SEMICONDUCTOR

DIODE
Contents
 Introduction
 Semiconductor material
 Diode
 Symbol, characteristic and specification sheet.
 Biasing
 Diodes testing
 Typical diode circuit.
 Other types diodes.
Semiconductor material
Material can divided into three categories :
conductor, semiconductor and insulator.
A semiconductor is a material that has a
resistivity value between that of a conductor and an
insulator or four valence electrons.
Common materials used in the development of
semiconductor devices:

1) Silicon (Si) – common used in electronic devices

2) Germanium (Ge)
3) Gallium arsenide (GaAs)
3
Semiconductor material
 Pure Si and Ge called intrinsic material.
 The electrical characteristics of intrinsic materials are
improved by adding materials in a process called doping.
 When other material added to instrinsic material called
extrinsic material.

The additional materials (impurity) are in two types:

• n-type – antimony, arsenic, phosphorous – five
valence electroncs. / electrons are majority current carrier.
• p-type – boron, gallium, indium – three valence
electrons. / holes are majority current carrier.
Atomic structure of Si and Ge

5
 Semiconductor Diodes

Construction
Symbol

Practical diode
Anode is abbreviated – A
Cathode is abbreviated – K
(because the Cathode end of the diode symbol
looks like a backwards K)
6
 P-N Junction
n-type materials make the Silicon (or Germanium)
atoms more negative.
p-type materials make the Silicon (or Germanium)
atoms more positive.
Join n-type and p-type doped Silicon (or Germanium)
to form a p-n junction is called diode.

7
 P-N Junction
When the materials are joined, the negatively charged atoms
of the n-type doped side are attracted to the positively charged
atoms of the p-type doped side.
The electrons in the n-type material migrate across the
junction to the p-type material (electron flow). Or you could say
the ‘holes’ in the p-type material migrate across the junction to
the n-type material (conventional current flow).
The result is the formation of a depletion layer around the
junction and produced barrier potential or knee voltage (VK or
VD)

Note;
Si » VD = 0.7 V
Ge » VD = 0.3 V
GaAs » VD = 1.2 V
8
Biasing Conditions
 The width of the depletion region can be
reduced or widen by applying a voltage supply
across or biasing condition to the diode.

 Three categories of biasing condition;

1. No. bias condition
2. Forward bias condition
3. Reverse bias condition

9
No bias condition

VD = 0 V
Forward Bias Condition

The depletion layer is narrow. The electrons from the n-

type material and ‘holes’ from the p-type material have
sufficient energy to cross the junction.
External voltage is applied across the p-n junction in the
same polarity of the p- and n-type materials.
11
Reversed Bias Condition

This causes the depletion layer to widen. The electrons in

the n-type material are attracted towards the positive
terminal and the ‘holes’ in the p-type material are attracted
towards the negative terminal.
External voltage is applied across the p-n junction in the
opposite polarity of the p- and n-type materials. 12
 Operating Conditions of Ideal Diode

No external voltage is applied: VD = 0V and no current is flowing ID = 0A.

No Bias

Forward Bias
Ideally it conducts current in only one
direction acts like short circuit

Reverse Bias

acts like an open circuit in the opposite direction

Robert Boylestad Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Digital Electronics 13 07458
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey
All rights reserved.
 Operating Conditions of Actual Diode
No external voltage is applied: VD = 0V and no current is flowing ID = 0A.

No Bias

Forward Bias

acts like a voltage drop VT (knee voltage )

Si=0.7 V, Ge=0.3V

Reverse Bias

acts like an open circuit in the opposite direction

Robert Boylestad Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Digital Electronics 14 07458
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey
All rights reserved.
 Actual Diode Characteristics

Note the regions for No Bias, Reverse Bias, and Forward Bias conditions.
Look closely at the scale for each of these conditions!
Temperatures effect : Germanium diodes are more sensitive to temperature
variations than Silicon Diodes. 15
 Zener Region (Zener diode)
Another detail about the diode is the useful Zener region.

