Cultural, Social, and Political Institutions

Topic: Social Organizations: Groups within Society (Primary and Secondary)

How Society is Organized

People have organized themselves into groups with common rules of living. The organization of
such a group is called society. Different institutions are found in every community, such as the
family, kin relationships, childcare, and division of work based on gender and age.

All societies, small or large, are organized around an uneven division of labor and decision-
making. Present societies are expected to provide protection, economic security, law and order,
and a sense of belonging to their members.

Societies usually adapt to changes around them, like in the environment or in technology. Most
changes happen slowly, but some significant events such as war or revolution can completely
transform societies.

The Threefold Nature of Social Life

Applying Goethe’s method to social life, Rudolf Steiner thought that if we apply the
phenomenological, participatory method to human social life as a multifaceted, multilayered
whole, we can distinguish three different spheres of activity:

1. cultural–everything involving the growth and expression of the human spirit:

education, art, science, religion, journalism, and publishing
2. legal or political–involving human rights and relationships between people and
organizations
3. economic–having to do with the production, distribution, and consumption of goods
and services

Human society, Steiner claimed, will only flourish if these three spheres are recognized and
each is organized according to its own inherent principles, dynamics, and ideals.

Social Groups and Organizations

Sometimes, organization refers to associational groups. It includes corporations, armies,
schools, and banks. Society composes many of such organizations. A state is considered as a
political organization, or school may represent an educational organization, and so on. They are
all social organizations.

Organization is a state of being or a condition in which various institutions in society are

functioning by their recognized or implied purposes (Elliott and Merrill, 1950).
Social organization or social system refers to the interdependence of parts in groups.
These groups may differ in size and nature. It makes possible the complex activities where
members of a complex society participate in.

Groups within Society

People do not live in isolation. They live in groups. Social groups consist of two or more
individuals who identify with one another and regularly interact as a result of shared norms,
values, and expectations. Being in a group entails realizations of activities and events in one's
life that help people build and define their stories, interests, and contributions to society.

Different group categorization exists in society. Categories include primary and secondary
groups, in-groups and out-groups and reference groups.

Primary Group
First formulated by Charles Horton Cooley, the concept of a primary group is an essential unit of
social organization and social life. A primary group is characterized by personal and lasting
relationships with its members.

It has been identified that relationships in a primary type of team is unconditional and not
prearranged. Setting aside family relations, members of primary groups share lots of things in
common, like interests, stories, or personalities.

The best example of a primary group is the nuclear family. Relationships and attachments
organized in this group are permanent as one's identity, lifestyle, and stories are tied to this
group. A group of close friends is another example of this group.

The term 'primary' is used with these groups because they are the primary or main source of
socialization and relationships. Relationships in primary groups give us security, love, and
companionship. We also learn norms and values from our family and friends that stay with us
for most of our lives.
Secondary Group
By contrast, secondary groups are formal, small or large, and usually short term. These
groups are typically found at work and school.

An example of this group is a political party organized to plan the best campaign for the
election. Members of the board meet infrequently and for only a short period. Team members
may have some similar interests, but the main purpose of the group is on the task instead of
the relationships.

Classroom and work environment are other examples of a secondary group.

Sometimes, secondary groups become informal, and members of the team get to know each
other well; however, even if their friendships exist in a limited time, they will not necessarily
remain close beyond.

Unlike the primary group, members play their roles in a secondary group based on arranged
and conditional contract. Members of this group need not to convene based on shared interests
or personalities.
Keypoints
 People have organized themselves into groups with common rules of living. The
organization of such groups is called society.
 Applying Goethe’s method to social life, Rudolf Steiner concluded that if we apply the
phenomenological, participatory method to human social life as a multifaceted,
multilayered whole, we can distinguish three different spheres of activity−cultural, legal
or political, and economic.
 Social organization or social system refers to the interdependence of parts in
groups. These groups may vary in size and nature.
 A social group consists of two or more people who regularly interact and share a sense
of unity and collective identity.
 Primary groups are groups that are tightly united, typically small scale, with intimate
relationships, and are usually long lasting.
 Secondary groups can be small or large, are mostly impersonal, and usually short
term. These groups are typically found at work or at school.

TOPIC: Social Organizations: In-group and Out-Group

Social Groups and Organizations

Sometimes, 'organization' refers to associational groups. It includes corporations, armies,
schools, and banks. Society is composed of many such organizations. A state is considered as a
political organization and school may represent an educational organization. They are all social
organizations.
Organization is a state of being or a condition in which the various institutions in society are
functioning by their recognized or implied purposes. (Elliott and Merrill, 1950)

A social organization or social system refers to the interdependence of parts in groups.

These groups may differ in size and nature. It makes possible the complex activities where
members of a complex society participate in.

Different Social Groups of Social Organization

Each community is made up of smaller groups and associations that are built on social class,
personal interest, or common goals.

The power elite is run by a small group representing the wealthiest, most powerful, and most
influential people in government, business, and the military.

Example:

A generous business person may make substantial contributions to a political candidate.

Voluntary associations are groups that people choose to join, wherein members are united
by the pursuit of a common goal.

Example:

a parent-teacher association at a particular school

Formal organizations are secondary groups organized to achieve specific goals. Legal
organizations tend to be larger and more impersonal than voluntary associations.

Example:

A corporation is usually a formal organization. The very specific goal of most companies is to
increase profits.

Bureaucracy is a type of formal organization in which a rational approach is used to handle

large tasks. The bureaucratic organization is highly organized with a high degree of formality in
the way it operates.

Examples:

colleges and universities

Groups within Society

People do not live in isolation. They live in groups. Social groups consist of two or more
individuals who identify with one another and regularly interact as a result of shared norms,
values, and expectations. Being in a group entails realizations of activities and events in one's
life that help people build and define their stories, interests, and contributions to society.
Different group categorization exists in society. Categories include primary and secondary
groups, in-group and out-group, and reference groups.

In-Group and Out-group

An in-group is an exclusive social group formed out of shared interest and identity. This is the
“we” group in society from which people’s loyalty is bestowed upon. This type of group satisfies
the old saying "birds of the same feather flock together.'' It is in this group where people feel
more comfortable and secured, with no threat, intimidation or conflict of interest. Members of
this group consist of those who share common experiences or ideas in life.

Examples include friendship groups, families, and religious groups.

An out-group, on the other hand, is a social group associated with competition or opposition
as its nature is different from one’s own. This is the “they” of society, where a person is not a
part of or does not belong to the group. The formation of out-groups is the result of perceived
differences.

One’s out-group includes those groups one dislikes or disregards. It is also that group where
one does not feel happy personality-, interest-, or ability-wise.

It should be noted that out-groups should not be given negative connotation as they only
involve non-membership to a certain group. After all, people are created differently. This should
be celebrated in the same regard as we give to shared interests. People should respect what
others can and cannot do. That is the very purpose of recognizing the existence of out-groups.
Issues Surrounding In-groups and Out-groups
In-groups and out-groups are formed as a result of the following:

Social groups, despite functioning actively in realizing tasks of society, draw a boundary
between people in the community. The concept of social group classification of in-groups and
out-groups brings defined and perceived differences to a different level. Lack of sense of
belongingness, isolation, rivalry, tension, and threat of violence may result from well-defined in-
groups and out-groups.

In-group favoritism happens when a person favors or offers special treatment to in-group
members over out-group members. This activity may disregard merit and result to serious social
situations such as corruption, crime, and padrino system.

Out-group homogeneity is the tendency of a person to classify those people who are not in
their in-group as being similar to one another. In short, people overgeneralize and label out-
groups in a negative manner.

Keypoints
 Social groups are a specified number of individuals formed to interact with one
another and other people outside the group based on the statuses and roles assigned to
them.
 There are different social forms of social organization. These include The power
elite, voluntary associations, formal organizations, and bureaucracy.
 An in-group is an exclusive social group formed out of shared interest and identity.
  An out-group is a social group associated with competition or opposition as its nature
is different from one’s own.
 In-group favoritism happens when a person favors or offers special treatment to in-
group members over out-group members.
 Out-group homogeneity is the tendency of a person to classify people who are not in
their in-group as being similar to one another.

TOPIC: Social Organizations: Reference Groups

Groups within Society

People do not live in isolation. They live in groups. Social groups consist of two or more people
who identify with one another and regularly interact as a result of shared norms, values, and
expectations. Being in a group entails realizations of activities and events in one's life that help
people build and define their stories, interests, and contributions to society.

Different group categorization exists in society. Categories include primary and secondary
groups, in-groups and out-group, and reference groups.

Reference Groups and its Normative Functions

Reference Groups are groups that serve as our standards in setting and evaluating our own
behaviors and attitudes.

When reference groups serve a purpose of setting your norms and values, these
are normative reference groups. These groups directly influence the behavior of a person,
serving as a role model, standard, or base point.

Your immediate family and friends are considered a normative reference group. The way they
are is the way you are. Your mentors or celebrity idols also shape your personality. In hopes of
being identified with them, people opt to act, speak, dress, and think the way they do.

Reference Groups and its Comparative Functions

Some reference groups exist to provide people with means of comparison for behavior, style,
and achievement. Such are comparative reference groups whose norms and values serve
as points of comparison for certain behaviors.

For body figure, teenagers look up to supermodels as references. For skills in basketball,
enthusiasts play by the rules of professional basketball players from the NBA or PBA. To check
whether he fares well in his exams, a student may compare his score from that of his class's
best students.

Group Influences
It is a natural response of people to socialize, build connections, and get influenced. With either
good or bad influence, our social groups or reference groups play vital roles in shaping who we
are and becoming who we want to be or what society wants us to be.
Reference groups come in different forms and classifications.

Aspirational reference groups refers to people or groups of people with whom we want to
be compared with. Product advertisers and celebrities like athletes, movie stars, or talk show
hosts are fine examples of this reference group. People think that by supporting their favorite
celebrity, they become associated with them.

Associative reference groups refer to groups where we belong and take part in. These
people include our neighbors, coworkers, club members, or church members. People have a
tendency to confine with what is on trend in their immediate community.

Dissociative reference groups refers to groups that people have no interest in being
associated with. This group of people includes those with whom we share conflicts in interest,
attitude, or behavior.

Keypoints

 Social groups consist of two or more people who identify with one another and
regularly interact.
 Reference groups serve as our standards in setting and evaluating our own behaviors
and attitudes.
 Normative reference groups set a person’s norms and values.
 Comparative reference groups are groups whose norms and values serve as a point
of comparison for certain behaviors.
 Aspirational reference groups are groups of people with whom we want to be
compared with.
 Associative reference groups are groups where we belong and take part in our
immediate life.
 Dissociative reference groups are groups people have no interest in being
associated with.

TOPIC: Social Organizations: Networks

Social Networks
A social network is a social structure comprised of individuals joined by a certain pattern of
links or relations. Social networks are indicative of a person or an organization's relationships as
either casual and informal or personal and intimate. This is often regarded as individuals' basic
tool to connect to society.

Designed to connect people and make the world seem borderless, social media websites
like Twitter or Facebook are social networks. In a click, updates about an individual may reach
his friends and friends of friends as well. People listed in your phone book are your social
networks. Membership to organizations or companies guarantees a social network.

Ties and Nodes

As mentioned, social networks are composed of individuals and the connections or links that
bind them together. These components of a network are called 'nodes' and 'ties.'

The person or organization playing a part in a network is known as a node. On the other
hand, ties are the links or connections that bind individuals or organizations together.

They may be weak or strong. Measured by strength, strong ties are the result of intimate and
personal links. Meanwhile, weak ties are connections caused by informal, casual, and business-
like relationships.

The Importance of Social Networks

Through networks, social linkages or connections are formed. It is important to note that these
networks serve a role in the attainment of the goals of society. Through networks, people get
connected, get updated, and become aware.

Networks are media for the spread and exchange of ideas. News awareness, information relay,
and rumors are good examples. Some people also use their networks to obtain a position in a
company, to make a business successful, or to earn a living. Social networks undoubtedly serve
as social support and provide people with information or guidance in times of need.

Keypoints
 A social group is a team of two or more individuals who are dependent on one
another.
 A social network is a social structure comprised of individuals joined by a particular
pattern of links or relations.
 Nodes are the persons or organizations playing a part in a network.
 Ties are links or connections that bind individuals or organizations together.
 Through networks, people get connected, get updated, and become aware.
TOPIC: Kinship Ties and Social Networks
The relations based on blood may be close or distant. The bond of blood which binds people
together in a group is called kinship.

 According to the Dictionary of Anthropology, kinship system involves socially recognized

relationships based on supposed and actual genealogical bonds. These relationships are
products of social interactions and are recognized by society.
 In a broader sense, kinship can refer both to the patterns of social relationships
themselves and to the study of the patterns of social relationships in one or more
human cultures.
 Kinship or relationship can also refer to a principle by which people or groups of
individuals are organized into roles, social groups, categories, and genealogy through
kinship terminologies.
 On the other hand, a social network is a social structure made up of a set of social
actors (individuals or organizations), sets of a partner or dyadic ties, and other social
interactions between actors. It represents relationships and flows between people,
groups, and organizations.

The Filipino Concept of Kinship

 According to F. Landa Jocano, "Kinship characterizes the overall framework of
community relations as it enables Filipinos to map their relationships and be able to
work together harmoniously. It lies deep in the heart of every Filipino as it forms the
core of the Filipino social organization. It significantly influences the formation,
structure, and functions of institutions, relationships, and values of the Filipinos."
 There is no generic Filipino term for kinship as each language group in the country
created its terminology, but the term kamag-anak or magkakamag-anak, from the
Tagalog-based language, is widely used.
 Kinship helps Filipino people in understanding their relationships with others and be able
to interact with each other with little or without any difficulty.

Kinship by Blood or Consanguineous Kinship

 The bond of blood is called consanguineous kinship. The consanguineous kin is
related through blood. The relationship between the parents and their kids, and that
among siblings, is consanguineous kinship.
 Thus, son and daughter, brother and sister, uncle and aunt, nephew and niece, and
cousins are consanguineous kin, that is, related through blood. With this connection, it
can be pointed out that blood bond may be actual as well as supposed.
 In polyandrous tribes, the real father of a child is unknown. An adopted child is treated
as if it were one's own biological child. As a result, blood relationship may be established
not only on biological basis but also by social recognition.
Genogram

 A genogram is a graphical representation of one's family and its members' relationship

to one another.
 It is widely used in medicine, sociology, and genealogy to determine medical,
psychological, sociological, or historical patterns of health and behavior.

Below are the basic symbols used in making a genogram. You should know, however, that
more symbols are available to use for more complicated family relationships.
In making a genogram, make sure to note the following:

 children must be drawn from oldest to youngest and from left to right, respectively,
 one level or layer presents one generation, and
 the shapes corresponding to family members always represent sex, not gender.

Descent System
 A descent group is any social group wherein membership depends on a common
descent from a real or mythical ancestor. This system of acknowledged social parentage,
which varies per society, is where a person may claim kinship ties with another.
 If there is no limitation on the recognition of kinship, everybody would be kin to
everyone else. But in most societies, some restrictions are imposed on the perception of
common ancestry so that an individual regards many of his associates as not his kin.
 The importance of descent comes from its use as a means for one person to assert
rights, privileges, duties, and status with another person who may be related to the first,
either because one is an ancestor of the other or because the two acknowledge
common ancestors.
 Descent has limited influence when rights to succession, inheritance, or residence follow
kinship lines.

One method of limiting the recognition of kinship is to emphasize relationships through one
parent only. Such is called a unilineal kinship system. There are two types of this
system−patrilineal systems, in which relationships reckoned through the father are
emphasized, and matrilineal systems, in which relationships reckoned through the mother
are emphasized.

In a bilateral descent, all descendants of an ancestor enjoy membership of a common

descent group by any combination of male or female linkages.

Keypoints
 Kinship can refer both to the patterns of social relationships themselves and to the
study of the patterns of social relationships in one or more human cultures.
 A social network is a social structure composed of a set of social actors (individuals or
organizations), sets of a partner or dyadic ties, and other social interactions between
actors.
 The bond of blood is called consanguineous kinship. The consanguineous kin is
related through blood.
 There is no generic Filipino term for kinship as each language group in the country
created its terminology but the term kamag-anak or magkakamag-anak, from the
Tagalog-based language, is widely used.
 A descent group is any social group wherein membership depends on a common
descent from a real or mythical ancestor.
 There are different descent kinship systems, such as unilineal (with two main types—
patrilineal and matrilineal) and bilateral kinships.
TOPIC: Kinship by Marriage
 Marriage is a formal and legal union of two people as partners in life. It is the universal
social institution that promotes procreation and establishes the bonds that are the basis
of the household, family, and kinship system.
 Marriage is a legally recognized social contract between two people, traditionally based
on a sexual relationship, and implying a permanence of the union. The statuses the
spouses acquire go through from institution to companionship that may endure and
sustain in their life cycle (Burgess and Locke, 1945). They play complementary roles to
meet their material, sexual, emotional, psychological, and spiritual needs for their
survival.
 Marriage gives the offspring a position in society as he or she may be categorized as a
legitimate son or daughter. It establishes continuing connections between the kin of
each party. It is always symbolically marked in some way, usually a public ceremony.

