehicles traveling
between the grades.

cross slope on pavement The inclination of the pavement surface toward the shoulders
to allow runoff from the pavement surface so that vehicle tires
can maintain good contact with the pavement surface.

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culvert An opening under a roadway generally designed to carry

surface water from one side of the roadway to the other. A
culvert is made necessary when a roadway fill interrupts the
flow of surface runoff across a watershed. A culvert may span
up to
20 feet. Spans longer than 20 feet are considered bridges.

curing The evaporation of the light-weight component (solvent) in a

cutback asphalt, leaving athin, sticky layer of asphalt cement
on the surface to which it was applied.

curve stationing On a horizontal curve, the length of the curve is measured in

stations from the P.C. to the P.T. along the centerline of the
curve.

cutback An asphalt cement that has been diluted (cut) with a lighter-
weight petroleum product (solvent) such as kerosene or
gasoline. As a result, the asphalt cement becomes thinner and
can be sprayed or mixed more easily with aggregate at a lower
temperature than that required for normal asphalt cement.

dense gradation A mixture of aggregate in a pavement layer in which many

particle sizes are present so that the smaller particles fill the
voids (holes) between the bigger particles and the mixture has
a high density.

18-kip equivalent axle load The standard axle load to which all other loads, both tandem
(EAL) and single, in a traffic distribution are converted before the
total traffic loadings in the anticipated pavement life can be
calculated. This total is used in many of the available
pavement structural design techniques. The conversion is
based upon equivalent damage that an axle causes compared
to that caused by the 18-kip (80 kN) axle load.

emulsifying agent A soap-like material that causes asphalt cement droplets to be

suspended in water by giving the droplets a positive or
negative charge, causing the droplets to repel one another.

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emulsified asphalt A mixture of asphalt cement, water, and emulsifying agent

that can be placed at a temperature much lower than asphalt
cement. The asphalt cement is suspended as tiny droplets in
the water. The mixture is applied in a spray onto a surface.
After application, the water begins to evaporate and the
emulsifying agent breaks down, allowing the asphalt cement
droplets to connect and form a uniform layer.

fill area A section of the roadway where the final roadway centerline
elevation is greater than the natural ground elevation.
Embankment or fill material must be hauled to the site and
placed on the natural ground so that the road can be
constructed to the required elevation.

fines Soil particles generally smaller than 0.0029 inches (0.074

mm) and thus pass through the #200 sieve. Silt and clay soils
are included in this size group.

flexible pavement A pavement that supports traffic loads by gradually spreading

the loads through a cross section of two or more structural
layers that decrease in strength and stiffness from the surface
to the subgrade or foundation soil. The surface is usually an
asphaltic concrete material which may rest directly on the
subgrade for low traffic weights or on an asphaltic concrete or
granular base and subbase for high traffic weights.

flow velocity The speed at which water travels in a drainage structure, often
expressed in feet per second.

freeboard The extra height of the ditch above the expected flow level for
a given design storm. It is a safety factor to help account for
assumptions and estimations that are often made in calculating
water runoff from a watershed.

frequency of storm return The likely number of times that a storm of a given rainfall
intensity will occur over a given time period.

geogrid A flat, polymer material with horizontal ribs or members that

are typically orientated longitudinally (in the major stress
direction) and transversely (at a 90 degree angle to the major
stress direction) in a soil mass. The geogrid is commonly
used in road construction to bridge weak materials and to
reinforce an embankment.

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geosynthetics A general term for a wide variety of man-made polymers

(primarily plastics) derived from petroleum products.
Commonly used geosynthetics in the road industry are
geotextiles and geogrids.

geotextile A flat, geosynthetic fabric composed of polymeric fibers that

are bonded together by weaving (woven fabrics) or by heat
treatment, chemical reaction, or needle punching (nonwoven
fabrics). The geotextile can be used to bridge a weak soil, to
reinforce an embankment, or to serve as a filter between two
unlike materials.

harrow A device used for breaking up a compacted soil surface into

small lumps of earth. Many disc-shaped blades are mounted
on a frame at a slight incline from vertical. A farm tractor is
commonly used to pull the harrow. The blades rotate when
pulled, cut into the soil, and break the soil into smaller pieces.