Symbol

Works at Reverse bias

Common VZ: 1.8V to 200V

The diode is in the reverse bias condition.

At some point the reverse bias voltage is so large the diode breaks
down.
The reverse current increases dramatically.
This maximum voltage is called avalanche breakdown voltage and
Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education, Inc.
the current is called avalanche current. 16 07458
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey
All rights reserved.
 Diode Testing Ohmmeter
An ohmmeter set on a low ohms scale can be used to test a
diode.
A normal diode will have the following readings.
The diode should be tested out of circuit.

17
Diodes Data Sheet
 Diodes Data Sheet

https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/semiconductors/chpt-3/diode-ratings/
 Typical Diode Circuit
2.1 DC circuits
 Series , Parallel, Series and Parallel circuit
2.2 AC circuits
 Rectifier

 Half wave
 Full wave

1. Bridge circuit
2. Center tap circuit
 Clipper circuit

 Clamper circuit
DC circuits
Before we can calculate the current and voltage in a
circuit, first we must identify the condition of the
diode, whether it is in the
 ON state (forward biased) or in the
 OFF state (reverse biased).
The current and voltage in a circuit consisting of a
voltage source, resistor and a diode can be found by
using the :
1. Ohm’s Law,
2. Kirchhoff current law (KCL) and
3. Kirchhoff voltage law (KVL).

The knee voltage of the diode must be considered

 Ideal diode = 0 V
 Silicon diode (Si) = 0.7 V
 Germanium (Ge) = 0.3 V
 Gallium arsenide (GaAs)= 1.2 V
Load Line Analysis
 The applied load will normally have an impact on the point
or region of operation of a diode. If the analysis is
performed in a graphical manner, a line can be drawn on
the characteristics graph of the diode that represents the
applied load.
 The intersection of the load line with the device
characteristics will determine the operational point of the
system. The point of operation is usually called the
quiescent point (Q–point). This analysis is called load line
analysis
 The solution obtained using load line analysis is the same
that would be obtained by a simultaneous mathematical
solution.
 Example of Load Line Analysis
VS = IDR + VD

ID (mA) set ID = 0 A VD = VS.

set VD 0 V VS = IDR

ID = Vs/R Q - point

R ID Load line



VS
 VD


VD (V)
VD = VS.
Example 1.1
Determine the current, ID and voltage, VD in Figure 1.1(a)
using the load line analysis. The device characteristic is
illustrated in Figure 1.1(b).
ID (mA)

30
400  ID
25

+ 20
 VD 15
10 V

10

5

VD (V)
0
Figure 1.1(a) 2 4 6 8 10

Figure 1.1(b).
Solution 1.1
ID(mA)

30

25
IDQ
20

15

10

VD(V)
0
2 4 6 8 10

1.8

VDQ
Series Circuits
Example 1.2
Determine the condition of the diodes in Figure 1.2, which
is determine whether the diode is forward bias or reverse
bias.

ideal ideal

10 V 20  10 V 20 

(a) (b)
Figure 1.2
Example 1.3
For the circuit in Figure 1.3, calculate the current I, and the
voltage across resistor, VR.

ideal

10 V VR 20 

Figure 1.3
Solution 1.3

VR = VS – VD
ON state (forward biased)
Since the diode is ideal, the voltage across of
the diode, VD = 0 V

VR = VS = 10 V

V 10 V
I=   0.5 A
R 20 
Example 1.4
For the circuit in Figure 1.4, calculate the current I, the
voltage across the diode, VD and the voltage across
resistor, VR. Repeat if Ge is replaced with Si.
Ge

I + VD -
+
10 V VR 2.2 k 
-

Figure 1.4
Solution 1.4
VR = VS – VD

Diode is ON state (forward biased)

Since the diode is Ge, the voltage across of the diode,
VD = 0.3 V

VR = VS - VD= 9.7 V

VR 9.7 V
I   0.49 A
R 20 
Example 1.5
For the circuit in Figure 1.5, calculate the current I, the
voltage across the diode, VD and the voltage across
resistor, VR.
Ge

I + VD -
+
10 V VR 2.2 k


Figure 1.5
Solution 1.5

Referring to the circuit, the diode is reverse biased.