Cross-cultural Marriage
A cross-cultural marriage is a marriage between two people from different cultures.

How does this happen? As they say, "Love is blind." It does not care about race, color, or
culture. We see more and more marriages of people from different cultures nowadays.

In marrying a person from the same country, distinct differences in family life, values,
educational attainment, ideas, and ways of living already exist. By comparison, marrying a
person from a different country has even more differences.

Examples:

 A traditional Ifugao man is married to a liberated Catholic woman.

 A Japanese woman is married to an English man.

In a cross-cultural marriage, it is important to respect your spouse's native culture and deal
with your differences in a loving manner.

Here are some tips for avoiding challenges in cross-cultural marriage/relationships:

 embrace the opportunity,

 understand, respect, and compromise,
 get first-hand experience of each other's cultures,
 pass on both cultures to your children,
 think positively about your differences,
 maintain contact with family, and
 when possible, travel together.

Monogamy vs. Polygamy

By the number of spouses, a marriage can either be a monogamy or polygamy.
Post-marital Residency Rules
After marriage comes a new chapter in a couple's lives. One of the primary concerns couples
usually are faced with is where to live. Kinship system, economic concerns, and personal factors
are among the determining factors for residency among newlyweds. Although not a cultural
certainty especially in this modern age, newly married couples opt to live with existing
households than establish their own. Now, comes the question: Whose family is favored or
culturally prescribed?
Keypoints
 Kinship can refer both to the patterns of social relationships themselves and to the
study of the patterns of social relationships in one or more human cultures.
  A social network is a social structure comprised of individuals joined by a particular
pattern of links or relations.
 Marriage is a formal and legal union of a man and a woman as partners in life.
 Cross-cultural marriage is a marriage between two people from different cultures.
 Monogamy is a wedding between two individuals at a time.
 Polygamy is a common practice among Muslims. It is being married to many spouses
at a time.
 Post-marital residency or residence rules are rules or arrangements couples usually
consider following their wedding.

TOPIC: Kinship by Ritual

Anthropologist and ethnographers sometimes call kinship by ritual as fictive kinship. The word
means "fake" or "created by imagination." This type of kinship is not false, but it is just that in
this type of kinship, relationships among individuals are based neither on blood ties nor by
marriage.

 Kinship by ritual refers to relationships among individuals who recognize their

associations and obligations despite the absence of blood or marriage bonds. Fictive
kinship may tie people together in ties of affection, concern, obligation, and
responsibility. Examples include adopted or surrogate families, brotherhood, sororities,
or peer groups.
 Kinship by ritual function is used in fictive kinship links for non-kinship purposes.
Members of a brotherhood or fraternity consider each other as brothers despite the
absence of blood relations among them. Such act naturally builds a harmonious
relationship between them.

Look at the table below to know about some examples of ritual kinship.
Importance and Functions of Ritual Kinship in Society
Kinship by ritual is an essential social network for it is where a good relationship is built and
strengthened. It has positive contributions for shaping our old and new society. Kinship by
ritual, in its various forms, serve many functions in the community. It reinforces affinity or
relationships within society by providing a framework for social interaction. Defined by acts of
sharing and support, it testifies "friends as family."

Below are specific functions of the different types of ritual kinship.

Keypoints
 Kinship tie is a framework from which harmonious relationships within society are
built.
 A social network is a social structure comprised of individuals joined by a particular
pattern of links or relations.
 Kinship by ritual refers to relationships among people who recognize their associations
and obligations despite the absence of blood or marriage bonds.
 Compadrazgo is a religious rite of sponsorship in church ceremonies, such as marriage,
baptism, or confirmation.
 Blood brotherhood is a sociological custom where two biologically unrelated persons
or groups establish a close relationship through a variety of ceremonies and methods of
blood-letting.
 Adoption is the process wherein a non-kin is incorporated into the kin group either
traditionally or legally.
TOPIC: Kinship and Family Dynamics
Kinship are social relationships derived from universal experiences of mating, birth, and
nurturance. Kinship means being related to others. Being related to other people is something
that is defined by culture and not necessarily determined by biological relations.

A family is a socially recognized group, strengthened by the concept of kinship, where people
are connected by blood, marriage, or adoption, and where a caring relationship mainly occurs.
Although kin group and family are not one and the same, the family is actually one of the
strongest kinship ties in our society.

The family has a very important role in society.

 It forms an emotional connection among people and serves as an economic unit of

society.
 It is considered as the basic building block of society.
 It is the institution mostly responsible for the “achievement of adult satisfaction and
social integration.” (Ross and Sawhill, 1975)
 It is also responsible for the distribution of economic resources from those who earn
them in the marketplace to those who are dependent on those earnings. (Ross and
Sawhill, 1975)

Functions of Family
The family as a form of kinship serves very important functions in society.

 It is the smallest unit that cooperates in production and distribution.

 It enables and promotes socialization processes for the youth.
 It creates alliances with other family units.
 It regulates sexual behavior.
 It provides care and protection.
 It is the foundation of social placement and social status.
 It gives emotional support and affection.

Types or Forms of Family

A family can be classified based on birth, marriage, nature of residence, ancestry, size, or
nature of relations.

On the Basis of Birth

 family of orientation–the family into which a person is born and in which early
socialization takes place
 family of procreation–the family that is formed through marriage and by having or
adopting children.
On the Basis of Marriage

 polygynous family–a type of family consisting of one husband, and more than one
wife, and all the children born to all wives or adopted by each of them.; It is based on
polygynous marriage.
 polyandrous family–a type of family consisting of one wife and more than one
husband, and the children, either born or adopted by each one of them; It is based on
polyandrous marriage.
 monogamous family–the family consists of one husband and wife, including children,
and is based on monogamous marriage

On the Basis of the Nature of Residence

 family of matrilocal residence–a type of family where the wife remains in her
mother’s household after reaching maturity and brings her husband to live with her
family after marriage
 family of patrilocal residence–a type of family where the husband remains in his
father’s household while his wife leaves her family to move in with him
 family of changing residence– a type of family where the family stays in the
husband’s house for some time, and moves to wife’s house, stays there for a period of
time, and then moves back to the husband’s parents or starts living in another place

On the Basis of Ancestry or Descent

 matrilineal family–a type of family where the ancestry or descent is traced through
the female line or through the mother’s side
 patrilineal family–a type of family in which the authority is carried down the male line,
and descent is traced through the male line or the father’s side

On the basis of size or structure

 nuclear or the single-unit family–a type of family consisting of a husband, a wife,

and children (unmarried), naturally-conceived or adopted; It is the nucleus of family
structures. It is more or less an autonomous unit that is not under the control of adults
or elders of the family. It consists of two generations only. The adoptation of children
legally happen through an adoption process where the legal responsibilities and
privileges of being a parent or parents are transferred from the biological parents to
adoptive parents.
 joint or extended family–a type of family that consists of three generations living
together under the same roof, and sharing the same kitchen or economic expenses; It
consists of three nuclear families living together. In this setup, aunts, uncles, and
grandparents may live in a family of parents and their children.
 reconstituted or blended family–a type of family that is formed out of another
relationship, otherwise known as a step-family
On the Basis of the Nature of Relations

 conjugal family–a type of family made up of adults among whom sexual relationships
exist; It refers to a family system of spouses and their dependent children. The
emphasis is placed on the marital relationship that exists between spouses.
 consanguine family–a type of family where blood relation exists, or those who are
consanguineal kin (e.g. a family consisting of parents and children, or siblings)

Kinship and Household Dynamics

A household is a residential unit or dwelling that carries out economic production and
consumption that coordinates work, inheritance, child rearing, and provision of shelter. It is
important to note that family and household are not one and the same.

A household may be made up of a person, or persons, who lives in a shared space or dwelling.
A household can be a family household or a non-family household. It would mean that persons
living in a household maybe related or unrelated.

Example of a non-family household: Two friends living in the same condominium unit are
considered a household.

There are different kinds of households:

 nuclear household–a domestic group that contains one adult couple that may or may
not have children,
 extended–a domestic group that contains more than one adult married couple, and
 single-person or single-parent–a domestic group that is composed of one adult
person that may or may not have children living with him or her.

Keypoints

 A family is a socially recognized group that is strengthened by the concept of kinship

where people are connected by blood, marriage, or adoption.
  A household is a residential unit or dwelling that carries out economic production and
consumption that coordinates work, inheritance, child rearing, and provision of shelter.
 Family and household are not one and the same. A household may be a family
household or non-family household. It would mean that the people living in a household
may be related or unrelated.
 A household can be classified as a nuclear, extended, or single-person household.

TOPIC: Kinship Ties and Social Networks: Politics of Kinship

Politics of Kinship
 The idea that "blood is thicker than water” and similar concepts apply to politics. Kinship
is the primary source of political support and action in small or even bigger societies.
 Kinship alliances are naturally formed and traditionally remain a power bearer that
dominates Filipino culture.
 An explanation for this phenomenon would be the family orientation of the Filipinos. For
some reason, the obligation to one's kinship group compels one to prioritize his or her
family before the rest of society. This, from time immemorial, has generated issues in
power allocation in our community.
 Topics include political dynasty, padrino system, and the use of political power to build
business empires or personal gains.

Concepts of Power in Filipino Kinship Politics

Ideally, merit is the top qualification for any position of consideration, particularly in
politics.Certain circumstances resulting from the interplay of Filipino values, family, and power
have influenced codes of honor on selection processes.

Here's a list of some of Filipino values which have affected the way we make decisions and view
power.
Issues Concerning the Politics of Kinship
Kinship means family, which could mean the “world” to some people. Without a doubt, we place
the family first on our list of priorities, and there is nothing wrong with that, as long as you do
not put public interest at stake.

Here is a list of issues concerning the politics of kinship.

 Kinship is a system of a culture of recognized family roles and relationships that define
the rights, obligations, and boundaries of an interactions of members of a self-
recognizing group.
 A social network is a social structure comprised of individuals joined by a particular
pattern of links or relations.
 A political dynasty is the concentration, consolidation, or continuation of public office
and political power by persons related to each other.
 Alliance is a relationship between people, groups, or states that have joined for mutual
benefit or to achieve some common purpose, regardless if explicit agreement has been
worked out amongst them.
 The padrino system is the practice, among those with power or influence, of favoring
relatives or friends.
 Political activism is the way people participate or get involved in various political
processes to promote, impend, and raise awareness of an issue.
 Utang na loob is a way of reciprocity of debt of gratitude to others within the family
circle or primary group.
 Hiya is the inability to say "no" to offers for the fear of what others will think, say, and
do.
 Pakikisama is characterized by togetherness and allegiance to your group with a
concern for what others feel.
 Palakasan is a system wherein those in power compete to obtain special privileges and
exemptions from regulations by bending the rules of law for their kinship group.
TOPIC: Social and Political Structures: Political Organizations

Social and Political Structures

Social and political structures are both constructs formed as a result of large scale ties and
relations in society.

Social structure, in a general sense, refers to patterned institutions or groups in society

where people work, act, and live together.

Examples: Social class and social institutions like the government and legal community, LGBT
community, and professional community

The political structure, on the other hand, is used to call on the institutions and political
entity organized in agreement with regulations, laws, and norms of society or of the entity
itself. A society based on political structure may follow totalitarianism, authoritarianism, or
democracy.

The Need for Political Organizations

The need for social order, public affairs and functions, and conflict resolution are perennial or
inevitable. In this premise, the foundation goals of political organizations are required.

Political organizations are entities in a society formed for administrative or political functions.
They refer to the scheme or design of power and authority in society. Political organizations
define the scope and limits of power.

Society, to achieve and maintain its goals and functions, needs an authority figure to set social
control and lead people. Issues like allocation of social and political roles, the exercise of
political power and authority, and resolutions for conflict and clash are among the recurring
problems every society faces.

The questions rest on who takes the lead in addressing such problems. On this ground lies the
need for political organizations. Serving as the authority, they set rules and roles and direct
actions to take.

Special interests of a particular group may also be addressed through political organizations
such as labor unions, political parties, interest or advocacy groups.

 Labor unions collaborate or negotiate with the company administration to raise

employee concerns regarding salary increase, benefits, and labor rights.
  Political parties are formed for staging interest in the government seat.
 Advocacy and interest groups are designed for campaigning the rights, privileges,
and concerns of a particular group of people in society. Such group of people may not
be represented in government

Types of Political Organization

There are four recognized types of political organizations. They are bands, tribes, chiefdoms,
and states.

Band
The band is the most traditional and smallest type of political organization. Familial ties connect
a band. Politically independent, a band usually does not recognize the formal government.
There are no written codes or laws. There is no organized group of leaders. This is the result of
their tendency and nature of moving from one place to another in search of food or shelter.

Tribes
Tribes are traditional societies comprised of people or group of people connected by social,
religious, ancestral, or cultural ties. Bigger than a band, tribes are usually settled in one place
and do not rely on hunting and gathering but on agriculture for subsistence. Just like bands,
tribes do not observe formal governments.

Bands and tribes are egalitarian societies. This means that they see people of the same age and
gender as equals. For instructions and decision, they rely on group consensus.

Chiefdom
Chiefdom, unlike tribal societies, is a permanent and formal government. Chiefdoms are
formal political organizations in a traditional society based on kinship or the leadership of
selected families.

State
A state is a formal political organization in a modern or industrial society regarded as an
organized community under a government. Characteristics of a state include owning a certain
territory, having a particular group of people to lead it, a group of people to take administrative
roles, and freedom from external or foreign control.

Keypoints

 Social structure refers to patterned institutions or groups in society where people

work, act, and live together.
 Political structure is used to call the institutions and political entities organized in
accordance with regulations, laws, and norms of society or of the entities themselves.
 Political organizations are entities in a society formed for administrative or political
functions.
 A band is a group of nomadic people connected by familial ties.
  Tribes are traditional societies comprised of people or groups of people connected by
social, religious, ancestral, or cultural ties.
 Chiefdoms are a formal political organization in a traditional society based on kinship
or the leadership of selected families.
 A state is a formal political organization in a modern or industrial society regarded as an
organized community under a government.

TOPIC: Social and Political Structures: Authority and Legitimacy

Power
According to Thomas Hobbes, power is a natural inclination that is sought continuously by
individuals. In sociology and politics, power is the ability to get others to do things even when
they might not want to. Put into action either through coercion or persuasion, power, in simpler
terms, is the ability 'to do.' Power may be exercised through coercion or the use of sanctions,
punishment, or threat.

The presence of unlikely consequences may force people to do things. Sometimes, the use of
coercion is not necessary to get people to work. People may work freely and willingly if
persuasion, reason, and incentives or positive reinforcements are presented. It is noteworthy
that society works based on power. Ideally, though, a society imposing its power without the
use of coercion is most efficient.

States have power because they can make laws. The police enforces laws by the use of force. If
you disobey the law, you will be fined or jailed. However, we want to be able to make a
difference between cases in which it is right that the state has power, and cases in which it is
objectionable or wrong in some way. To make this distinction, the concepts of authority and
legitimacy is needed.

Authority
Authority is the right to command. Authority is observed when an individual has a command
to make a person do things. Such act is a response to that person’s perceived power. This
person can be your boss, your superiors, or those who hold high positions in society.

Aside from what has been mentioned above, authority is shown when a person is an expert in a
particular matter. We ask engineers to make our buildings and structures stand firm. We ask
specialists for some health concerns. We ask teachers for learning strategies.

To clarify the concept, take this example. Public officials are elected by the people and are
bestowed with rights to rule and exercise administrative roles based on existing societal laws.
Professionals, on the other hand, gain authority after effectively learning through years of
practice in their respective fields. Authority is more than power. Authority is guaranteed by
legitimacy or in a formal manner. Authority is the sum of power and legitimacy.
Having all these things presented, authority is the quality of a person, institution, rule, or order.
It is also the right or control over giving commands, making verdicts, or enforcing actions.

Legitimacy
Legitimacy gives form to authority. Together with power, legitimacy dresses authority. It is
said to be a symbol or representation–like professionals having their licenses, employees
wearing their uniforms, and laws being written as formal documents.