headcutting Erosion of the approach channel on the inlet side of a

depressed inlet culvert. If the approach channel is not
protected with riprap or concrete, the flow will erode the
channel until the flow velocity is reduced sufficiently so that
further erosion is less likely.

headwall A wall, generally made of concrete, that is placed around each

end of a culvert to prevent erosion of the fill material
surrounding the culvert and to anchor the culvert when
rushing water exerts a lift on the culvert.

intercepting channel A ditch constructed parallel to the roadway in the natural

ground at the top of the back slope in a cut section. The ditch
catches the water draining from the natural ground and carries
it to the nearest chute for transport to a drainage area.

intersection An area where two or more roads or streets cross, with

vehicles on each road or street competing for movement
through the area.

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kneading compaction A method of densifying a material that involves the

application of the compaction force by not only pressing the
material vertically but also by applying force in other
directions. The layer is "massaged" into a denser
configuration. This method of compaction is the type that is
exerted under a rolling, pneumatic tire.

liquid limit (LL) The water content in a soil, expressed as a percent, at which
the soil changes from the plastic (easily deformable) state to
the liquid (thickly flowing) state.

maximum dry density The highest density of dry soil particles that can be obtained
in a pavement or soil layer when the soil is compacted under
a given amount of effort or load, often expressed in pounds
per cubic foot of soil.

modified proctor test A laboratory test used to determine the maximum dry density
and optimum moisture content of a soil by compacting it in
five layers in a steel mold having a volume of 1/30 cubic foot.
Each layer is hit 25 times by a 10-pound hammer falling 18
inches onto the layer.

modulus of subgrade A number often used to define the strength of a subgrade soil
reaction (k) and used in the design of a portland cement concrete
pavement structure. The k is defined as the reactive pressure
developed per unit deflection in a soil subjected to a surface
load, often expressed in pounds per square inch per inch of
deflection (or pounds per cubic inch - pci).

motor grader A large, single-engine machine used for moving and

spreading soil. A large steel blade that can be adjusted to
many different angles horizontally and that can be raised and
lowered vertically is mounted under the machine at about its
middle. The device operates on two rubber-tired wheels in
front of and two in back of the blade.

optimum moisture content The water content, expressed as a percent, in a soil that will
allow the soil to be compacted to a certain dry density with the
smallest amount of compactive effort or load.

pavement slope The inclination of the pavement surface in a direction

perpendicular to the pavement center line to allow for surface
drainage or for superelevation.

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peak runoff The highest flow rate of water expected to come from a
drainage area (watershed) during rainfall of a given intensity.

penetration value A measure of the viscosity or thickness of an asphalt cement.

A sharp needle is allowed to fall vertically into an asphalt
cement for 5 seconds under a 100 gram mass. The distance of
fall is called the penetration value and is measured in units of
0.1 mm.

plasticity index (PI) The numerical difference in the liquid limit (LL) and the
plastic limit (PL) for a soil. (Subtract the PL from the LL to
get the PI.)

plastic limit (PL) The water content in a soil, expressed as a percent, at which
the soil changes from the semisolid (saturated but stiff) state to
the plastic (easily deformable) state.

pneumatic tire roller A heavy device used to compact both granular and cohesive
soils. A pneumatic tire roller consists of two rows of closely
spaced, air-filled rubber tires. The two rows of tires are
staggered so that the soil in the spaces between the tires in one
row is compacted by tires in the other row. This device can
also be used to compact asphaltic concrete pavement layers.

portland cement concrete A structural material containing a mixture of hydraulic

(PCC) cement, water, fine aggregate (sand), and coarse aggregate
(gravel or stone). The PCC, when first mixed, is easily
workable and can be molded into many shapes but, when
hardened through a chemical reaction between the cement and
water, is very rigid and strong.

prime coat A thin application of liquid bituminous material that binds the
surface of an unbound aggregate or soil layer to an asphalt
concrete base or surface pavement layer placed on top of it.

proctor test A laboratory test used to determine the maximum dry density
and optimum moisture content of a soil by compacting it in
three layers in a steel mold having a volume of 1/30 cubic
foot. Each layer is hit 25 times by a 5.5- pound hammer
falling 12 inches onto the layer.