Therefore it can be replaced by an open circuit.

Therefore,
I = 0 A,
VR = 0 V and
VD = 10 V
Example 1.6
For the circuit in Figure 1.6, calculate the current in the
circuit and the voltage across resistor.
1 k

12 V 10 V

Ge
Figure 1.6
 Solution 1.6

The polarity of the supply voltages in the circuit is different.

Therefore the total supply voltage in the circuit is 2 V and the direction of
current through diode is from anode to cathode.
Hence the diode is in forward biased.

1 k The voltage across resistor,

VR = VS – VD
= 2 V – 0.3 V = 1.7 V

and the current,

12 V 10 V
V 1.7 V
I=   1.7 mA
R 1 k

Ge
Parallel and Series-parallel Circuits
Example 1.7
Calculate I1, I2 and Vo in Figure 1.7.

I1 Ge

1 k
VO

 I2 Si
12 V 1.8 k


Figure 1.7
Solution 1.7
I1 Ge

1 k
VO

 I2 Si
12 V 1.8 k


The Ge and Si are connected in parallel.

 However, Ge needs 0.3 V to start conducting while Si needs 0.7 V.
Therefore only Ge will conduct and Si remain OFF.

I2 = 0 A
12 V  0.3 V
I1 =  4.18 mA VO = 12 V – 0.3 V – (4.18m x 1k)
1 kΩ  1.8 kΩ
= 7.52 V
Example 1.8
Referring to Figure 1.8, calculate I1, I2 I3 and Vo.

Ge
2.2 k
10 V Vo
I3
I1 I2

Si 1 k

Figure 1.8
 Solution 1.8 Ge
2.2 k
10 V Vo
I3
I1 I2

Si 1 k

Both Ge and Si will conduct.

The 1 kΩ resistor is in parallel with Si.
Since Vo is measured across 1 k resistor

Vo = Vsi = 0.7 V 10 V  0.3 V  0.7 V

I1 =  4.09 mA
2.2 kΩ
0.7 V
I2 =  0.7 mA Using KCL,
1 k
I3 = I 1 – I2
= 4.09 mA – 0.7 mA
= 3.39 mA
 AC CIRCUITS
 When diode is supplied with alternating current (ac) source:
 diode will conduct during half cycle of the supply voltage
 and will not conduct during the next half cycle of the supply voltage
 depending on the direction of the diode
 Examples of alternating current sources are
1. sinusoidal,
2. triangular
3. square waves
 For ac analysis, the application of the diode as :
1. rectifiers,
2. clippers
3. clampers
Rectifiers
 Rectifier circuit is used to convert alternating
current (AC) to direct current (DC)
There are two types of rectifiers:
 half-wave rectifier
full-wave rectifier.
 Bridge circuit
 Center-tap transformer circuit
Half-wave rectifier
vi (V)
ideal
Vp
+
T/2
t R vo
0


(a) (b)
vo (V)

Vp

t The output voltage is measured

0 T/2 across the load resistor, RL

(c)
 vi (V)
ideal
Vp
+
T/2
t R vo
0


(a) (b)
vo (V)

Vp
During the positive cycle of the
0
t
input (0 – T/2), the direction of
T/2
current through diode is from
(c) anode to cathode.
Therefore diode will conduct and
there is a voltage drop across
resistor.
 vi (V)
ideal
Vp
+
T/2
t R vo
0


(a) (b)
vo (V)

Vp
During the negative cycle of the
0
t
input (T/2 – T), the direction of
T/2
current is reversed, therefore diode
(c) will not conduct or in the OFF
state.
 Hence the output voltage is zero
The relation between the peak output voltage, Vo(peak)
and the rectified dc voltage or the average voltage, Vdc
is