In the most basic sense, a state is said to be legitimate if it exists and operates according to the
law. If a government is legitimate, then in some way, the fact that it has power is justified. If
so, then we can argue that we ought to obey it. If power is objectionable, then we do not tend
to have an obligation to follow it.

Legitimacy is a belief that a rule, institution, or leader has the right to govern. Legitimacy is the
force that makes an action of a governing body necessary.

Three Types of Authority

According to the sociologist Max Weber, there is a category as to how authority is legitimated
as a belief system. These are traditional, charismatic, and rational.

Keypoints

 Power can be defined as the ability to get others to do things even when they might
not want to.
 Authority is the legitimate or socially approved use of power.
 Legitimacy is the right and acceptance of authority, usually a governing law or a
régime.
 Traditional authority is based on a system in which authority is legitimate because it
"has always existed."
 Charismatic authority rests on the unique qualities of a leader who shows that he
possesses the right to lead under magical powers, prophecies, heroism, etc.
 Rational authority is based on a system of rules that is applied administratively and
judicially per known principle.
TOPIC: Economic Institutions: Reciprocity

Economic Institutions
The term 'economic institutions' has a broad meaning. Let us find out.

The term 'economic institutions' refers to:

 a network of commercial organizations that determine how goods and services are
produced, generated, distributed, and purchased

Examples: producers, manufacturers, retailers, wholesalers, buyers

 the particular agencies or foundations devoted to the gathering or studying of economic

data, or authorized with the job of supplying goods and services that are necessary to
the economy of a country

Examples: the Philippine Bureau of Internal Revenue, the U.S. Federal Reserve, the
National Bureau of Economic Research

 the popular and thriving arrangements and structures that are part of culture or society

Examples: competitive markets, the banking system, a system of property rights

Reciprocity
What is reciprocity?

In Sociology
It is defined as the a system of voluntary exchange among individuals based on the
understanding that the giving of favor by one will be reciprocated in the future either to the
giver or to someone else.

Example:

Filipinos practice utang na loob. This act is part of our culture. When a person shows you an act
of kindness, it is a must for Filipinos to return the favor.

In Economics
It is defined as an exchange of equal advantages.

Example:

Japan and Philippines made an economic agreement to remove traveling restrictions to flourish
the tourism of both countries.
Types of Reciprocity
What are the types of reciprocity?

Generalized
Generalized reciprocity is giving something without the anticipation of an instant return.

Example:

When a friend gave you a birthday gift, it is not expected that you will also give that friend a
gift in return on the same day, although it is anticipated that you will give him a gift or token
sometime in the future or when his birthday comes.

Balanced
Balanced reciprocity is giving out of something with the anticipation of immediate return.

Example:

When you get something from the store and walks out without paying for the goods, you will
be stopped by shop employees because you have not reciprocated with money the goods that
you picked from the store.

Negative
Negative reciprocity occurs when the exchange of something already involves taking advantage
of someone or the situation. Most of the time, this type of exchange involves trickery,
intimidation, or hard bargaining.

Example:

Province X has no source of electricity for a long time. X Electric Company made an agreement
with the officials of the province to provide them with power supply. In exchange, the whole
area should not entertain any other electric company to offer the same services to them.

Economic Institutions, Reciprocity, and the Impacts on the Global Community

We have learned in Chapter 2 that economic institutions involve activities such as producing,
generating, distributing, and purchasing goods and services. These activities have an impact on
the global community.

See the illustration below.

Legends:

 blue: economic institutions

 red: activities of economic institutions
  yellow: global community

The activities with economic institutions play vital roles in shaping and maintaining the stability
of world community. If one system fails to do its activity, there will be an imbalance that will
highly affect the whole community.

Practical Application

Reciprocity always necessitates adequacy of responses but does not mean that it should be of
the same amount or volume. More than economic gain, reciprocity is more of a social benefit.
We have to make use of this principle to bring us closer to our neighbors, friends, family, and
loved ones.

Keypoints
 Generally, economic institutions refer to the network of commercial organizations
that determine how goods and services are produced, generated, distributed, and
purchased.
 In sociology, reciprocity is defined as the system of voluntary exchanges among
individuals based on the understanding that the giving of favor by one will be
reciprocated in the future either to the giver or to someone else.
 In economics, reciprocity is defined as an exchange of equal advantages.
 There are three types of reciprocity: general, balanced, and negative.
 The activities of economic institutions play vital roles in shaping and maintaining the
stability of the global community.
 More than economic gain, reciprocity is more of a social benefit.

TOPIC: Economic Institutions: Transfers

The Functions of Economic Institutions
The economy of a particular country like the Philippines is composed of different institutions
that play a significant role in providing the needs of the people. These institutions perform
economic activities that start from production to distribution of goods and services to the
people.

Here are some of the functions of economic institutions in society:

 Enhance development through financial services

 Provide business opportunity to people by financing and loans
 Fund research projects aimed at improving the lives of the individuals in the society

Transfers
In economics, transfer or transfer payment is a redistribution of income or resources in the
market system. It refers to payments or transactions where there is no value added to the
economy. There is no additional production of goods and services but just a transfer of money
from private hands to government.

Examples:

 Taxes
 Social security
 Private pension benefits
 Housing
 Health care

Transfer payments can originate from either government or business sources. Business transfer
payments include corporate gifts to non-profit institutions, payments for personal injury, and
taxes paid by domestic corporations to foreign governments. Far more important, both, in terms
and policy significance, are transfer payments originating from government sources.

How Transfers Work in the Government

The government as an economic institution also provides commercial goods to the people in the
form of public services and transfer payments.

In the Philippines, the government is allocating a huge amount of money to finance different
programs like education, infrastructures, health, and defense.

Among the government agencies that received the highest allocations are:

 the Department of Education (DepEd) with PhP 411.905 billion,

 the Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH) with PhP 384.287 billion, and
 the Department of Interior and Local Government (DILG) with Php 124.229 billion

In the United States, transfers are payments made to individuals by the federal government
through different social benefit programs.
In Canada, transfers are payments made to all provinces and territories by the federal
government.

Economic Institutions, Transfers, and the Impact on the Global Economy

Transfer as an activity of every economic institution, such as the industry, finance, and services,
distribute part of their income or profit to provide essential services and assistance to some
segments of society, especially the underprivileged, to help uplift their living conditions without
expecting anything in return.

To help you analyze statement above, look at the diagram shown below:

In the circular flow of the economy, households and firms pay taxes to the government. In
return, the government distributes transfers in the form of services to the household and
subsidies to the firms.

The activities of the household, markets, businesses, government, or financial institutions as

economic systems have a great impact on the global economy because they provide goods and
services needed by people not only of a particular country but also by the world community.
The stability of a country's economy has a direct impact on the global community for it
determines its ability to provide the needs of its people. It also contributes to the stability of the
world.
Explore!
Imagine that the Philippine government is doing its job in solving the rampant problem of
smuggling. More taxes are collected, and local and foreign industries are protected. In the end,
more effective and efficient services are provided to the people. How do you connect this
scenario to the lesson?

Keypoints
 Economic institutions are sectors of the economy that provide goods and services to
the people.
 One of the activities of different economic institutions of a particular country is to
provide transfers.
 A transfer or transfer payment is a redistribution of income or resources in the
market system.
 The circular flow of economy helps explain the interrelationship of different sectors of
the economy.
 Government and private enterprises play major roles in the world economy.
 The activities of the economic institutions of a particular country have a great impact
on the global community.

TOPIC: Economic Institutions: Redistribution

Redistribution
What is redistribution? Why is it an important activity of societies? How do you compare
redistribution from reciprocity?

In relation to Sociology
Redistribution is an everyday activity of societies. Members of the society contribute by giving
their goods that would be collected by the head of the community followed by a distribution of
the goods among the members.

Example:

A) Church tithes

The church acts as the central organization that pools the goods donated by its members in the
form of tithes or donations. The church manages these tithes and donations for the
maintenance of the church itself and its projects and programs in which most of the time, its
members are the recipients. By that process, the tithes or donations given by the members are
being redistributed to them, especially the less fortunate members.
B) Potlatch

It is a ceremonial distribution of property and gifts celebrated by most Pacific Northwest tribes.
In every celebration, each person invited to a potlatch receives a gift. Ceremonial formalities
were observed in the distribution of gifts or goods by the donor according to the social rank or
status of the recipients.

Potlatch in Relation to Economics

Traditionally, the potlatch is the economic system of the natives of South America. Today,
the potlatch is still evident in our economic system. How?

Example:

In our society today there are rival companies. Let us consider these companies as the rival
groups of Native Americans. Company A releases one product to the market; the Company B
will try to surpass that product by releasing their product better than the product of the
Company A.

In Relation to Economics
Redistribution refers to the collection of goods and services of people and groups to be given
by a central authority for allocation.

Example:
When the government collects taxes from its population, the government becomes the
centralized authority where all taxes are pooled and managed. The taxes that were pooled will
be returned to the people in the form of social services, welfare benefits, infrastructures, and
others which the government will spearhead.

In Relation to Politics
Redistribution is the process by which electoral districts are added, removed, or changed.
This process is a form of boundary delimitation that changes electoral district boundaries,
usually in response to census results. In democratic governments, redistribution is required by
law or constitution.

Example: In the United States, redistribution happens after each ten-year census. The state
legislature approves most states' legislative district redistributions. The highest court rulings
require that congressional districts have roughly equal populations.

The table shows a comparison between redistribution and reciprocity.

Economic Institutions, Redistribution, and their Impacts on the Global Community

As we have learned in Chapter 3, redistribution refers to the collection of goods and services of
people and groups to be given by a central authority for allocation.
Both producers and consumers are economic institutions in which
the government or central authority collects taxes from them and allocates these funds for
projects which are also for the use of economic institutions. If one failed to do his function,
there would be dysfunction and economic imbalance in society.

Redistribution in the Family or Community

Redistribution is evident in our society. Family, as the smallest unit of society, performs simple
redistribution. The mother or father, as the head of the household, collects a part of his or her
children’s income and allocates it to food and pending bills. This serves as the basis for
sustained community efforts under a political leader
Keypoints
 Economic institutions refer to the network of commercial organizations that
determine how goods and services are produced, generated, distributed, and purchased.
 In sociology, redistribution is the system of exchange that involves the centralized
collection of products from members of a group followed by the distribution of those
goods among the members.
 In economics, redistribution refers to the collection of goods and services of people
and groups to be given by a central authority for allocation.
 In politics, redistribution is the process by which electoral districts are added, removed,
or changed.
 Potlatch is a ceremonial distribution of property and gifts by the donor according to the
social rank or status of the recipients.
 Taxation is the process where the government collects taxes from people to turn into
social services.
 Church tithes are the donations that are given to religious institutions to be used for
their programs and projects.
 A redistribution is a form of reciprocity. It differs from mere reciprocity, which is a
back-and-forth two-party exchange.
 The activities of the economic institutions play vital roles in shaping and maintaining
the stability of the global community.
 Family, as the smallest unit of society, performs redistribution.

TOPIC: Economic Institutions: Market Transactions

Market
A market is a place or medium where buyers and sellers interact to transact economic goods
and services. The meaning of market is not limited to a certain place, location, or geographic
area; rather, it focuses on people who are willing and capable of buying or selling goods and
services.

In a capitalist economy, markets answer the three basic economic problems of: what to
produce, how to produce, and for whom to produce.

Market Structures
Market structure is the classification of a market with regard to key characteristics, such as
number of sellers and buyers, entry barriers to the market, the control and determinant of
pricing, and types of products in the market.

 A pure competition market is a market structure characterized by a large number of

sellers and buyers, homogenous products, and complete freedom of entry and exit of
market players.
  A monopoly is a market structure characterized by a single seller of a well-defined
product for which there is no available substitute and high barriers of entry of other
market players. The seller has complete control of the pricing of goods and services.
 Amonopolistic competition is a market structure characterized by a large number of
independent sellers, each producing a differentiated product in the market with a low
barrier to entry of other players.
 An oligopoly is a market in which only few sellers comprise the entire industry with a
relatively larger number of buyers. Sellers, therefore, have the power over the price of
products.
 Amonopsony is a market in which there is only one buyer.

Market Transactions
A market transaction is the exchange of goods and services through a market where buyers
and sellers agree on the price and quantity of goods and services to be bought and sold in a
specific place and time.

Market transactions taking place in the economy could be a tool in:

 measuring the total output of the economy or the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of the
country thereby becoming one indicator of growth and development of a society, and
 providing the basic data that are used by economic planners and forecasters.

Types of Markets
There are different types of markets. Each one has unique characteristics and functions.

Physical Markets
This is a set up where buyers can physically meet the sellers and purchase the desired
merchandise from them in exchange for money.

Examples: shopping malls, department stores, retail stores

Non-Physical Markets or Virtual Markets

In such markets, buyers purchase goods and services through the internet. The buyers and
sellers do not meet or interact physically, but transact online instead.

Examples: Rediff shopping, eBay, Amazon

Auction Market
In an auction market, the seller sells his or her goods to the highest bidder.

Market for Intermediate Goods

Such markets sell raw materials (goods) required for the final production of other goods.
Black Market
This is a setup where illegal goods like drugs and weapons are sold.

Knowledge Market
This is a setup that deals with the exchange of information and knowledge-based products.

Financial Market
This market deals with the exchange of liquid assets (money). Financial markets can be further
categorized into the following types:

 stock market–a form of market where sellers and buyers exchange shares
 bond market–a marketplace where buyers and sellers are engaged in the exchange of
debt securities, usually in the form of bonds.
 foreign exchange market–a market where parties are involved in the trading of
currency; In this market, also called currency market, one party exchanges one
country’s currency with an equivalent quantity of another.
 predictive market–a setup where the exchange of good or service takes place for
Keypoints

 A market exists whenever there is an interaction between buyers and sellers.

 Market structures are mechanisms of the economy to answer the basic economic
problems of production, distribution, and consumption.
 Market equilibrium became the balancing force between demand and supply of goods
in the market.
 A market transaction occurs because of the exchanges of goods and services
between consumers and producers.

TOPIC: Economic Institutions: Markets and State

Markets and State

 A market is a place where buyers and sellers transact economic goods and services. It
is also a mechanism used by society for allocating and distributing the goods and
services produced.
 A state is a group of people, more or less numerous, with a definite geographical area,
with defined territorial boundaries, independent of external control, and ruled by a
government through laws where inhabitants have to conform by force in the common
interest. In economics, a state is always referred to as the government.

The Dividing Line Between Markets and States

 In the Philippines, some products are purely market-driven. with some products, the
government can intervene in production and pricing. An example of this are utilities and
selected essential services.
 In a global perspective, model market economies such as the United
States and Singapore are characterized by freedom of choice and enterprise, private
ownership of all economic resources, a prevalence of competition, and the presence of
 market mechanism. While in a state-driven economy like China, the government largely
controls the industry.

The two mechanisms significantly differ in the way they allocate goods. In a market economy,
those who can afford the price of the product have more, while a state-run economy has a
principle of having something according to the need.

 The market, as a mechanism used by different economic institutions in the distribution

of goods and services that the economy produced, always relies on the very mechanism
it uses−the price of the products. Meanwhile, the state uses its inherent power and
authority in allocating goods and services.

Competing Models of Economic Organization and Their Impacts on Global

Community
Market Economy Model
The market economy model of Taiwan, Korea, and Singapore prevails in the production of
goods, competitiveness, flexibility, and high growth rates that are manifested in the economy. A
high level of inequality prevails, resulting to a high incidence of poverty among people, a
problem in the environment, and vulnerability to financial crisis.

State Capitalist Model

The state capitalist model of Russia and China shows the power of government in the
production of goods but with passivity in social and environmental issues. High and steady
growth rate evident but a high level of inequality is also manifested.

Central Planning Model

The central planning model of North Korea dominates the entire economic activity of production
as well as the social context. This model wants to create a classless society. In the long run, it
is counter-productive, and lower growth rate or even economic stagnation occurs.

Social Market Economic Model

The social market economic model of most European countries depends heavily on the role of
the market in the distribution and allocation of products. The economy and the government is
very active in providing social welfare to the people. This leads to equality and harmony among
people and government, but a high level of taxation is evident.

Let us analyze these four competing economic models and their impacts on the global
community. It is notable that the government, private corporations, and multinational
companies have to join hands in uplifting the lives of the people, protecting and preserving the
environment, and creating a caring society so that this world would be a better place to live in.
Keypoints
 Economic institutions evolve to distribute efficiently and allocate goods and service to
members of society.
 A market is a place where buyers and sellers transact commercial goods and services.
It is also a mechanism used by society for allocating and distributing the goods and
services produced.
 The state, always referred to as the government, is a group of persons, more or less
numerous, with a definite geographical area, defined territorial boundaries, independent
of external control, and ruled by a government through laws where inhabitants have to
conform by force.
 In the Philippines, some products are purely market-driven. In some, the government
can intervene in production and pricing.
 In the United States, the model market economy is characterized by freedom of choice
and enterprise, private ownership of all economic resources and prevalence of
competition, while in China, the government largely controls the industry.
 The four competing economic models that greatly affect the global community
are market economy model, state capitalist model, central planning model,
and social market economic model.