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pug mill A device used in a hot mix asphalt batch plant to mix the
aggregate, hot asphalt cement, and mineral filler to form an
asphaltic concrete with uniform consistency and well coated
aggregate.

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rainfall intensity The amount of rainfall that occurs over a certain time period,
often expressed in inches per hour.

rainfall Rainfall of a certain intensity begins flowing off a drainage

area, often expressed in cubic feet per second.

rigid pavement A pavement that supports traffic loads through a material that
is very stiff and tends to spread the load over a very large
area. It usually consists of a portland cement concrete surface
resting either on the subgrade soil or on a granular or
stabilized base course that may be placed between the
subgrade and surface.

riprap A large stone or broken concrete ditch liner used to prevent

erosion caused by flowing water. The riprap slows the
velocity of flow in the ditch and thus helps to prevent small
particles from being carried away.

roadside channel A ditch constructed parallel to the roadway in a cut section

which collects water from the pavement, shoulder, fore slope,
and back slope and carries it to the nearest drainage area.

roadway grade The constant rate of change in elevation of a roadway as it

rises or falls in hilly terrain. Grade is the vertical rise or fall in
the roadway divided by the horizontal distance over which the
rise or fall occurs and is expressed as a percent. It is positive
going uphill and negative going down when moving in the
direction of increasing stations.

rotary mixer A machine used to mix soil to achieve a uniform texture. It

consists of a large, enclosed box mounted on a tractor-like
machine. The box contains rotating teeth that dig into the soil
and mix it. The uniformly mixed soil can then be compacted
to provide firm, even support of the pavement structure.

runoff coefficient (C) A measure of the percentage of rainfall which eventually

flows to a stream, ditch, culvert, or other point of discharge.

sag vertical curve A curve in which the grade changes from negative to positive,
as a roadway does when going into a valley between hills.
The curve provides a smooth transition for vehicles traveling
between the grades.

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saturation flow rate (s) The maximum number of vehicles that can get through a
signal during all available green time at a signalized
intersection.

scour Erosion at the outlet end of a culvert caused by flowing water

eroding the soil located in the drainage channel just past the
end of the culvert.

scraper (pan) A heavy piece of earth hauling equipment. In general, a

scraper consists of a soil holding area that can be filled by
scraping the soil into the holding area from the bottom. Two
independently powered sets of rubber-tired wheels are located
one set in front of and one in back of the holding area. The
soil can also be unloaded by opening the holding area at the
bottom and dropping the soil into a fairly uniform layer.

screed The part of the asphalt paving machine that spreads the
asphalt concrete onto the pavement, provides the initial light
compaction, and strikes the asphalt off to the correct elevation
before the roller compaction.

sheepsfoot rollers A heavy device generally used to compact subgrade soil

containing many clay particles. Sheepsfoot rollers have
projections (feet) on the rollers that penetrate the clay layer,
resulting in a more consistent and uniform compaction of the
layer than would be possible under a smooth wheel roller that
only contacts the layer surface.

shoulder The portion of the roadway extending outward from the

pavement edge that is used to accommodate stopped vehicles
and to provide side support for the pavement structure.

shoulder slope The inclination of the pavement shoulder surface away from
the pavement edge. The slope is necessary for drainage of
rainfall away from the pavement.

side slopes The side of an embankment generally beginning outside the

pavement shoulder and inclining downward to the natural
ground.

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signalized intersection An intersection where traffic volumes (either vehicles,

pedestrians, or both) are high enough to meet some minimum
standard that indicates that traffic signals are necessary to
control traffic movement into the intersection.

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siltation The deposit of sand, silt, and clay particles in a culvert

because of low flow velocity of the water in the culvert.
Siltation build-up will ultimately cause pipe clogging if
allowed to continue.

single axle load The load transmitted by all wheels having their centers present
within a 40-inch (102-cm) space measured parallel to the
direction of travel and extending across the entire width of the
vehicle. For most trucks, a single axle load is applied either to
two sets of dual (side-by- side) wheels or to two single wheels
that are located on opposite sides of the truck and connected
by a rod (axle).

slab The relatively thin, flat section of portland cement concrete

pavement found between two rigid pavement joints.

slipping failure A failure in an earth embankment where the portion of the

embankment next to the side slope (soil wedge) loses its
support and begins to slide down the slope.