Vdc = 0.318Vo(peak) – ideal diode

Vdc = 0.318 (Vo(peak) – Vt) – diode Si,

Ge or GaAs
Half-wave rectifier
Simulation using Electronic Workbench (EWB) software

Input waveform (Channel A)

49
Simulation using Electronic Workbench (EWB) software

Output waveform (Channel B) 50

Example 1.9
For the half-wave rectifier shown in Figure 1.9, sketch
the output waveform and calculate the average output
voltage.
Si
vo

vi (t) = 12 sin t V 4 k

Figure 1.9
Solution 1.9
Si
vo

vi (t) = 12 sin t V 4 k

During positive cycle; During negative cycle;

For vi < 0.7 V , vo = 0 V Si is reverse bias.
since Si is not conducting. Therefore
For vi > 0.7 V, Si conducts. Vo = 0 V
Therefore
Vo = 12 V – 0.7 V
= 11.3 V
 Solution 1.9
The input and the output waveforms
vi (V)

12

0.7
t

vo (V)

11.3

t
 Solution 1.9
Using equation
Vdc = 0.318Vo(peak)

Vdc = 0.318 (11.3 V) = 3.59 V

vi (V)

12

0.7
t

vo (V)

11.3
3.59
t
Full-wave rectifier
There are two types of full-wave
rectifiers:
1. bridge rectifier
2. center-tapped transformer rectifier
Bridge rectifier
 The dc level obtained from a sinusoidal input can be
improved 100% using a process called full-wave
rectification.

 The most familiar network for performing such a

function appears in Figure 2.4 with its four diodes in a
bridge configuration
Bridge rectifier
vi (V)

Vp
D1 D2
R
T/2 T
0 t + vo
D4 D3

Figure 2.4
Figure 2.4(a) shows the full-wave bridge rectifier circuit and the
corresponding input waveform.
The output voltage is measured across the load resistor, RL.
 During the positive cycle of the input (0 – T/2),
 diode D1 and D3 are in the ON state while
 D2 and D4 in the OFF state.
 Current will flow through the load resistor and there will
be voltage drop across resistor

vo (V)
+
D1 Vp
R

+ vo 0 t
D3
T/2

 During the negative cycle of the input (T/2 – T),
 diode D2 and D4 are in the ON state
 D1 and D3 in the OFF state.
 Current will flow through the load resistor

vo (V)

D2 Vp
R

+ vo 0 t
D4 T/2 T
+
 The relation between the peak output voltage, Vo(peak) and
the rectified dc voltage or the average voltage, Vdc is
vi (V)

Vp

T/2 T
t
0 Vdc = 0.636Vo(peak) – ideal diode
 Vp
Vdc = 0.636(Vo(peak) – 2Vt)
vo (V)
– diode Si, Ge or GaAs
Vp

t
T/2 T

Input and output waveforms of full-wave bridge rectifier

Bridge rectifier
 Computer simulation
Simulation using Electronic Workbench (EWB) software

Voltage i/p signal A

64
 Computer simulation
Simulation using Electronic Workbench (EWB) software

Voltage i/p signal B (+ve)

65
 Computer simulation
Simulation using Electronic Workbench (EWB) software

Voltage i/p signal B (-ve voltage)

66
 Computer simulation
Simulation using Electronic Workbench (EWB) software

Voltage across R2
67
Rectification

68
Example 1.10
For the full-wave bridge rectifier shown in Figure 1.10,
sketch the output waveform. Calculate the average
output voltage and the average current

vi (V)

20 GaAs GaAs
1 k

0 t  vo+
GaAs GaAs

 20
Figure 1.10
 Solution 1.10

During positive cycle, two GaAs conduct.