TOPIC: Nonstate Institutions: Banks and Corporations

Non-state institutions refer to institutions that are organized by private individuals or groups
for the purpose of providing services to the members of society. These institutions are not
controlled by the government but are regulated through laws and statutes of the state.

There are non-state institutions that play vital roles in the economy because they are the ones
providing the needs of the people that the government cannot provide. However, a
corresponding price or payment is needed in exchange for their services.

Typical examples are different kinds of financial institutions, specifically a bank, and different
kinds of business organizations, specifically a corporation.

Financial Institutions
Financial institutions are organizations that serve as bridges or intermediaries that facilitate
the flow of money in various transactions. This means that financial institutions serve as links
between the source of funds, the depositor, the fund user, and the borrower.

Banks receive savings and deposits of their clients. These may be loaned out to borrowers.

Example:

Juan dela Cruz has PhP 10,000.00, which he has saved from his salary as a manager. He
deposits it at Maharlika Bank, which offers a 2% interest per annum. This would mean that if he
does not withdraw any of his savings, he will get 10,000.00 + 2% = 10,200.00 after one year.

Now, Mr. Entrepreneur needs PhP 7,000.00 because he wants to put up a sari-sari store. He
borrows PhP 7,000.00 form Maharlika Bank.

Can you see the flow of money? Juan gets more than PhP 10,000.00 after a year. At the same
time, he is able to help Mr. Entrepreneur put up a business. These would not have happened
without the help of Mahalika Bank since Juan and Mr. Entrepreneur do not know each other.

Banks started during the Renaissance period in Italy. The word 'bank' traces its origin from the
Old Italian word banca which means 'table' or 'bench,' and is where transactions occurred at
that time.

The role of a financial institution as a link in the transfer of money from the source to the
borrower is very important to our economy.

Banks provide safe-keeping place for money and valuables of individuals. They also perform a
role in settling payments and credit intermediation.

Banking Institutions
The Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas is known as the banks of all banks in the Philippines. It is
the bank responsible for the regulation, creation, and management of monetary supply in the
country.

These are the different types of banks:

 Commercial banks accept savings deposits, check deposits, and time deposits.
Examples of Philippine commercial banks are Bank of the Philippine
Islands and Metrobank.
 Thrift banks are categorized into stock savings and loan associations, savings and
mortgage banks, and private development banks. They consolidate the savings deposits
of their members into a fund from which their members can draw loans with interest.
They also accept deposits from the public and provide loans for small- and medium-
scale enterprises.
 Rural banks cater primarily to farmers and small business people, mostly in rural
areas.

Corporations
A corporation is an organization of people legally bound by a charter to conduct some type of
business. It has a legal entity separate from its owners. The type of business that a corporation
wants to venture in depends on its articles of incorporation.

Articles of incorporation are written applications to the government requesting permission to

form a corporation. This will give the name, address, and type of business for the corporation;
the names of the officers, and the initial amount of money being put into the business.
Alfred Chandler, a renowned business historian, explained how modern corporations propelled
the growth of modern economy and was fascinated on how the people that make up large
corporations managed to "coordinate complex production processes" and "produce the wealth
of the nations."

The following are the advantages of corporations as business organizations in the economy:

 easy to raise funds–since the corporate form is the most effective for raising money
 limited liability–the concept that owners of the business are only responsible for its
debts up to the amount they invest in the business
 unlimited life–not ceasing to exist if a major stockholder dies
 specialized management–affording to have specialized managers to run the business
 shared risks–spreading business risks among many owners

The following are the disadvantages of corporations as business organizations in the economy:

 difficult to start–needs government approval before starting the business

 less direct control–owners that are usually far from the day-to-day operation of the
business
 double taxation–corporate taxes that need to be paid by the corporation and the
owner who received dividends from the profit
 limited activities–limited activities by the article of incorporation

Keypoints

 Non-state institutions refer to institutions that are organized by private individuals or

groups for the purpose of providing services to the members of society.
 Financial institutions are organizations that serve as bridges or intermediaries that
facilitate the flow of money.
 The Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas is known as the banks of all banks in the
Philippines.
 There are three kinds of banks: commercial banks, thrift banks, and rural banks.
 A corporation is an organization of people legally bound by a charter to conduct some
type of business.
 The advantages of corporations are: easy to raise funds, limited liability, specialized
management, and shared risks.
 The disadvantages of corporations are: difficult to start, less direct control, double
taxation, and limited activities.
TOPIC: Nonstate Institutions: Cooperatives and Trade Unions

What are Cooperatives and Trade Unions?

A cooperative is a voluntary organization of people who have agreed to pool their resources
together to undertake an economic enterprise to meet their everyday needs. A cooperative is
something that they democratically manage, control, and share the economic benefits by
participation and patronage (Cooperative Development Authority, CDA).

Trade unions or labor unions are voluntary associations of either employees, employers, or
independent workers to protect their interest and become an instrument of defense against
exploitation and maltreatment.

The commonalities of these two non-state institutions are the following:

 organized and formed by a group of people to protect their interest,

 promotes the common good among members, and
 voluntary in nature.

Below are the different types of cooperatives.

Here are some examples of trade unions.

Learn about it!

The Differences Between Cooperatives and Trade Unions
As to the Purpose:
As to Function:
Cooperatives and Trade Unions as Means of Promoting Self-help Towards Economic
Development
Cooperatives are self-help organizations presently utilized by the government as more
efficient tools for economic development. These are also business enterprises which affiliates
own, manage, and control following accepted democratic principles. Members are not organized
primarily for profit nor to serve other persons, but to address the needs of their members.
Memberships in cooperatives are voluntary and open to all those who need their services.
Members share economic benefits from unions in proportion to the individual member's
patronage of the business or enterprise.

Trade unions are always fighting for better wages by improving employees pay and other
benefits such as holiday entitlements.

Functions:

 Secure improvements in employees' working conditions, including hours of work, health

or safety at work, improving pensions, and industry injury benefits.
 Provide improved standards of living.
 Safeguard the interest of workers by encouraging firms to increase employee
participation in decision-making.
 Prevent employees from exploitation.

With trade union on a place, strikes can be avoided, thus resulting in stability and growth of the
firm. This promotes unity, spirit of self-reliance, and self-respect, and may lead to economic
development.

Keypoints
 Non-state institutions refer to institutions that are organized by private individuals or
groups of people for the purpose of providing services to the members of society.
  A cooperative is a voluntary organization of persons who have agreed to pool their
resources together to undertake an economic enterprise to meet their everyday needs.
 A trade union is a voluntary association of employees, employers, or independent
workers to protect their interest.
 The different types of cooperatives are consumer, credit, producer, marketing,
and service.
 Examples of trade unions are transport groups, workers welfare organizations,
and employers’ associations.
 The functions and purposes of organizing and establishing cooperatives and trade
unions are critical in promoting economic development.

TOPIC: Nonstate Institutions: Transnational Advocacy Groups

Transnational advocacy groups are networks, not bound by any national or international
border that defends a cause or proposition. They are a group of people from different walks of
life who advocate for policy changes that are in line with their interests and the interests of
others.

Transnational advocacy groups are greatly established through interactive and communicative
networks across numerous countries that operate under the same advocacy or principle.
Though they may have little power in the traditional politics, they have learned to appropriate
their limited power in such a way that they can influence social change and belief systems.

What are Transnational Advocacy Groups?

Transnational advocacy groups use a variety of political tools to influence international policy
and practice. These tools are:

 information politics–the ability of groups to control or limit the release of information

so as to provide a realistic and broader picture of a certain issue; Doing so does not
necessarily guarantee a good image for the government.
 symbolic politics–linking past events to another in order to provide a possible
outcome for a similar, presently-occurring event.
 leverage politics–creating linkages with other groups to gain moral and financial
support in advocacy.
 accountability politics–monitoring the action of states to ensure their commitment;
The responsible state or company’s accountability on the matter shall be made known to
the public should any discrepancy between commitment and result occur.

Transnational advocacy groups may be made up of non-government organizations (NGOs),

politicians, bureaucrats, or representatives from private corporations and businesses.

Examples of Transnational Advocacy Groups

 International organizations for human rights (e.g. Center for Individual Rights)
 Non-government organizations for environmental welfare (e.g. Earth Rights
International)
  Groups advocating for women’s rights (e.g. International Women’s Tribune Center)

Functions of Transnational Advocacy Groups

 They change political and policy-making focus: Issues raised by transnational
advocacy groups are actual issues of the common population. Implicating moral and
emotional forces, these groups refocus the most important issues in society.
 They redefine issues: These groups, through wise use of information, repackage
issues into more general and unbiased forms. As such, positions on various issues are
influenced to change, with some being on the advocacy networks’ favors.
 They reframe information: As mentioned, transnational advocacy groups learned to
control the flow of information to include unbiased and broader pictures of existing
issues. In doing so, a moral and emotional appeal will likely influence people to raise
their advocacy and concern for the phenomenon.
 They give a voice to the voiceless: Because of their moral and emotional impact on
the public, coupled with their advocacy for vulnerable groups, transnational advocacy
groups give the voiceless and vulnerable people a chance to raise their concerns in the
international scene.

Significance of Transnational Advocacy Groups in Society

Transnational advocacy groups have become the voice of the people in raising important,
realistic issues that a vast number of people are experiencing worldwide. In society, these
groups maintain considerable influence through information dissemination—enough to shift the
focus of states in dealing with more immediate causes and concerns. As a result, transnational
advocacy groups may change international policy or practice to fit any raised concern or issue.

Tips
 Transnational advocacy groups are made up of people with the same set of advocacies
and beliefs. Being part of support does not require any educational or career
accomplishment.
 Transnational advocacy groups may form networks that span across countries or
continents. This is the reason why they can easily involve themselves in tackling
international issues.

Keypoints
 Transnational advocacy groups are networks, not bound by any national or
international border; that defend a cause or proposition.
 Transnational advocacy groups make use of political tools such as information,
symbols, leverage, and accountability to ensure the success of their advocacies.
 Transnational advocacy groups may be made up of non-government organizations
(NGOs), politicians, bureaucrats, or representatives from private corporations
and businesses.
 Transnational advocacy groups primarily utilize their ability to control information in
tackling international concerns and issues.
  What makes transnational advocacy groups so important is their advocacy.

TOPIC: Nonstate Institutions: Development Agencies

Development agencies are local or international groups committed to pursuing specific

developmental agendas of the state. Initially seen as an immediate response to a common
emergency, the rise of such agencies began after the World War II when there were war
damage, industrial decline, and dereliction. Over time, development agencies became popular
methods of shaping economic strategies that can uplift the state. It is reported that there are
over 15,000 such organizations existing worldwide today.

These are the features and functions of a development agency:

 Economic roles: A development agency can take on entrepreneurial approaches—

mediating between the government and the market—especially when such tasks are
outside of government responsibility. As leverages are formed, investment failures are
avoided.
 Leadership roles: Development agencies set out long-term developmental goals. As
independent groups, their capability to shape goals and outcomes are not influenced by
electoral or political changes.
 Governance and coordination roles: Agencies coordinate with the state in the
attainment of developmental practices and methods. They help overcome the
jurisdiction of the public sector in making a sole decision on developmental goals.
 Implementation roles: A development agency can formulate its team to facilitate
attainment of a defined growth strategy. This team is focused on project management,
instrument development, and business or investor-facing services.

While development agencies exist to aid in the attainment of developmental goals, their local
and international functions are continuously updated and reinvented to suit the needs of the
state.

Examples of Development Agencies:

 International Development Organization

 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
 Overseas Development Institute

Significance of Development Agencies in Society

 Development agencies assist the government in attaining a well-developed society
through well-studied developmental strategies and policies.
 Development agencies exist to promote business efficiency and competitiveness to
increase economic growth and sustainable development.
 Development agencies actively provide avenues for honing employment strategies and
opportunities.
Millennium Development Goals and the Role of Development Agencies
In 2000, the United Nations (UN) sought measures to enhance human life by aiming to attain
eight developmental goals by the year 2015. The Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs) project, as they are collectively called, called action and support from nations and local
and international development agencies to promote the following causes by 2015:

1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger

2. Achieve universal primary education
3. Promote gender equality and empower women
4. Reduce child mortality
5. Improve maternal health
6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases
7. Ensure environmental sustainability
8. Develop a global partnership for development

The assistance provided by all agencies involved proved to be significant as the UN was able to
gather enough data to assess and address each MDG. However, according to reports, further
data are needed for a post-2015 development agenda that will be tackled by the United Nations
in the following years.

Points to Ponder
 Development agencies are local or international groups committed to pursuing
specific developmental agendas of the state.
 Development agency has four functions and features,
namely: economic, leadership, governance and coordination,
and implementation.
 Development agencies assist the government in attaining a well-developed society
through well-studied developmental strategies and policies.
 The Millennium Development Goals project was created by the United Nations in
2000 to address eight relevant issues and developmental challenges by 2015.

TOPIC: Nonstate Institutions: International Organizations

International Organizations are groups that promote voluntary cooperation among its
members. These started out during the rise of city-states in Greece, but significantly emerged
during the French Revolution. Further improvements on the purpose and functions of
international organizations were laid out during the early 19th century when nations decided
that such a group is needed to preserve the status quo and avoid inter- and intra-state
conflicts.

At present, international organizations may or may not be handled by the government. It was
reported that there are 6,000 non-government organizations compared to only 250 under the
government.

International bureaucracies manage International Government Organizations (IGOs), but

authority remains ultimately in the state. IGOs work together with non-government
international organizations to successfully reach a common goal. However, note that in this
lesson, international organizations are only taken and discussed in the context of non-state or
non-government organizations.

The following conditions should be met for one group to be called an international organization:

 There must be membership from at least three states or nations.

 Activities must occur across several states.
 Members must have formally agreed to be part of the organization.

Apart from the abovementioned conditions, international organizations must also follow the
rules set by the International Law Commission to function legally as a recognized international
organization.

Examples of Non-Government International Organizations

 United Nations Environment Program
 European Union
 World Health Organization

Functions of International Organizations

 an acquaintance of information: International organizations have the capability to
access relevant information for a specific cause. They also have the capability to monitor
trends and progresses of longitudinal empirical researches.
 provide service and aid: These organizations, especially the bigger ones, provide
various types of services to people depending on the cause. For example, an
international organization tackling health may provide free vaccines to a specific nation
hit by a dangerous epidemic.
 provide avenues for communication: Being part of an international organization
means that members from different parts of the world get to easily voice out their
concerns to one another. This may lead to easier communication and work flow.
 provide avenues for settling disputes: Because international organizations’
members continuously communicate with each other, disputes and misunderstandings
over certain issues and concerns may easily be resolved. As such, organizations provide
opportunities for communication through regular meetings and updates.
Significance of International Organizations in Society
International organizations establish a connection to issues not only occurring in a certain
nation, but also across the organizations’ various locations. Because of this, an international
issue can be made into a cause.

People of different societies and nations—not limited to social class or status—are made part of
a global community that will aim to resolve, as one unified group, identified international
conflicts as well as provide outcomes suitable to address global issues being tackled.

Keypoints
 International Organizations are groups that promote voluntary cooperation among
its members.
 The following conditions should be met for one group to be called an international
organization: (1) there must be membership from at least three states or nations, (2)
activities must occur across several states, and (3) members must have formally agreed
to be part of the organization.
 Functions of international organizations include: an acquaintance of information,
provide service and aid, provide avenues for communication, and provide avenues for
settling disputes.
 International organizations establish a connection to issues not only occurring in a
certain nation but also across the organizations’ various locations. Because of this, an
international issue can be made into a cause.

TOPIC: Education: Functions in Society

Education is a fundamental human need by which human existence of striving and developing
depends on.

 Education is a fundamental right.

 Education is a process of learning.

If put together, the equation would be:

Education + Right = A right to an education.

When put into effect, education helps people acquire knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and
habits to communicate better with himself or herself, society, and the world.
Formal and Non-formal Education
Formal education happens inside a classroom and facilitated by a professional teacher. It is a
classroom-based, structured, and sequentially graded system. It includes primary, secondary,
undergraduate, and graduate schools.