slurry seal A blend of asphalt cement and small aggregate that is often
mixed on the job site and placed immediately. A slurry seal is
used primarily for maintenance of existing asphaltic concrete
pavements that are experiencing minor structural distress,
such as small cracks and ravelling.

soil friction The resistance between soil particles that helps the soil to
resist movement under a load.

soil support value (S) An arbitrary number often used to define the strength of a
subgrade soil and used in the design of an asphalt pavement
structure. It ranges from about 1 (weak soil) to about 10
(strong soil) and is dimensionless (has no strength units).

soil wedge A portion of soil next to the slope in an embankment that will
sometimes slide down the slope under its own weight if the
soil particle-to-particle friction becomes unable to support the
weight of the wedge.

station A fundamental unit of length used in designing and

constructing a roadway. One station is equal to 100 feet.

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steel-wheeled roller A heavy, single-engine machine with two cylindrical steel

wheels extending the full width of the roller, one mounted in
the front and one in back. The wheels compact the soil by
applying a load directly onto the surface and are effective in
granular soils.

structural number (SN) An index number obtained for a given combination of traffic
loads and road-bed soil strength that may be converted to
thickness of various flexible pavement layers. Generally, the
higher the SN, the stronger and thicker the pavement must be
to support the loads.

subbase The pavement layer above the subgrade and below the base in
a flexible pavement. The subbase is usually omitted on
roadways with low traffic volumes.

subgrade The foundation soil upon which the pavement structure is

constructed. The subgrade may be either a recompacted soil
fill or a natural soil.

superelevation A tilting of the traveled way toward the inside of a horizontal

curve to allow a vehicle to safely negotiate the curve at the
design speed of the roadway.
surface course The top layer of asphaltic concrete in a flexible pavement
structure. It must resist the high tire contact stresses, disperse
these high stresses, and provide adequate skid resistance
between the vehicle tires and the pavement. On high volume
roads, it is sometimes divided into two components -- the
wearing surface at the top and the binder below.
tack coat A thin application of a liquid bituminous material to an
existing asphalt concrete layer to provide bond with another
asphalt concrete pavement layer placed above it.
tandem axle load The load transmitted by all wheels having their centers present
in a space between 40 inches (102 cm) and 96 inches (244
cm) when the space is measured parallel to the direction of
travel and extends across the entire width of the vehicle. For
most trucks, a tandem axle load is applied to four sets of dual
(side-by- side) wheels, two sets of which are located on one
side of the truck one after the other and the remaining sets are
located on the opposite side of the truck. The sets are
connected across the truck width by two rods (axles).

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tangent stationing When the roadway is initially located by the surveying crews
after the design stage, they often lay out only the tangents of
the roadway. At this stage, the horizontal curves are omitted,
but the P.C. and the P.T. stations on each curve are usually
located. Tangent stations are located along the tangents from
the P.C. to the P.T.
time of rainfall The time during which rain falls at a certain intensity over a
concentration drainage area. This factor directly affects the amount of water
that must be drained from the area.

toe-of-slope channel A ditch sometimes constructed parallel to the roadway at the

bottom of a fill section to collect water from the fill slope and
carry it to the nearest drainage area.
tractor The part of the asphalt paving machine that supplies the power
and moves the asphalt concrete back to the screed for
placement on the roadway.
unsignalized intersection The intersection of two or more roads or streets where traffic
might travel safely through with no control when traffic
volume is low. As traffic increases, it might be controlled
safely by using guide and warning signs, yield signs, or stop
signs.
vibratory rollers A heavy device generally used to compact granular subgrade
soil or other granular pavement layers. Vibratory rollers are
generally smooth, steel-wheeled rollers with vibrators that
cause the steel wheels to vibrate slightly up and down on the
layer being compacted, causing the layer particles to be
shaken into a denser mass for greater load support. Vibratory
rollers can also be used to compact asphaltic concrete
pavement layers.
watershed The area of land over which drainage of rainfall (runoff) tends
to collect and flow to one outlet point.
wearing course A thin, asphaltic concrete layer sometimes applied as the top
layer of the surface course. It allows better skid resistance
between the vehicle tire and the pavement and must resist the
high tire contact stresses.

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