Vo(p) = 20 V – 2(1.2 V) = 17.6 V
During negative cycle, two GaAs conduct.
Vo(p) = 20 V – 2(1.2 V) = 17.6 V
The average output voltage and current,
Vdc = 0.636 (17.6 V) = 11.194 V
Idc = 11.194 V  11.194 mA
1 kΩ
 Solution 1.10 vi (V)

The input waveform 20

0 t

 20

The output waveform vo (V)

17.6

0 t

Vdc = 0.636 (17.6 V) = 11.194 V

Center-tapped transformer rectifier
A second popular full-wave rectifier appears with
only two diodes but requiring a center-tapped
(CT) transformer to establish the input signal
across each section of the secondary of the
transformer
Center-tapped transformer rectifier
vi (V)
1:2 D1
Vp

R
t
 vo +

 Vp
D2

The output voltage is measured across the load resistor, RL

During the positive cycle of the input (0 – T/2),
 diode D1 is forward bias while diode
 D2 is reverse bias.
 Current will flow through the load resistor and there
will be voltage drop across resistor

D1 vo (V)
1:2

+ + Vp

R

+  vo + 0 t
T/2
 
During the negative cycle of the input (T/2 – T),
 diode D2 is forward bias
 diode D1 is reverse bias.
 Current will flow through the load resistor

vo (V)
1:2
 
Vp
R
+

 vo + 0 t
+ + T/2 T
 vi (V) The output waveform of the
Vp center-tapped transformer
rectifier is the same as the
T/2 T
0
t output waveform of the bridge
rectifier.
 Vp

vo (V)
The relation between the peak
Vp output voltage, Vo(peak) and the
average voltage, Vdc is
t
T/2 T
Vdc = 0.636Vo(peak) – ideal diode

Vdc = 0.636(Vo(peak) – Vt)

– diode Si, Ge or GaAs
Center-tapped transformer rectifier
Example 1.11
Referring to Figure 1.11, sketch the output waveform
and calculate the average output voltage. Silicon
diodes are used in the circuit

vi (V)
1:2 D1
100

1.2 k
t
+ vo 

 100
D2

Example 1.11
 Solution 1.11
Total voltage across secondary windings,
VS = 2(100 V) = 200 V

The total voltage must be divided into 2 (center-

tapped).
Therefore, VS1 = VS2 = 100 V

During positive cycle, D1 conducts.

Vo(p) = – (100 V – 0.7 V) = – 99.3 V

During negative cycle, D2 conducts.

Vo(p) = – (100 V – 0.7 V) = – 99.3 V
Solution 1.11

the average output voltage,

Vdc = 0.636 (– 99.3 V) = – 63.155 V
The output waveform

vo (V)

T/2 T
t

- 99.3
Clipper
Clipper or clipping circuit refers to the ability of the
diode circuit to clip-off portions of the input waveform
or the applied signal.
There are a variety of diode networks called clippers
that have the ability to “clip” off a portion of the input
signal without distorting the remaining part of the
alternating waveform.
 vi (V)
R

Vp +

T/2 T ideal vo
0 t

Vp

Figure 2.6 shows the simplest form of clipper circuit

 vi (V) R vo (V)

Vp + +

vo
0 t
T/2  t


vi (V) vo (V)
R

+
 T/2 T
T/2 T t
0 t vo

 Vp
+
Vp
 vi (V)

Vp

T/2 T
0 t

Vp

vo (V)

T
0 t
T/2

Vp

Figure 2.6(c) Input and output waveforms

 vi (V)

Vp

T/2 T Comparing the input and

0 t
the output waveforms in
Vp
Figure 2.6(c), we can see
that the positive portion of
vo (V) the applied signal is
clipped-off at zero level.
T
0 t
T/2

Vp
The level to which the applied signal is cut-off can
be adjusted by adding a dc voltage in series with the
diode as shown in Figure 2.7.
R

+
ideal
vi vo
Vdc


The state of the diode will depend on the

polarity of the input signal and the dc voltage.
Clipper Circuit : 1
Clipper Circuit : +ve cct