Non-formal education is any learning experience or training outside the organized formal
system. This type of teaching may include attending seminars, workshops, and community-
based sports program. Unlike formal education which is based on concrete structure or
curriculum, non-formal education follows less structured guidelines.

Functions of Education in Society

Education does not only serve an individual, but also the society where one belongs. Formal or
non-formal, it is an avenue where people acquire the knowledge needed in dealing with the
demands of daily living.

Here, people learn religion, philosophy, law, grammar, history, literature, arithmetic, music,
arts, and sciences. Through education, learners learn values desired to survive and face
challenges which happen on a regular basis.

Skills are also taught in school. Students are exposed to activities like singing, dancing,
encoding, selling, and other life skills. When all these are applied, people are led to community-
building.

Effects of Education in Society

Education contributes to the economic progress and social environment in a community or
society.

Self-actualization
Lifelong learning or education may lead a learner in attaining self-actualization. Self-
actualization, in Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, is considered as the highest level of
human need. It is becoming everything that one is capable of. Self-actualization is manifested
when individuals experience real and passionate joy and wonder. Following these experiences
of joy and wonder is people becoming exposed to inspiration, power, or transformation.

Productive Citizenry
Education helps society produce informed, responsible, and capable citizens. Productive citizens
are those who work and maximize their potentials and skills. They are those who contribute to
the realization of individuals and collective success.

Primary Education as a Human Right

The right to education is a universal prerogative to education. Everyone has the right to
education. Regardless of your race, age, gender, ethnicity, disability or status, you are entitled
to enjoy this fundamental human right.
International Legal Basis
 The right to education is on Article 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and
Articles 13 and 14 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural
Rights.
 The right to education has been reaffirmed in the 1960 UNESCO Convention against
Discrimination in Education, the 1981 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination Against Women, the 2006 Convention on the Rights of Persons with
Disabilities, and the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights.
 In Europe, Article 2 of the first Protocol of 20 March 1952 to the European Convention
on Human Rights states that the right to education is "recognized as a human right and
is understood to establish an entitlement to education."

Fulfillment or Implementation
The 21st century has been a witness to the progress that global education underwent.
Presently, according to the UNESCO Institute for Statistics, more than four out five can read
and write. Illiteracy, on the other hand, translates to 757 million adults and 115 million youth
worldwide.

These trends of global and sustainable education and decreasing illiteracy figures are the result
of growing calls and programs for upholding education as a fundamental human right. Despite
the aforementioned, poverty, inaccessibility, and lack of political initiative remain on the scene,
and if left unresolved, might suppress future improvements.

Keypoints
 Education is a basic human right. It helps man acquire knowledge, skills, values,
beliefs, and habits to communicate better with himself, the society, and the world
leading to progress and development.
 Formal education is a classroom-based, structured and sequentially graded system of
education.
 Non-formal education is any learning experience or training outside the organized
formal system.
 Self-actualization is manifested when individuals experience real and passionate joy
and wonder.
 The productive citizenry is achieved through political, social, and economic
development

TOPIC: Religion and Belief Systems: Animism

Animism is the belief that all natural entities have spirits or souls. It views all things like
animals, plants, and inanimate objects as sacred life forms. In the ancient times, people
worshipped nature for adoration, blessings, thanksgiving, and protection. They prayed for
sustained abundant harvest, good health, good fortune, and peace in their community.
Animism is an act of respect. In animism, all things are to be honored. Our human ancestors
displayed this through rites like offering sacrifices, dancing, and praying in dedication to spirits,
souls, nature, and even rivers, mountains, the sun, moon, and stars.

Origin of Animism
Animism came from the Latin word anima which means 'breath', 'spirit', and 'life.'

It is widely believed that the inception of animism can be traced back to the ancient times
before organized religions were formed. Because of its primitive beginnings, animism is
regarded as the foundation of the spiritual life of all cultures. Due to its unrecorded history, no
one is credited as its founder.

Early inhabitants of traditional hunting-gathering, agricultural, or pastoral territories were

believed to have practiced animism. To name a few, Indonesia, China, Thailand, Philippines,
and other Southeast Asian territories were the cradles of animism in the olden times. Before
Christianity, ancient Filipinos worshipped spirits in nature to appease them and to provide them
with life-sustaining resources.

Animism: Religion or Belief System?

Animism is not like any of the major religions of the world. It has no worship site or structure,
unlike the mosques of Muslims or church of the Christians. It does not possess scriptures
like Qur’an of the Muslims or Bible of the Christians. It cannot provide us with statistics about
how much it is practiced now and then.

According to anthropologist E. B. Tylor, animism is a theory of religion and is not a type of

religion. Some academics argued that the use of this term to pertain to the indigenous belief of
existence of spirits in inanimate objects is no longer appropriate and necessary. These reasons
are why debates about its nature exist.

Religion is an organized system of beliefs and practices that explains the cause, nature, and
purpose of the universe. It involves societal organization and moral code that governs human
affairs and order of existence. For every religion, there is a belief system. Belief systems are
sets of principles that help interpret natural and supernatural occurrences that affect lives.

No religion exists without a belief system. However, belief systems may exist with or without
religion or an organized entity.

Animism Today
Today, animism is not practiced in isolation but expressed in many forms and observed in both
modern and traditional settings. Manifested by their respect and worship rites for natural
elements, religions around the globe clearly apply teachings of the primitive religion. Hinduism,
Jainism, and Shintoism are some religions whose beliefs and practices subscribes to that of
animism's.

Shintoism, the native religion of Japan, worships the existence of natural objects such as
mountains, rivers, rocks, and trees.
Hinduism, which originated in India, believes that the earth is an expression of their gods and
therefore must be preserved and venerated.

Keypoints

 Animism is the belief that all natural entities have spirits or souls. It views all things,
like animals, plants, and inanimate objects, as sacred life forms.
 Religion is an organized system of beliefs and practices that explains the cause, nature,
and purpose of the universe. It involves societal organization and a moral code that
governs human affairs and order of existence.
 A belief system is a set of principles that helps interpret natural and supernatural
occurrences that affect lives.
 Shintoism is the native religion of Japan which worships the existence of natural
objects such as mountains, rivers, rocks, and trees.
 Hinduism is a religion that believes that the earth is an expression of their gods and
must therefore be preserved and venerated.
 Jainism is a traditional Indian religion known for observing non-violence towards all
creatures.
 Animism is not practiced in isolation but expressed in many forms and observed in
both modern and traditional settings.
 Early inhabitants of Indonesia, China, Thailand, and other rice-growing or
agriculture-based territories were believed to have practiced animism. People worship
nature for adoration, blessings, thanksgiving, and protection.

TOPIC: Religion and Belief Systems: Monotheism and Polytheism

Religion is a set of beliefs and practices that provides its followers with an explanation or
narration of how the universe, nature, and existence works.

Every existing organized religion has its unique belief system. Belief systems are sets of
principles that help interpret natural and supernatural occurrences that affect lives.

Theism
Theism is a category of religion that means 'the belief in the existence of a god, goddesses, or
deities.' It comes from the Greek word theos, which means 'god.' Theism is one of the
principles that binds the belief system of religions of the world. In religion, these deities and
gods are supernatural beings who are believed to be sacred or divine creators, rulers of the
universe, and sources of ethical authority.
Under theism, a religion may be a form of monotheism or polytheism. In a polytheistic religion,
gods and goddesses are usually referred to as "deities" as opposed to the usual term of
"creator" or "supreme being" of monotheistic religions.

Monotheism
Monotheism is the belief that there is only one god to be worshiped as the supreme being.
The word 'monotheism' was derived from the Greek word monos, which means 'one',
and theos which means 'god.'

The beginning of monotheistic religions can be traced back to ancient Egypt during the rule of
Pharaoh Akhenaton who propagated the belief in one god. The denial of existence of other
religions' gods is a feature of monotheism.

Christianity, Judaism, and Islam are organized religions known to be a form of monotheism.
Considered as the world’s largest religion with 2.4 billion followers, Christianity is based upon
the teachings of Jesus Christ who is believed to be the Son of God and Savior of Humanity.

Judaism is a religion that started in West Asia and founded by Moses. Its beginning, though,
can be traced back to the time of Abraham. Jews believed in the existence of only one god with
whom they have a covenant.

Islam, just like Judaism and Christianity, is an Abrahamic and monotheistic religion that follows
the teachings of Qur’an, their sacred text, revealed by Allah to their prophet Mohammad. It is
the world’s second largest religion with 1.6 billion followers worldwide.

Polytheism
Polytheism is the worship of many gods. The word 'polytheism' was derived from the Greek
word poly, which means 'many,' and theos which means 'god.'
Polytheism has always been equated with pluralism as it engages and promotes acceptance,
diversity, and tolerance of differences. Polytheistic religions are known to embrace the existence
of the gods of other religions.

Hinduism is the best modern example of a form of polytheism, having known to worship over
300 million gods. Started in India 400 years ago, it is the world’s oldest existing religion.

Keypoints

 Religion is a set of beliefs and practices that provides its followers with an explanation
or narration of how the universe, nature, and existence works.
 Belief systems are set of principles that help interpret natural and supernatural
occurrences that affect lives.
 Theism is the belief in the existence of a god or gods. Theism is a category of religion,
and under it are monotheism and polytheism.
 Deities and gods are supernatural beings who are believed to be sacred, divine
creators and rulers of the universe, and sources of ethical authority.
 Monotheism is the belief that there is only one god to be worshiped as the supreme
being. Christianity, Islam, and Judaism are examples of monotheistic religions.
 Polytheism is worshipping more than one god. Hinduism and Shinto are examples of
polytheistic religions.

TOPIC: Religion and Belief Systems: Institutionalized Religions

Belief System
 It is an ideology or set of principles that helps people to interpret everyday reality. This
ideology could be in the form of religion, philosophy, political affiliation, or spirituality,
among many others.
 It defines people's personal sense of "reality." Every person has a belief system that he
or she utilizes, and it is through this mechanism that he or she individually "makes
sense" of the world.
Religion
 It originated from the Latin word religo which means 'ritual' or 'good faith' and from the
Greek word threskeia which means 'to tie fast or bind together.'
 It focuses on the creator-creature relationship or connection. It revolves around the
thought of how the creator relates to his creation, especially humanity, and how
humanity ought to relate to the creator.

Religion is limitless and open. It is something that exists as time exists but, when changed or
tampered with or separated and ripped in different directions, becomes an institutionalized
religion.

Institutionalized Religion
 It is formed by a sect, meaning, it is closed but not limitless.
 It is also known as organized religion, a social institution established to express
people's belief in a divine power. Its beliefs, practices, and rules are formally organized
and codified.

Determined by their number of followers and believers, the Philippines' leading institutionalized
religions are Roman Catholicism, Protestantism, Islam, and Buddhism.

Each organized religion has its unique belief system.

Buddhism
Buddhists believe that all beings suffer, desire causes suffering, desires can be overcome, and
that enlightenment or ultimate reality may be achieved.

Islam
Muslims believe that there is only one god, Allah, and one prophet, Muhammad.

Roman Catholicism
Roman Catholics believe that both the Bible and sacred Roman Catholic tradition, such as belief
in the purgatory, prayers to saints, and worship of Mary are necessary.

Protestantism
Protestants believe in the sufficiency and authority of the Scripture for salvation.

Religious Rituals and Practices

What are some of the rituals and practices of different institutionalized religions?

Protestantism
Protestant churches' necessary rites are the sacraments of baptism and the Lord's supper. The
worship of images and statues is prohibited.
Roman Catholicism
The Catholic church has many rituals and practices like the holy mass, baptism, confession,
receiving communion, praying the rosary, and anointing of the sick. The Mass is the most
important ritual among Catholics because it seen as a celebration of God's grace.

Islam
Islam's practices include daily confession of faith through prayers five times a day, almsgiving,
fasting on Ramadan, and a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in their lifetime.

Buddhism
Buddhism rituals and practices include meditation, eating vegetarian meals, going for refuge,
offering homage or respect to the Buddha, making offerings, confession of faults, calling on
spiritual forces for support or protection, and a dedication of merit.

The Roles of Institutionalized Religions in Society

Institutionalized religions aim to provide people with answers to their questions about life,
nature, or existence. These social institutions gather people to have a common system of
symbols, beliefs, values, and practices. Organized religion is more than just mere beliefs and
practices. It is a socialization agent who helps a group to form a particular identity of their own
and gives people sense of belongingness. Religions make people intact out of their similarities.

Religions may have differences in beliefs and practices, but they sure do share the same goals
of uniting people, and understanding existence.

Key Points
 Religion focuses on the creator-creature relationship or connection.
 A belief system is an ideology or set of principles that helps people to interpret their
everyday reality. This ideology could be in the form of religion, philosophy, political
affiliation, or spirituality.
 An institutionalized religion is a social institution established to express people's
belief in a divine power wherein beliefs, practices, and rules are formally organized and
codified.

TOPIC: Religion and Belief Systems: Separation of Church and State

The Separation of Church and State

The church is a social institution composed of a group of people formed for religious purposes.
The state, on the other hand, is a community occupying a certain territory occupied by a
population of common origin that has its own government which is free from foreign control.
The separation of church and state means freedom from each other. This principle draws a
line between these two institutions. The state has a freedom to conduct activities, enact laws,
or enforce rules and regulations without the church interfering. On the other hand, the church
can implement its ecclesiastical affairs without the influence of the state. in other words, the
government cannot support a religion, endorse religious beliefs, or involve people to practice a
specific faith.

Historical Background
In ancient history, leaders of early societies are deemed to have some form of divinity that
legitimized their rule. During this period, religion and state seems to be intertwined.

Later on, as religion and government became separate institutions (based on the history of
Europe and the Roman Catholic religion), frequent struggles of power between the two could
be seen, especially during the medieval period. It was during the period of Reformation and
Enlightenment that the modern concept of separation of church and state began to take shape.
Enlightenment philosophers such as Locke, Montesquieu, and Voltaire tackled this concept and
made numerous writings about religion and government.

The Age of Enlightenment is said to be influential to the drafting of the Constitution of the
United States. The exact term “separation of church and state” was used by Thomas Jefferson
in 1802 in a letter addressed to the Baptists as he tried to explain to them the First Amendment
of the United States Constitution about the freedom to exercise religion without the interference
of the government.

In laying the foundation of a strong state, to avoid division in the society caused by differences
in religious beliefs, and to prevent the establishment of a national church, United States
forefathers considered the separation of the two societal institutions

The Separation of Church and State Today

When it comes to the talk of the separation of church and state, the world is divided.

Following the principle that the government should not, in any way, form interaction with a
church, countries which adhere to the concept include the United States, Australia, India, and
South Korea. It is noteworthy that these countries practice the separation of church and state
differently or in varying degrees of separation.

As opposed to the concept, certain countries like Spain and Islamic states declare official
religion. Spain is officially a Roman Catholic state just like the Vatican, Monaco, and Malta.
Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Libya, Pakistan declared Islam as a state religion. Teaching and practicing
ideas contrary to the national religion is considered illegal in some countries. Such act can be
seen as an anti-government behavior and may be a basis for one’s imprisonment or death.

The Separation of Church and State in the Philippines

In Article 2, Section 6 of the 1987 Philippine Constitution, the fundamental law of the land, it is
stated that the separation of Church and State shall be inviolable. In the Constitution, the word
“Church” refers to all kinds of faith and the word “State” refers to our country, the Philippines.
What does it mean to the country and to the Filipinos? See diagram below.

Issues Regarding the Separation of Church and State

According to some, the existence of the concept of the separation of Church and State is a
myth. Questions still linger and remain unanswered. Is it not true that the United States was
founded as a Christian nation? Is it not true that Philippine politics influence by how religious
groups operate? Does this concept discriminate the religious minorities?

Despite the existence of a wall that divides these institutions, it is important to keep in mind
that this wall is not hostile or discriminatory, at least in most countries. They are just there to
define limitations and set up order in society in order to avoid conflict of interests.

Keypoints

 The church is a social institution composed of a group of people formed for religious
purposes.
 The state is a community occupying a certain population of common origin that has its
own government which is free of foreign control.
 The constitution is the fundamental law of the land.
 The separation of church and state is a principle based on the idea that the state
has freedom to conduct activities, enact laws, or enforce rules and regulations without
the Church interfering. On the other hand, the church can implement its ecclesiastical
affairs without the influence of the state.
TOPIC: Health: Culture-Specific Syndromes and Illnesses

Health
As they say, "health is wealth." Good health is valuable. Without this, a person cannot enjoy the
pleasure of being wealthy even if he or she is the richest person in the world. Money cannot
buy health and happiness.

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), health is "a state of complete physical,
mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity."

Health is achieved through proper nutrition, regular physical exercise, sufficient rest, and relief
from stress. Poor health may lead to diseases.

Diseases come in different classifications and symptoms. There are diseases which are due to
widespread and regular occurrences and are distinctively known. There are also those which are
rare and incurable. Interestingly, some diseases are very rare that they become particular to a
specific culture or population.

Culture-specific Syndromes and Illnesses

Every culture is unique. To explain its uniqueness, we have to take beliefs and practices into
consideration, such as in the case of culture-specific syndromes and illnesses.

Also referred to as cultural disorders, folk illnesses are tendencies of mental or physical sickness
which are particular to a small cultural population. This physical or psychological instability does
not follow the Western classification of ailments.

In the Philippines
 Usog or balis is a Filipino cultural syndrome where an affliction or disorder is attributed
to a greeting by a stranger. It usually affects a child, infant, or toddler. Vomiting, fever,
nausea, or incessant crying may be signs of usog.
 Binat is a condition of critical ache or pain that is a consequence of continuous physical
unrest. A person may experience this when after a stressful work day, sickness, fatigue-
inducing activity, physical activity, or failure to take a rest.
 Pasma pertains to a folk illness exclusive to the Filipino culture that is believed to be
normally caused by exposure to cold (lamig) and water in many forms. Triggered by
heat and cold, symptoms include sweaty palms and uncontrollable shaking of the hands.
Medical Perspectives
Despite their existence and influence in the Filipino community and international setting, the
nature and incidence of culture-specific illnesses are still up for debate as there are no scientific
claims considering them as medical conditions. In fact, the divide between psychiatrists and
anthropologists around the globe has been set up as a result of differences in perspectives to
explain such isolated medical cases.

The American Psychiatric Association claims that culture-specific syndromes or folk

illnesses are "limited to particular culture areas or societies and are localized and diagnostic
categories that frame coherent meanings for certain patterned, repetitive, and troubling sets of
experiences and observations."

Keypoints
 According to the World Health Organization (WHO), health is "a state of complete
physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or
infirmity."
 Culture-specific syndromes are tendencies of mental or physical sickness which are
particular to a small cultural population.
 Usog or balis is a Filipino cultural syndrome where an affliction or disorder is attributed
to a greeting by a stranger.
 Binat is a condition of critical ache or pain that is a consequence of continuous physical
unrest.
 Pasma is believed to be normally caused by exposure to "cold" and water in many
forms.
 In Malaysia, amok is thought to be an unexplained condition wherein the affected
person is acting aggressively, killing residents and animals.
 In New Guinea, kuru is a fatal culture-specific disease of the brain and nervous system.
Symptoms include contracted face muscles, palsy, and the loss of motor control
resulting in the inability to walk and eat.
 Windigo psychosis, which thrives among the North American tribes, is believed to be a
condition characterized by intense craving for human flesh for consumption or eating.
 TOPIC: Health: Diagnosis, Prevention, and Healing

Diagnosis, Prevention, and Healing

Aside from being familiar with diseases themselves, it is equally important to be aware of some
terms that you may hear when talking about bodily misfortune. Such terms include 'diagnosis',
'prevention', and 'healing.'

Diagnosis
Diagnosis is the identification of the nature of illnesses or other problems by examining
symptoms. This is made possible by a systematic analysis of the symptoms or signs,
assessment of test results, review of the background, and study of the possible causes.

Prevention
Prevention pertains to aiding individuals to avoid getting sick. This may also refer to detecting
diseases early on so treatment can begin.

Healing
Healing is the restoration of well-being. After suffering from discomfort as a result of bodily
disease, healing occurs when tissues, organs, or the biological system are repaired or renewed.
It is followed by the reappearance of normal functions of the body.

Diagnosis, Prevention, and Healing

To easily understand, let us check this example.

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome or AIDS is an illness characterized by vulnerability

to infections and diseases as a result of weakened immune system. This is caused by a Human
Immunodeficiency Virus or HIV. Symptoms include fevers, weight loss, fatigue, or night sweats.

Diagnosis:
The doctor can diagnose HIV by testing blood for the existence of HIV antibodies or disease-
fighting proteins.

Prevention:
The cure or vaccine for HIV is yet to be discovered. People are asked to practice protected sex,
and avoid sharing needles for injection.

Healing:
Despite the absence of drugs to combat HIV, researchers have designed therapies that extend
years and quality life.

Learning the diagnosis, prevention, and healing process will not lessen the pain a person faces
when afflicted with a certain ailment, but it inevitably makes us more aware. It gives people the
notion that after naming a disease and learning how to stop it, healing begins.
The Cultural Diversity of Healing Practices
The vast variety healing practices are found around the world and represented in most urban
areas. A general model of healing includes the physiological processes central to the biomedical
theory and the practice of healing that have physiological, psychological, and social effects.

Traditional
The World Health Organization notes that traditional medicine refers to traditional
Chinese medicine, Indian ayurveda, and Arabic unani medicine, as well as to various
forms of indigenous medicine around the world. Traditional medicine accounts for
approximately 40 % of health care in China, and 80 % in Africa, with methods including the use
of herbal medicines and animal parts or minerals, manual therapies, and spiritual
therapies to maintain well-being, to diagnose and treat illness (World Health Organization
2002).

Western
Western medicine is an evidence-based treatment of medical conditions with medications by
medical practitioners and other healthcare providers who engage methods developed according
to Western medical and scientific traditions. Its origin can be traced in countries in Europe and
Americas; thus, the name. Examples include chemotherapy, surgery, and
radiation performed by doctors, specialists, therapists, and nurses.

Alternative
Alternative medicine is any healing practice not supported by scientific method and
biomedicine but is believed to have the same effects with that of prescribed medicine. It tries to
prevent and treat different conditions with techniques such as healing touch, energy, and
herbal medicines. Examples are acupuncture, chiropractic medicine, magnetic field

Keypoints

 Health is a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being, and not merely
the absence of disease or infirmity.
 Diagnosis is the identification of the nature of illnesses or other problems by
examination of the symptoms.
 Prevention pertains to aiding individuals to avoid getting sick.
 Healing is the restoration of well-being.
 Traditional medicine is the use of herbal medicines, animal parts or minerals, manual
therapies, and spiritual therapies to maintain well-being, to diagnose, and to treat
illness.
 Western medicine is the treatment of medical conditions with medications by medical
practitioners and healthcare providers who engage methods that are developed
according to Western medical and scientific traditions.
 Alternative medicine is not supported by scientific method and biomedicine, but is
believed to have the same effects with that of prescribed medications.
 TOPIC: Health as a Human Right

Health

 It is defined as the state of a person being free of any illnesses or injuries with complete
physical, mental, and social well-being.
 Health becomes a dynamic condition because of a body's constant adaptation and
adjustment in response to the changes in his environment.

Health as Human Right

Health is wealth as they always say. It might sound cliché, but it is a simple truth. If a member
of the society is unhealthy and sick, there will be a dysfunction in the community. It is the main
reason health is considered as one of the primary concerns in every society. Thus, it became
one of the human rights.

In effect, World Health Organization first articulated the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human
Rights mentioned health as part of the human right.

Human Right to Health

 It means that every person has the right for the highest attainable standard of physical
and mental health which guarantees a health system protection for everyone.
 It also covers the access to all medical services, adequate food, sanitation, decent
housing, healthy working conditions, and clean environment.
Human Right to Health Care
 It means that health care must be financed by the government for the people as a
public good.
 There should be an accessible, acceptable, and good quality of hospitals, clinics, doctors’
service and medicines for everyone, on an equitable basis, when and where it is needed.

Fundamental Human Rights Standards as a Guide in Designing a Health Care System

The design of a health care system must be steered by the following:

Universal Access
The access to health care must be universal, meaning, every person must have access to
comprehensive, affordable, and high quality health care, wherever and whenever it is needed.

Availability
There must be an availability of medical assistance, infrastructures like hospitals and health
centers, well-trained health professionals, goods such as drugs and medical equipment, and
services like care and mental health in all communities.

Quality
All health care provided must be of high quality, guided by quality standards, and are medically
appropriate.

Acceptability and Dignity

Every health care institution must respect the dignity of people, must provide culturally sensitive
care, must comply with medical ethics, and must protect confidentiality. They must be
sympathetic to the needs of every person based on age, culture, gender, and language.

Non-discrimination
Health care must be provided without any discrimination on health status, income, social status,
ethnicity, race, age, gender, disability, language, national origin, or religion.

Transparency
Any health related information must be accessible to every person. This will enable people to
protect their health. Any finance and health care transaction must operate in the most
transparent way.

Participation
Every individual and community must take an active role in all decisions affecting people's right
to health care.
Accountability
All public agencies and private companies must be held accountable for protecting people's
right to healthcare. It can be through enforcing standards, regulations, or independent
compliance monitoring.

Health Care Challenges in the Philippines

The country’s public healthcare system is harmed with problems. Some of these problems are:

 the shortage of health staff,

 the absence of sufficient facilities, and
 the socioeconomic hindrances of the poor in accessing health care.

According to the Philippine Health Service Delivery Profile, only four of the country’s seventeen
regions meet the standard hospital bed to population ratio.
In the proposed budget to be transmitted by Malacañang to Congress for review, PhP 87.1
billion has been allocated to the DOH, almost 50% higher than their 2014 allocation.

Role of Society in Enforcing Health as a Human Right

As society helps to enforce health as a human right, its member will feel secured knowing that
they have a right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health that
guarantees a health system protection for everyone. If every member is secured and is free
from any illness or injury, whether physical or psychological, its functions to society will be
fulfilled. However, if society fails to contribute in enforcing health as a human right, there will
be a dysfunction in the community.

Keypoints
 Health is defined as the state of a person being free of any illnesses or injuries with
complete physical, mental, and social well-being.
 Human Right to Health means that every person has the right for the highest
attainable standard of physical and psychological health which guarantees a health
system protections for everyone.
 Human Right to Health Care means that health care must be financed by the
government to the people as a public good.
 Universal Access refers to the accessibility of any health care whenever and wherever
it is needed.
 Availability relates to the availability of health care infrastructure, well-trained health,
goods, and services.
 Quality refers to the good quality that must be provided by the medical centers and
hospitals.
 Non-discrimination means that health care must be supplied without any
discrimination in intent or effect.
 Transparency means any health-related information must be accessible for every
person concerning information, decision-making, and management.
 Participation means the health care system must enable meaningful public
involvement in all decisions affecting people's right to health care.
  Accountability means the health care system must be accountable to the people it
serves.

SOCIAL AND POLITICAL STRATIFICATION

TOPIC: Social Desirables

Social and Political Stratification

The dictionary defines stratification as 'something that has been arranged into categories.'

Social stratification refers to the kind and degree of distribution of resources within a social
system.

Examples: wealth, status, prestige, and privilege

Political stratification is best explained as the extent to which such inequalities are enclosed
in, or influenced by, political structures and processes.

Examples: involving influence, authority, or power

The Meaning and Characteristics of Social Desirables

Social desirables are factors that affect social stratification. A social hierarchy exists because
of the unequal distribution of social desirables—property, power, and prestige—in a society
where the larger population of financially-challenged individuals have less social desirables than
the smaller group of rich people.

The following describes each social desirable:

 property" income-producing assets that people own (e.g. real estate) that increase
financial wealth
 power: the capacity to influence individuals or activities to achieve wealth and prestige
 prestige: an individual’s status among his peers in society

These three factors dictate one’s place in society. Ideally, the greater social desirable a person
has denotes a higher position in society. Because social desirables come hand in hand, more
top class people become well-known and influential in society and, as such, are treated with
greater care and professionalism.

Examples:

 Service quality in high-end restaurants significantly differ from casual dining venues.
  In significant societal functions, good seats are usually reserved for high-ranking
individuals.
 People quickly follow trends set by powerful and influential people.

The Role of Social Desirables in a Functionalist Perspective

 In a functionalist society, all social elements are seen as contributing factors in
reaching social equilibrium and balance.
 Social desirables serve as rewards for fulfilling certain social goals.
 Inequality is seen as universal and, therefore, allows unequal distribution of power,
prestige, and property without disrupting the social structure.
 The most important positions in society are rewarded the most.

The Role of Social Desirables in a Conflict Perspective

 A conflict perspective views the attainment of social desirables as a constant
competition for scarce resources.
 Inequality greatly exists in a society that drives people to compete for resources,
resulting to social change and continuous conflict.
 People with social desirables are given more importance and priority than ordinary
workers and individuals.
 Social desirables dictate how one should be treated in a society of inequality.

Keypoints
 Social stratification refers to the kind and degree of distribution of resources within a
social system while political stratification is best understood as the extent to which
such inequalities are encapsulated in, or influenced by, political structures and
processes.
 Social desirables are factors that influence social stratification.
 A social hierarchy exists because of the unequal distribution of social desirables in a
society where the larger population of financially-challenged individuals have less social
desirables than the smaller group of rich people.
 In a functionalist society, all social elements are seen as contributing factors in
reaching social equilibrium and balance.
 A conflict perspective views the attainment of social desirables as a constant
competition for scarce resources.
 TOPIC: Social Mobility Systems

Social Mobility and its Systems

Social mobility is the movement of individuals or groups from one social status to another. A
movement may be vertical—going up or down the social hierarchy, or horizontal—simply
changing a social role within the same social class. Oftentimes, social status is seen as mainly
dependent upon socioeconomic factors like power, prestige, and wealth. However, in some
cases, status is determined by cultural or spiritual norms. These variations only specify that
social mobility may also involve systems that may or may not be open to social change.

Social mobility may also be looked into in terms of generational factors.

An intragenerational mobility specifies the vertical or horizontal movement of social status

in the course of one’s lifespan. A man who was poor as a child but became rich as an adult is
an example of this.

On the other hand, intergenerational mobility refers to the movement of social status
across several generations. In this case, a man may be able to live a high-status, lavish life
because of the hardwork of his poor grandparents as blue-collared workers and the
perseverance of his middle-class parents to finish a college degree, eventually uplifting the
financial status of their family and allowing their children to live better lives.

Meaning and Types of Social Mobility Systems

A social mobility system may be an open or closed system. As expected, an open system is
less constrictive compared to a closed one. Below are their descriptions.

Open System

 This is composed of achieved statuses where social status is gained through merit or
effort.
 Its members have access to different resources depending upon their social status.
 No formal restrictions on marriage across classes is emphasized.
 Social mobility is possible.

Example: class system

Closed System

 This is composed of ascribed statuses where societal membership is defined upon or

prior to birth.
 Its members strictly follow spiritual and cultural norms as a way of life.
 Mobility from one group to another is not possible.
 Decision-making is also based on cultural and spiritual norms.
 At present, it is greatly implemented in some parts of India.
Example: caste system

Social Mobility Systems: Functionalist and Conflict Perspectives

Social stratification involves various perspectives such as the functionalist and conflict points of
view. In a functionalist view of stratification, all factors involved within the social structure
are seen as functional aspects that maintain social balance and equilibrium.

Meanwhile, a conflict perspective of stratification implies that society is in constant

conflict, especially with the distribution of resources, due to the existence of inequality where
higher-ranking people are given priority and importance than lower ones.

Social Inequality and the Social Mobility System

Inequality between open and closed systems must be seen as different in terms of underlying
factors. Inequalities in an open system would involve socioeconomic concerns.

Meanwhile, inequalities in a closed system may involve power and cultural relations.
Responding to such inequalities in a closed system would be relatively unsuccessful compared
to responding in an open system.

Keypoints

 Social mobility is the horizontal or vertical movement from one social status to
another by individuals or groups.
  Intragenerational mobility specifies a vertical or horizontal movement of social
status in the course of one’s lifespan.
 Intergenerational mobility refers to movement of social status across several
generations.
 A class system is an open system where status is achieved from merit or effort.
 A *caste system *is a closed system where membership is ascribed at birth.
 Social inequality is evident in both systems; however, it is the class system that can
easily address and resolve these inequalities.

TOPIC: Social Inequalities

Social, Political, and Cultural Capital

Capital is accumulated labor that can produce profits or expand in form. The misconception is
that capital only consists of financial value, but according to Bourdieu, capital can take three
forms—social, political, and cultural. These forms of capital initiate and significantly contribute
to social inequalities.

Social Capital
 It is a network of mutual relationships within a particular social group.
 It deals with interactions that strengthen group solidarity.

Political Capital
 It involves passing on public political policies to build up "goodwill" with the public.
 Public goodwill may be utilized whenever socially controversial policies or bills need to
be approved without damaging public interest for politicians.

Cultural Capital
 It is an accumulation and sharing of symbolic elements of society (e.g. skill, language,
mannerism) within a specific social class.
 It may be embodied by a person, objectified by tangible materials, or institutionalized by
qualifications or titles.