Vo=Vs-Vd-V1

88
Clipper Circuit : 1

Input & Output signals

89
 Clipper Circuit : 2
Clipper Circuit : -ve cct

Vo=Vs-Vd+V1

90
Clipper Circuit : 2

Input & Output signals

91
 Clipper Circuit : 3
Clipper Circuit : -ve cct

92
 Clipper Circuit : 4

Clipper Circuit : +ve & -ve cct

93
Clipper Circuit : 5

Voltage added

94
Example 1.12
 Referring to Figure 1.12, sketch the output waveform
with reference to input.

vi (V)
vo
10
ideal

t 2.2 k

 10

Figure 1.12
 Solution 1.12

 Positive cycle, diode ON (s/c);

 vo = vi = 10 V (since ideal diode)

vo vo (V)
+

10
2.2 k

t

Solution 1.12

 Negative cycle, diode OFF (o/c)

 Vo = 0 V
 The input and the overall output waveforms of the circuit
are shown
vi (V)

10

 10

vo (V)

10

t
Example 1.13
 Referring to Figure 1.13, sketch the output waveform
with reference to input.

1.4 k

+
Ge
vi = 10 sin t V vo
4V


Figure 1.13
 Solution 1.13

 During positive cycle, polarity of vi and Vdc are different.

vi < 4.3 V, diode is reverse

bias, (o/c),
vo = vi
Solution 1.13

vi > 4.3 V, diode is

forward bias,

vo = VGe + Vdc
= 0.3 V + 4 V = 4.3
V
Solution 1.13

vi < 4.3 V, diode is

reverse bias, (o/c),
vo = vi
 Solution 1.13

 During negative cycle, polarity of vi and Vdc are the same.

The diode is always reverse bias (o/c).
 vo = vi
Clampers
 Clamper circuit refers to the ability of the diode circuit
to shift the input waveform or the applied signal to a
different dc level without changing the shape of the
input waveform.
 The clamping network is one that will “clamp” a signal
to a different dc level.
 The network must have a capacitor, a diode, and a
resistive element, but it can also employ an
independent dc supply to introduce an additional
shift
 By connecting dc voltage in series with the diode, an
additional shift can be obtained.

vi (V)
C
Vp vo

t ideal R

 Vp
 In analyzing the clamper circuit, the following steps
and assumptions must be considered.
1. Start the analysis with the input cycle (i.e. from 0 –
T/2) that will turn the diode ON.
2. When the diode is in the ON state, the input signal
will charge the capacitor to a certain level, vC. The
output voltage is the same as the voltage across the
diode.
3. The next input cycle (i.e. from T/2 – T) will cause the
diode to turn OFF.
4. Even though the diode is in the OFF state, assume
that the capacitor will not discharge and the voltage
across it will stay at the same level, vC.
5. The time taken for the capacitor to discharge is given
by time constant,  = RC.
6. In the analysis of clamper circuit, we will assume the
time constant is ten times higher compare to the
period of the input waveform
 4. Using KVL, determine the output voltage by
considering the input voltage and the voltage across
capacitor.
 5. The shape and the peak-to-peak voltage of the
output waveform must be the same as the input
waveform.
The negative sign resulting from
the fact that the polarity of 2V is
opposite to the polarity defined
for vo.
The output signal is clamped to
0 V for the interval 0 to T/2 but
maintains the same total swing
(2V) as the input.

The total swing of the output is

equal to the total swing of the
input signal.
Example 1.14
 Referring to Figure 1.14, sketch the output waveform
with reference to input.

vi (V)
C
20
+

t ideal R vo


 20

Figure 1.14
 Solution 1.14

 Positive cycle, diode ON (s/c);

+ +
+ vc 
20 R vo

 

vo = 0 V; vC = 20 V
 Solution 1.14

 Negative cycle, diode OFF (o/c);

C

 +
+ vc 
20
R vo

+ 

KVL : 20 + vC + vo = 0
vo = – (20 + 20) = – 40 V
Solution 1.14

 The input and the output waveforms of the circuit

vi (V)

20

 20

vo (V)