Minority Groups
Minority groups are groups composed of less-dominant classifications in a society that
experience disproportionately lower opportunities than their dominant counterparts. Minority
groups are characterized by distinct physical or cultural traits, unequal social treatment,
subordination in society, and high-level of group solidarity.

Some relevant issues involving minority groups:

Gender Inequality
 In some countries, women are paid relatively lower than men due to their sexuality and
biological differences.
  The LGBT community has always been treated differently and discriminatively because
they do not fall within a biologically-defined group.

Ethnic Minorities
 Because some minorities live traditionalistic lives far away from the city and technology,
and some may appear differently than usual, they have been consistently labelled and
treated as people with minimal knowledge and capabilities.
 Lack of resources easily available for many are not utilized within their group, thus, they
receive negative attention from the dominant public.

Other Minorities
 This may include people with disabilities or people with religions that are less prevalent
in society.
 These minorities experience discrimination at work, especially when the physically
challenged have physical limitations, while the religious have practices and beliefs that
are greatly disagreed upon by the majority.

Minority Groups in Functionalist and Conflict Societies

The existence of minority groups in functionalist and conflict societies are also embedded in
each type of society’s principles.

In functionalist societies, minorities also play social roles that contribute to social balance
and equilibrium. However, these functions are bound by limitations and social norms.

In conflict societies, minority groups are seen as lower class individuals that will not be able
to keep up with the consistent competition occurring within the environment. In both societies,
discrimination against minorities is possible.

Keypoints
 Capital is accumulated labor that can produce profits or expand in form. It may involve
social, political, and cultural capital.
 Minority groups are groups composed of less-dominant classifications in a society that
experience disproportionately lower opportunities than their dominant counterparts.
 Social inequality may occur based on gender, religion, ethnicity, or physical capability.
 In both functionalist and conflict societies, minority groups are treated unequally
compared to the dominant group.
TOPIC: Global Inequalities

The state is the institution implementing the functions of the government.

A non-state actor is an individual or organization that has powerful economic, political, and
social power but is not allied with any particular country or state.

As influential persons or groups, the non-state actor has the capability to influence decision-
making in any national, or even international, concern. The state recognizes the value of non-
state actors in the achievement and implementation of goals in the national and global
community.

The Meaning and Characteristics of Global Inequality

Global Inequalities involve the concentration of resources among a select number of nations,
as influenced by non-state actors, significantly affecting the living and economic conditions of
non-participating countries. It is usual that resources will be centered on developed countries.
Because of this, developing and poor countries will have to buy these resources from richer
countries, making the cost of living greater while keeping the economic condition and
opportunities the same.

This will lead to poorer quality of life and less special opportunities for developing countries. A
relevant concept involved in global inequality is global stratification, the unequal distribution
of social gaps across nations that are usually seen on the ratio between some deaths versus
some live births per capita as well as life expectancy. This concept describes the quality of life
and socio-economic capabilities of nations to support such lives.

Examples:

 Locally-produced goods that have imported ingredients will still be priced higher.
 Salaries for the same job titles in two economically different countries will be
significantly different.
 The risk for social inequality between a developing country’s classes may become
greater.

Global Stratification in Functionalist and Conflict Perspectives

Functionalist Perspective
 Global stratification is seen as a method of maintaining continued health and viability of
all populations.
 Positive reasons are considered for the existence of global inequalities.

Conflict Perspective
 Global stratification allows for capable nations to compete for limited resources.
 Healthier, more organized nations have greater chances of acquiring goods or materials.
Implications of Global Inequality in Developing Nations
The world has become “wealthier” since 2001, but according to research, 71% of the total
population own only 3% of the global wealth. European and Western countries handle the rest
of the wealth. In projection, less developed countries will have fewer opportunities and
capabilities in the years to come. At 97% of the total global wealth, these rich countries may
quickly acquire resources available to African and Asian countries. Having an inverse
relationship, the more developed these countries get, the poorer the developing countries will
be.

Addressing Global Inequalities

Because global inequalities are at the macro-level, it is also emphasized that they are focused
on the same way.

Below are some methods by which global inequalities may be addressed:

 Ownership of properties and inclusiveness of the lower class

 Inclusive partnership across nations that focus on technological advancements and
innovations
 Revise taxation plans, ensuring lower taxes for poorer people
 Monitoring and stopping labor abuse through higher wages, fewer work hours, bonuses,
health benefits, and non-contractualization

Key Points
 Global Inequalities involve the concentration of resources among a select number of
nations, significantly affecting the living and economic conditions of non-participating
countries.
 Global stratification is the unequal distribution of social gaps across nations that are
usually seen on the ratio between the number of deaths versus the number of live births
per capita as well as life expectancy.
 In a functionalist society, global stratification is seen as a method of maintaining
continued health and viability of all populations.
 A conflict perspective views global stratification as allowing for capable nations to
compete for limited resources.

TOPIC: Sources of Cultural, Social, and Political Change: Innovation

Cultural, Social, and Political Change
 Culture is a learned, shared, symbolic system of norms and values, beliefs, and
attitudes that molds or shapes and influences perception and behavior of human beings
– an abstract "mental blueprint" or "mental code."
 Cultural change is the modification or discontinuance of existing tried and tested
procedures transmitted to an individual society from the culture of the past as well as
the introduction of a new set of proceedings.
 Society refers to interacting people who share a culture while culture is the product of
that interaction. In reality, human society and culture cannot exist independently of
each other.
 Social change is the alteration of social interactions, political institutions, stratification
systems, and elements of culture over time.
 Politics refers to the process that determines who shall occupy roles of leadership in
government and how this power shall be exercised.
 Political change is a significant shift in the structure of the government and the
relationship of people to their government. It happens hand in hand with social change,
as the people are the ones that form the government.

Sources of Cultural, Social, and Political Change: Innovation

The advent of technology has led to many discoveries and advancements that were never even
imagined less than 100 years ago. In this lesson, you will be taught on how innovation, as a
technological factor, helps shape society, culture, and politics.

Innovation
 Innovation is an idea, translated into a tangible output, which is believed to produce
excellent service and value, and is replicable at a possible economic cost.
 In a more social context, innovations can be seen as a method for increasing financial
gain through production, employment, alliances, and joint venturing.
 In making innovations, it is reasonably acceptable and reasonable to take risks. It is in
fact believed that innovations are a by-product of well-calculated risks.
 These new changes result in the creation of new products that attract various market
types and consumers.

Types of Innovation
1. Evolutionary Innovation - brought about by technological advances and repetitive
methods to perfect a certain technological trend.
2. Revolutionary Innovation - newly-introduced innovations which may be disruptive
and risky.

The Importance of Innovation

 Creative innovations and solutions pave the way for fostering sustainable growth,
securing jobs, and increasing competitive abilities.
 Through innovations, social problems such as education and poverty are addressed
through the development and introduction of new and feasible methods such as
distance learning, money transfer, and zero-carbon housing.
  Through innovations, an increase in demand for research and development across
different areas of modern living may be given focus.
 The emergence of innovations has become a global realization that traditional methods
of dealing with societal issues may no longer be applicable in modern society.

Applying Innovation to Contemporary Society, Culture, and Politics

Innovation has a tremendous impact on communities around the world. Particularly in
information technology, innovation provides connection among people even when physically
separated. A well-known by-product of innovation is social media that served to accelerate day-
to-day interactions among individuals.

Furthermore, social media platforms and other innovations act as vehicles to spread information
all across the globe. Technology propagates knowledge and discoveries at an unprecedented
speed—bringing in new concepts and ideas that have a socio-cultural and political impact.

Key Points
 Innovation is an idea, translated into a tangible output, which is believed to produce
excellent service and value, and is replicable at a possible economic cost.
 Innovation can be classified into two types—evolutionary or revolutionary.
 The importance of innovation at present rests upon the reality that traditional methods
are not enough to sustain current socio-cultural and political goals.
 A well-known by-product of innovation is social media that served to accelerate day-to-
day interactions among individuals.
 Technology propagates knowledge and discoveries at an unprecedented speed—
bringing in new concepts and ideas that have a socio-cultural and political impact.

TOPIC: Sources of Cultural, Social, and Political Change: Diffusion

Sources of Cultural, Social, and Political Change: Diffusion

As a young person, you may be updated about the latest trends in fashion, social media, and
gaming. These modern trends are greatly influential among the youth. In this lesson, you will
know how these cultural factors play out in society and how these influence you in decision-
making.

Diffusion
Diffusion is the process by which a belief or activity is passed on from one group to another.
The process is catalyzed by communication, social media, and other forms of technology, and
can even occur during the military conquest, missionary works, and tourism.
Diffusion can be likened to the spread of gossip or news. There is always a source of a specific
practice, and with the help of technology, the practice is promulgated to a wider audience that
may eventually adopt the same practice on their own.

Such well- known examples of diffusion are the following:

 Christianity, having started in Israel, has spread internationally and is now known as the
primary religion worldwide.
 Chinatown, a small makeshift village representing the Chinese community, can be found
in many countries all over the world (e.g. There are Chinatowns in the USA, Singapore,
Thailand, and the Philippines.).

Agents of Diffusion
Study the chart below.

Impact of Diffusion on Society, Culture, and Politics

 The process of diffusion allows nations to be united concerning some practices and
activities.
 Despite this, the nations who started a distinct culture are given the chance to introduce
their cultural identity to the world.
 A sharing of best practices, especially in politics and economics, is widely expected
during diffusion.
Key Points
 Diffusion is the process by which a belief or activity is passed on from one group to
another.
 The process is catalyzed by communication, social media, and other forms of
technology, and can even occur during the military conquest, missionary works, and
tourism.
 The agents of diffusion include technology, language, and globalization.
 The process of diffusion allows nations to be united regarding some practices and
activities.

TOPIC: Sources of Cultural, Social, and Political Change: Acculturation and

Assimilation

Sources of Cultural, Social, and Political Change: Acculturation and Assimilation

Society can experience various changes concerning culture, politics, and social relationships.
One factor to consider in understanding these changes involves the active interplay between at
least two cultures that shape society and its people as a whole.
In this lesson, you would be introduced to the processes involved in such societal functions.

Acculturation and Assimilation

Acculturation is the process by which a group gradually adapts to the culture, processes, and
beliefs of another. It is considered as a second culture learning where a person of one distinct
culture learns another culture without forgetting or abandoning his primary culture and belief
system.

Examples:

 A Filipino bachelor decided to migrate to the United States where he sees himself
become a naturalized citizen in ten years.
 Due to warfare in their country, a group of Middle Eastern civilians braved three days of
travel to start a new and safer life in Greece.

Assimilation, on the other hand, is the process by which two cultures are merged to become
one distinct culture. Beliefs, customs, and practices are combined and act as the characterizing
factors of the newly developed culture.

Examples:

 During the Spanish colonial period, the Spaniards forced pre-colonial Filipinos to shift
their religion from Islam or animism to Roman Catholicism.
 With 90% of the seminar attendees being Tagalog speakers, the native Ilocano,
Cebuano, and Hiligaynon speakers had no choice but to use Tagalog in all of their
conversations throughout the 5-week seminar.
Similarities and Differences Between Assimilation and Acculturation

Key Points
 Acculturation is the process by which a minority group gradually adapts to the culture,
processes, and beliefs of a dominant group.
 Assimilation is the process by which two cultures are merged to become one distinct
culture.
 Acculturation is a voluntary activity while assimilation is a forced activity.
 Both assimilation and acculturation alter cultural, social, and political practices of the
state or nation.
 to its culture.

TOPIC: Sources of Cultural, Social, and Political Change: Social Contradictions and
Tensions

Sources of Cultural, Social, and Political Change: Social Contradictions and Tensions
Change in various aspects of society may occur due to the interplay of different factors that
affect social relationships, culture, and politics. In this lesson, you will learn how contradiction
and tension can bring about societal change.

Social Contradiction and Tension

Social conflict (or contradiction) and tension are disturbances believed to be against
social norms and standards and are caused by a group of people. As society evolves, numerous
issues have become an apparent area of concerns by the majority of the population.
As such, irreconcilable differences gradually develop into larger societal challenges that need to
be addressed and resolved. Should these social conflicts and tensions fail to be taken care of, it
is highly likely that more chaos and disorganization will occur in society.

Forms of Social Conflicts and Tensions

Social contradictions/conflicts and tensions may come in various forms. They may also affect
different aspects of society such as culture and politics. Below are some forms of social conflicts
and tensions.

Impact of Conflicts and Tensions to Society, Culture, and Politics

 More human rights violations and higher crime rates are expected to occur as tensions
arise between conflicting groups.
 Politics would have to favor one side over another. This, in turn, would create more
conflict for the unfavored class, possibly leading to more oppression and inequality.
  The possibility of unity and cooperation among conflicting states and nations become
less. This would significantly impact international relations and trade.

Key Points
 Social contradictions/conflicts and tensions are disturbances believed to be
against social norms and standards and are caused by a group of people.
 As society evolves, numerous issues have become visible areas of concern by the
majority of the population.
 Forms of social conflict and tensions include inter-ethnic conflict, class struggle,
armed conflict, terrorism, protests, and gender issues.

- One expected impact of social conflicts and tensions would be the increase in human
rights violations and higher crime rates.

Impact of Assimilation and Acculturation to Society, Culture, and Politics

 Assimilation and acculturation both create and develop unique cultures specified by
markers such as food, dialect, belief system, or traditions.
 Political interests become larger as new cultures, and new types of people can be seen
as significant factors in shifting political focus (e.g. A country with a large number of
immigrants may consider creating new laws that cater to the well-being of such people).
 Social interactions become more vast and distinct in such a way that new
communication systems may be developed.

Human Adaptation and Social Change

TOPIC: Global Warming and Climate Change

Global Warming and Climate Change

Many believe that the scorching weather we are experiencing today is a result of global
warming and climate change.

Global warming is the increase in the Earth's temperature caused by greenhouse gases like
carbon dioxide.

Climate change is a result of global warming. It is considered as a long-term shift that

happens in the Earth's atmosphere.

The Causes and Effects of Global Warming and Climate Change

There are both natural and man-made causes of global warming and climate change.
The changes in the climate may naturally be caused by Earth’s activities like volcanic activity,
its orbit around the sun, and many others.

Man-made causes, on the other hand, greatly contribute to the worsening of global warming
and climate change. Some examples that contribute to the phenomenon are burning of fossil
fuels like coal, oil, and natural gases, and continuously converting forests
(deforestation) into industrial, agricultural or residential lands. These human activities
have a higher possibility of speeding up the warming of the planet.

The Philippines is currently experiencing extremely hot weather. The highest temperature to be
recorded in the Philippines for the year is 39.3 degrees Celsius in General Santos City last April
12, 2016.

The hot temperature is not the only problem. The Philippines is presently under what is
considered the strongest El Nino ever experienced. El Nino happens every two to seven years
when the water surface is warmer than usual. The effects of El Nino are lesser rainfalls which
can lead to drought, stronger typhoons, and higher chances of forest fires and grass fires.

New Challenges in Contemporary Societies

Global warming and climate change are starting to alter our life here on Earth.

 The increase in the global temperature has resulted to incidences of forest fires and
grass fires in the mountains such as in Mt. Apo.
 Drought is also rampant in our country, as an effect of a stronger El Nino. Farmers all
over the Philippines are experiencing drought, which makes it harder for them to
produce enough crops for our food supply.
 We had also experienced stronger typhoons in the past years, like typhoon Yolanda.
Typhoon Yolanda greatly devastated parts of Visayas and flooded some areas of Luzon
and Mindanao.

These are only some of the challenges we currently face because of global warming and climate
change. If global warming and climate change will not be controlled, we will experience
stronger typhoons that can result to more damages, we will experience more heat-related
illnesses, there might be higher death rates because of the increase in the heat index, and
many other effects.

Adaptation to New Challenges in the Physical, Social, and Cultural Environment

Adapting to the new challenges brought by climate change is necessary because they are
already unavoidable. Most of the countries are now developing different strategies they can use
to adapt to the challenges of climate change. These adaptation strategies range from
technological responses to policy responses, and changes in the behavior of the people are also
necessary.

 As part of our behavioral change, we are being encouraged to lessen our activities that
contribute to the increase of greenhouse gases. Instead of riding cars, we are
encouraged to ride bicycles, public transportations, or even use carpool so we can
lessen the carbon dioxide coming from automobiles.
  We are also encouraged to utilize our water supply properly and stop the old Filipino
practice of burning our trashes. We must also start conserving our forests and revive
forests that have been victims of deforestation.
 Some societies are also starting to utilize energy from natural resources like wind
energy, water energy, and solar energy. Other societies where food supply has been
affected by climate change have developed crops, seeds, and farming techniques that
can adapt to climate change.