 40
Example 1.15
 Referring to Figure 1.15, sketch the output waveform
with reference to input.

vi (V)
C
15
+
Si
t R vo
5V

 15

Figure 1.15
Solution 1.15
vi (V)
C
15
+
Si
t R vo
5V

 15

Positive cycle, Si ON;

vo = 0.7 V + 5 V = 5.7 V

vC = vi – vo = 15 V – 5.7 V = 9.3 V
Solution 1.15
vi (V)
C
15
+
Si
t R vo
5V

 15

Negative cycle, Si OFF;

KVL : vi + vo + vC = 0;
vo = – (15 V + 9.3 V) = – 24.3 V
 Solution 1.15

The input and the output waveforms of the circuit are shown
vi (V)

15

 15

vo (V)

5.7
t

 24.3
Zener Diodes
 Zener diode is designed to operate in reverse bias
region
R R

+
Vi I Vi I VZ


Note that the current direction through general purpose

diode is in the direction of diode arrow-head whereas
the current through zener diode is in the opposite
direction of diode arrow-head
Zener Diodes
R R

+
Vi I Vi I VZ


 However, current will only flow through zener diode

(which shows that zener is conducting or ON) if the
supply voltage, VS is greater than the rated voltage of
zener diode, VZ
 Operating region of zener diode
 Reverse bias region (0 < Vi
< VZ).
 In this region, zener diode
will not conduct (OFF state).

 Reverse bias region

 (Vi > VZ).  Forward bias region
 In this region, zener  (Vi > VD).
diode will conduct  In this region,
(ON). zener diode will act as
general purpose
diode.
Zener Diodes
 Zener voltage regulator is a circuit that can maintain
the output voltage at a fixed level as determined by the
rated voltage of zener diode.
 This circuit called Voltage regulator common used in
DC power supply.
Voltage regulator circuit

122
Fixed Vi and Fixed RL
R
Vo
IR IZ IL
Vi + RL
VZ


Voltage regulator

 When analyzing the regulator circuit, we must

determine whether the zener is conducting (ON) or
not conducting (OFF). The steps are as follows.
Fixed Vi and Fixed RL
1. Determine the state of the Zener (ON or OFF) by
removing zener from the circuit as shown in Figure
2.11(a).
R
Vo

+
Vi VL RL

Fixed Vi and Fixed RL
2.Calculate VL using voltage divider rule.

R
Vo

+
Vi VL RL


RL
VL = Vi
RL  R
Fixed Vi and Fixed RL
R
Vo

+
Vi VL RL


 If VL < VZ, zener OFF. The circuit is not a voltage

regulator.
 Vo = VL
 IL = IR = ; IZ = 0; PZ = 0 ;
Fixed Vi and Fixed RL
R
Vo

+
Vi VL RL

Example 1.16
 Referring to Figure 1.16, determine Vo, VR, IR, IL, IZ and
PZ. Repeat if RL = 1.2 k.

800 
Vo
IR IZ IL

22 V RL 800 
VZ = 12 V

Figure 1.16
Solution 1.16

 RL = 800 ;
800 Ω
 VL = 22 V   11 V
800 Ω  800 Ω

VL < VZ. Therefore zener OFF. Thus, IZ = 0 A.

Vo = VL = 11 V
VR = VS – Vo = 22 V – 11 V = 11 V

IR = V R 
11 V
 13.73 mA
R 800 Ω

IL = IR = 13.73 mA
PZ = VZ IZ = 0
Solution 1.16
 RL = 1.2 k;
 VL = 1.2 kΩ
22 V   13.2 V
1.2 kΩ  800 Ω

VL > VZ. Therefore zener ON. 800 

Vo
Vo = VZ = 12 V IR IZ IL
VR 10 V
IR =   12.5 mA 22 V RL 800 
R 800 Ω VZ = 12 V
VL 12 V
IL = R   10 mA
L 1.2 kΩ

IZ = IR – IL = 12.5 V – 10 V = 2.5 mA
PZ = VZ IZ = (12 V)(2.5 mA) = 30 mW
Solution 1.16

 the voltage across RL, VL must be greater than VZ in

order to turn the zener ON.
Fixed Vi, variable RL
 Zener voltage regulator can hold the output voltage at
a constant level even through the value of RL varies.
 minimum value of RL to ensure that zener is ON
 maximum value of RL to ensure that current
through zener does not exceed the maximum
zener current, IZmax, as specified by the
manufacturer.
Fixed Vi, variable RL
 The minimum value of RL can be determined from the
following equation.