These are only some of the programs developed to help our world adapt to climate change.

Key Points
 Global warming is the increase in the Earth’s temperature caused by greenhouse
gases like carbon dioxide.
 Climate change is considered as a long-term shift that happens in the Earth’s climate.
 The effects of global warming and climate change are drought, stronger typhoons,
higher risk of getting heat-related illnesses, hotter global temperature,
melting of glaciers, higher sea levels, and many others.
 Most countries and societies have started implementing adaptive strategies that can help
them cope with the adverse effects of global warming and climate change.
 Aside from implementing new policies to adapt to global warming and climate change, it
is more important to change our behavior and bad habits.

TOPIC: Transnational Migration and Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs)

Transnational Migration
In this era, people are no longer confined to their local communities. Residents of a certain
location have become mobile if not interested to relocate. Causes of this trend are mostly
economic in nature, with people desiring to provide a better life for themselves and their
families. This phenomenon is known as transnational migration. Aside from economic
reasons, what has propelled this trend is the advent of the Internet.

The Internet has become a venue where people can witness the improved lifestyles from the
developed nations like the United States, Canada, and Japan. Human nature dictates that
people naturally want to improve their living conditions. Hence, skilled and talented people
leave their home countries, journeying to developed countries to seek better employment,
housing, and educational opportunities. Transnational migration then changes the landscapes of
these migrants' home and host countries.

Transnational migration is a social, economic, and political process that affects

those who move, those who stay behind, and the places where they go across
national boundaries.
New Challenges in Contemporary Societies
Transnational migration presents physical, social, and cultural challenges to contemporary
societies.

 Due to "brain drain", foreign workers cause overpopulation and stress in the host
countries and their resources.
 Social challenges for developing countries involve families becoming incomplete as their
members decide to work abroad.
 Parents then have to delegate their responsibilities to close family members like
grandparents or nannies to care for their children.
 Moreover, the entry of foreign workers leads to permanent settlement to the host
countries, hence, diversifying their population.
 Interracial marriages transpire between the migrants and the local people.
 Exchange of ideas and culture occur as migrants interact with the local communities of
their host countries as well, sharing traditions, beliefs, and norms.
 Migrants then bring home new concepts like foreign cuisine and international business
setups.
 Nevertheless, adjustment difficulties and xenophobia (the hatred or fear of foreigners)
pose as cultural challenges.

How Societies Adapt to the Challenges to the Physical, Social, and Cultural
Environments
Governments play a vital role in responding to the physical, social, and cultural challenges
caused by transnational migration. Settlements for migrants are established to address their
housing concerns adequately. For instance, in the United Kingdom, hosting the refugees from
Syria created the tenements in Coventry and Bradford.

As for the social challenges, migrants' affairs are dealt with by government and non-
government organizations. These help families with regards to their needs as migrants or
having migrant workers as family members. Examples are social organizations like the Filipino
communities in Saudi Arabia which were established for socialization and assistance purposes.

Pre-departure orientation seminars are conducted to educate the migrants on adjusting to their
host countries' cultures and people. These facilitate the quiet sailing existence of these migrants
in their host communities and prevent xenophobia and culture shock.

Key Points
 Transnational migration is a phenomenon in which people from developing countries
or nations with less developed economic conditions like the Philippines, Vietnam, and
some African countries move to developed nations like the United States, Canada, Saudi
Arabia, and Japan where economic opportunities like better-paying jobs are present.
  Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs) are skilled professionals like engineers, nurses,
doctors, and other workers like drivers, domestic helpers, and construction workers who
work abroad to seek better economic opportunities. Their remittances are an important
contributor to the Philippine economy.
 The phenomenon of OFWs reached its height in the 1970s when President Ferdinand
Marcos enacted the Philippine Labor Migration Policy due to the lack of jobs in the
country and encouraged the Filipino workers to seek employment to oil-rich nations like
Saudi Arabia. The Philippine Overseas Employment Administration (POEA) is an agency
that was created during the Marcos Administration to oversee the regulation of contracts
of the OFWs.
 Brain drain is a phenomenon in which a developing country suffers because its skilled
laborers migrate to industrialized countries like the United States and Canada to
permanently live and work there. Its opposite is brain gain in which the host countries
of the migrant workers benefit from the services of these outsourced skilled laborers.
 Transnational migration involves physical, social, cultural effects to both the migrants'
home and host countries. These include the brain drain, interracial marriages, and
exchange of ideas.
 Governments play a key role in addressing the physical, social, and cultural challenges
entailed by transnational migration. Housing, social organizations, and pre-departure
orientation seminars are examples of ways on how they help address the concerns of
migrants and resolve issues like xenophobia and other human rights violations.

TOPIC: Response to Change: Inclusive Citizenship and Participatory Governance

Inclusive Citizenship
Democracy is a form of government in which the people are given the voice on how they would
like to be governed and protected by the government, with the latter expected to provide the
premium to their well-being. With democracy's Greek root words being demos, "people"
and kratos, "rule", citizens of democratic countries are understood to be involved in the
government's implementation of laws. Inclusive citizenship is a governing policy in which the
citizens are given a strong feeling that they are a part of the overall society.

By and large, citizens of democratic countries would feel disenfranchised, questioning whether
the government they elected is responding to their needs.

 In the United States, critics of President Barrack Obama remark that he is merely pro-
Black, promoting only the rights of the African-Americans.
 In the Philippines, civil society organizations like the Bagong Alyansang Makabayan
(BAYAN) and the Kilusang Magbubukid ng Pilipinas (KMP) criticize the government for
doing little for the impoverished.

By making the citizens feel that the government values their viewpoints, the people are then
motivated to participate in the elections, civic participation, and military service.
Participatory Governance
 Participatory governance translates the feelings of inclusive citizenship into action.
This concept involves the citizens in the form of civil society activists and government
reformers who establish participatory institutions which enable them to improve their
states. In most democratic jurisdictions, the right to public participation is enshrined by
law as a human right.
 Participatory governance started as a reaction to "direct democracy" involving only the
government in policy-making and leading to rampant corruption and oligarchy (or rule of
the powerful elite few segment of the population). To combat this, citizens' opinions are
then incorporated into the government's complex policy-making process.
 Participatory organizations deliberate and vote on the use of public resources, oversee
the enactment of laws and making them more transparent, and improve the
government's performance. Citizens are also empowered and scarce government
resources are reasonably used.
 The Volunteers against Crime and Corruption (VACC) eradicate criminality and corrupt
practices, aiding the Department of Justice and the Office of the Ombudsman. As the
citizens interact and get involved with their government, their democratic life and social
well-being are improved.

Organized Program of Measures for Community-based Response to Change

To foster inclusive citizenship and participatory governance, leaders of democratic
countries deliver State of the Nation addresses annually, reporting their accomplishments and
agenda for the benefit of their constituents. This manifestation of inclusive citizenship enables
the citizens to feel involved in their government, allowing them freely to voice out their views
about their leader's "report card". E-democracy combines 21st-century information and
communications technology to promote democracy, enabling the citizens to participate
equitably in lawmaking.

Through public opinion polls, the Philippines' Pulse Asia and Social Weather Stations monitor
and disseminate information about salient socio-economic, political, and cultural issues,
periodically measuring the public pulse as an essential ingredient for a robust democracy.

Key Points
 Inclusive citizenship is a governing policy enabling the citizens to participate in
policy-making by the government. Citizens are then given a strong feeling that they are
a valuable component of the overall society. Elections, civic participation, and military
service are some of the ways in which people can experience inclusive citizenship.
 Participatory governance is a form of leadership that involves the citizens in the form
of civil society activists and government reformers establishing participatory institutions
which enable them to take part in improving their democratic governments.
  The State of the Nation addresses of democratic governments' leaders makes the
citizens feel the inclusive citizenship, enabling them freely to voice out their views about
their leader's "report card".
 E-democracy combines 21st-century information and communications technology to
promote democracy, enabling the citizens to participate equitably in lawmaking.
 Through public opinion polls, the Philippines' Pulse Asia and Social Weather Stations
monitor and disseminate information about salient socio-economic, political, and cultural
issues, periodically measuring the public pulse as a key ingredient for a robust
democracy.

TOPIC: Response to Change: New Forms of Media and Social Networking

Traditional Forms of Media

Citizens of a democratic society enjoy the inalienable right to information. They are capable of
knowing what's happening around them, hence, enabling them to conduct their lives properly.
The media plays a vital role in the people's right to public information.
The media is the way on how people obtain relevant news. Traditional forms of media
include printed literature like books, magazines, journals, and newspapers as well
as the television and the radio. Diverse human interests like health, education, the
environment, food, the news, and politics are communicated to the people through the media,
enabling them to become knowledgeable about how they can live well and enjoy their
inalienable right to live.

New Forms of Social Media and Social Networking

Most of us use the terms interchangeably but there is a difference between social media and
social networking.

In the 1990s, the advent of technology gave birth to new forms of media. Tim Berners-Lee, a
British computer scientist, invented the World Wide Web, which is an information space
linking documents and other web resources through URLs and can be accessed via the Internet.
The Internet is a digital form of media that involves the computer serving as an information
highway. The e-mail, e-books, e-zines, and e-journals are offshoots of the Internet and
act as the digital versions of traditional media. Thus, people are no longer confined to getting
the information relevant to their lives in printed ways but can now access them online.

The new forms of media are more interactive that the old one. As the 21st century ushered in,
a different form of media with a social dimension to it emerged. Facebook, Twitter,
YouTube, and Instagram are some of these forms of "social" media sites. Once you
decide what media you are going to use, begin with social networking in any sites to engage
with your audience.

Besides reading relevant details, people can get involved by interacting and reacting to these
sources of information. Through the aid of digital devices like smartphones (like the
iPhone), smart TVs, laptops, and tablet (like the iPad), new media have provided the
people fast and easy access to information.

Challenges to the Use of Social Media and Social Networking

The use of the media is not without flaws. It can also have the disadvantages.

 Cyber-bullying involves the use of electronic communication to bully a person,

typically by sending intimidating and threatening messages.
 Stalking has troubled social media users as they (and their personal information) are
stealthily pursued by unwanted individuals.
 Identity theft involves the fraudulent acquisition and use of a person's private
identifying information like Social Security or driver's license for financial gain.
 Finally, hacking involves illegally obtaining passwords to access another person's
computer, website, or social media account.

Plan of Action for Community-based Response to Change

National governments have been responsible for the enactment of stringent laws and programs
protecting their citizens from cybercrimes.

In the Philippines
 The Cybercrime Prevention Act of 2012 (Republic Act No. 10175) is a law approved
on September 12, 2012. It aims to address legal issues regarding online interactions and
the Internet in the country. Among the cybercrime offenses included in the Act
are cybersex, cybersquatting, child pornography, identity theft, illegal access
to data, and libel. Several petitions have been submitted to the Supreme Court
questioning the constitutionality of the Act. On February 18, 2014, the Supreme Court
ruled the online libel provision of the act to be constitutional, although it struck down
other provisions, including the ones that violated the provisions on double jeopardy. The
petitioners planned to appeal the decision.
 In this connection, Department of Education (DepEd) encourages schools to embrace
cyber wellness program to reduce if not entirely prevent bullying and other cyber abuse
incidents.
In Other Countries
 In 2015, US President Barrack Obama signed the Cybersecurity Act of 2015 into law.
In New York, computer-related crimes are penalized with a fine and at least five years
incarceration.
 In the United Kingdom, the government has allocated £860 million to establish
the National Cyber Security Programme, ensuring that a secure digital environment
can enhance the UK’s economic prosperity, national security, and society.

Key Points
 The media fulfills its role of upholding the citizens' inalienable right to information.
People have to know what's happening around them to be able to conduct their lives
properly.
 Traditional forms of media include printed literature like books, magazines, journals,
and newspapers as well as the television and the radio.
 New forms of media involve the use of technology and are interactive in nature.
 Social media is the media (content) that you upload — whether that is a blog, video,
slideshow, podcast, newsletter, or an eBook.
  Social networking is all about engagement — creating relationships, communicating
with your readers, building your followers, and connecting with your online audience.
 The Cybercrime Prevention Act of 2012 (Republic Act No. 10175) is a law approved
on September 12, 2012. It aims to address legal issues regarding online interactions and
the Internet in the Philippines.
 The Department of Education encourages schools to embrace cyber wellness
program to reduce if not totally prevent bullying and other cyber abuse incidents.
 National governments have been responsible for the enactment of stringent laws
protecting their citizens from cybercrimes like the US Cybersecurity Act of 2015 and
the UK National Cyber Security Programme.

TOPIC: Response to Change: Social Movements

Social Movement
Some citizens do not always accede to how their society is structured. They would reckon that
there are better ways to live so they would then gather together to form a social movement.
A social movement is a large group of individuals congregating to either effect or prevent
social changes.

Social movements express the dissatisfaction of the people in a given society. Feeling strongly
about a particular cause, the members usually feel that they are deprived, resenting their living
conditions, and demanding improvements. Vastly organized, they intend to transform the
society by influencing public opinion and government policy-making.

Modern social movements utilize the Internet and social media to mobilize the people globally,
facilitating civic engagement and collective action. These groups do not always succeed though
because total government control (like banning them), public ridicule, and co-optation (or
winning over a social movement) occur.

Emergence of Social Movements

Social movements began in England in the late 18th century. John Wilkes, a controversial
political figure, vigorously disputed the government in defense of the impoverished. The Society
for the Supporters of the Bill of Rights in 1769 is considered as the first social movement
involving public conferences, the unprecedented dissemination of pamphlets, and protests.

German sociologist Lorenz von Stein introduced the term "social movements" in 1848.
Demanding reform, the Russian Revolution of 1917 was carried out by the poor, resulting to
labor, socialist, and communist movements.

The New Social Movements emerged after World War II. With radical reform and change
desired, the rights which these groups advocate are for women, the gay, peace, civil, pro-
choice, anti-nuclear, anti-globalization, and the environment. It was termed New Social
Movement because it departed from the traditional social movements which is focused on
economic issues. The New Social Movement that is very evident in the 1960s is focused more
on values and social identities mentioned above.

Kinds of Social Movements

Social movements come in diverse forms.

Conservative movements

 resist changes in the society like the anti-technology group, Luddites

Reactionary movements

 defend returning to traditional lifestyles as demonstrated by the Ku Klux Klan

Reform movements

 support change like the marriage-opposed Free Love Movement

Radical movements

 replace existing social orders with a totally different social or political structure like the
American Civil Rights Movement, the Occupy Movement, Black Lives Matter, and the
Arab Spring

Expressive movements

 aim to improve their members' lives, not necessarily imposing their ideas on others like
the Hippie Movement

Escapist movements

 advocate retreating from the society through isolation like religious cults

Assimilationist movements

 help minority groups become absorbed in the mainstream society, demanding equal
treatment

Pluralist movements

 defend respect for diversity like the gay rights movement

Alternative movements

 influence the people to change their lifestyles like the vegans

Group-focus movements

 concentrate on changing factions, transforming into or joining a political party

Persuading the People to Support Social Movements' Causes

Members of social movements seek adherents through various means.

 Advertisements, films, speeches, and posters are utilized to carry out educational
persuasion.
 Political persuasion involve financing political candidates' campaigns, running for
public office, or persuading government officials.
 Direct or violent tactics involve social movements taking matters into their own
hands through extreme measures like boycotting a business employing slave workers,
demolishing abortion clinics, and liberating animals from experimental laboratories.
 Non-violent tactics involve civil disobedience like Mohandas Gandhi's peaceful protest
against the British imperialists.

Key Points

 A social movement is a large group of individuals congregating to either effect or

prevent social changes. Members express the dissatisfaction of the people, seeking to
transform the society by influencing public opinion and government policy-making.
 Modern social movements utilize the Internet and social media to mobilize the people
globally, facilitating civic engagement and collective action. However, these groups do
not always succeed because total government control (like banning them), public
ridicule, and co-optation (or winning over a social movement) occur.
 Social movements began in England in the late 18th century. John Wilkes, a
controversial political figure, vigorously disputed the government in defense of the
impoverished. The Society for the Supporters of the Bill of Rights in 1769 is considered
as the first social movement involving public conferences, the unprecedented
dissemination of pamphlets, and protests. German sociologist Lorenz von Stein coined
the term "social movements" in 1848.
 The New Social Movements emerged after World War II which focuses more on
values and social identity which is different from the traditional social movement which
focuses on economic issues.
 Social movements come in diverse forms such as conservative movements, reactionary
movements, and assimilationist movements.
 Social movements use educational, political, direct, and non-violent tactics to
persuade people to support their causes.