RL
Vi
RL  R
 The maximum value of RL can be determined from the
following equation.

VZ
VL =
IL
where IL = IR – IZmax
Example 1.17
 Determine the range of RL and IL that will result in VL
being maintained at 15 V.

500 
VL

VZ RL
40 V
IZmax = 32 mA
 Solution 1.17

500 
VL

VZ RL
40 V
IZmax = 32 mA
 Solution 1.17

500 
VL

VZ RL
40 V
IZmax = 32 mA
Fixed RL, variable Vi
 Zener voltage regulator can hold the output voltage at
a constant level even though the value of input voltage,
Vi varies.

 minimum value of Vi to ensure that zener is ON

 maximum value of Vi to ensure that current through

zener does not exceed the maximum zener current,
IZmax, as specified by the manufacturer
Fixed RL, variable Vi
 The minimum value of Vi can be determined from the
following equation.
RL
VL  Vi
RL  R
 The maximum value of Vi can be determined from the
following equation
Vi(max) = VR + VZ
Example 1.18
 Determine the range of Vi that will maintain VL at 12 V

500 
VL

Vi VZ 1.8 k
PZmax = 500 mW
 Solution 1.18

500 
VL

Vi VZ 1.8 k
PZmax = 500 mW
 Solution 1.18

500 
VL

Vi VZ 1.8 k
PZmax = 500 mW
 Computer simulation
Conversions of AC to DC

142
IO signal of rectifier

Channel A Channel B

143
DC Regulator : capacitor as filter or stabilizer

144
LED
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a p–
n junction diode that emits light when activated. When a suitable voltage is
applied to the leads, electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within
the device, releasing energy in the form of photons or light.
LED
 LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light
sources, including lower energy consumption, longer
lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size,
and faster switching
 LED are used in applications as diverse as seven-
segment displays, aviation lighting, automotive
headlamps, advertising, general lighting (bulb), traffic
signals, camera flashes, and lighted wallpaper.
 LED colors with voltage drop and material
Voltage drop
Color Semiconductor material
[ΔV]
Gallium arsenide (GaAs)
Infrared ΔV < 1.63
Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)
Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)
Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)
Red 1.63 < ΔV < 2.03
Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)
Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)
Orange 2.03 < ΔV < 2.10 Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)
Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)
Yellow 2.10 < ΔV < 2.18 Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)
Traditional green:
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)
Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
Green 1.9 < ΔV < 4.0
Aluminium gallium phosphide (AlGaP)
Pure green:
Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) / Gallium(III) nitride (GaN)
Zinc selenide (ZnSe)
Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)
Blue 2.48 < ΔV < 3.7
Silicon carbide (SiC) as substrate
Silicon (Si) as substrate—under development
 Voltage drop
Color Semiconductor material
[ΔV]
Violet 2.76 < ΔV < 4.0 Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)
Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) (385-400 nm)
Diamond (235 nm)[78]
Boron nitride (215 nm)[79][80]
Ultraviolet 3 < ΔV < 4.1 Aluminium nitride (AlN) (210 nm)[81]
Aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN)
Aluminium gallium indium nitride (AlGaInN)—down to
210 nm[82]
Blue with one or two phosphor layers,
yellow with red, orange or pink phosphor added
Pink ΔV ≈3.3 afterwards,
white with pink plastic,
or white phosphors with pink pigment or dye over top.[84]
Dual blue/red LEDs,
Purple 2.48 < ΔV < 3.7 blue with red phosphor,
or white with purple plastic
Cool / Pure White: Blue/UV diode with yellow phosphor
White 2.8 < ΔV < 4.2
Warm White: Blue diode with orange phosphor