Introduction to Transistors

February 17, 2019 By Administrator 2 Comments

In this article, we will see a brief Introduction to Transistors by taking a look at the predecessor
to transistor i.e. the Vacuum Tubes, a history of Transistors, electrical circuit symbols of
Transistors, its basis operation and also ist modes of operation.

NOTE: This will be a brush-up to the topic of transistors and won’t be too technical.

Table of Contents

 Vacuum Tubes
 A Brief History of Transistors
o Rise of Transistors
 What is a Transistor?
 Transistor Symbols
 Operation Modes of the Transistor
o Saturation Mode
o Cut-off Mode
o Active Mode
 Back to Back Connection of a Diode

Vacuum Tubes

Before the invention of transistors vacuum tubes played a main role in electronics. Vacuum tubes
are also called as electronic tubes or valves. Vacuum tube consists of an anode and the cathode.

These anode and cathode are placed in a tightly closed glass tube in which vacuum is filled. The
cathode is heated by a filament which helps the cathode to emit the electrons.

In early cases, directly the cathode acts as filament, thus when this cathode is heated then
electrons will emit from its surface. Later external filament which heats the cathode indirectly is
introduced.

The produced electrons will flow towards the anode. This creates the potential difference
between an anode and the cathode thus develops an electric current in the circuit. The filament
must be continuously charged with constant power in order to heat the cathode.

To direct these electrons flow evenly towards anode external electrodes are used which are
commonly called as grids. This construction makes circuit bulky and increase cost.

In early days these vacuum tubes are used in the manufacture of first generation Computers,
Radios and Televisions. Later these are used for military applications and tube based audio
amplifiers. But later these vacuum tubes are replaced by Transistors and Diodes.
Because the vacuum tubes are large in size, a bit expensive and consumes more power when
compared with transistors. So, these restrictions of vacuum tubes are overcome by the transistors.
Transistors do not require any filament current.

BACK TO TOP

A Brief History of Transistors

Fed up with the large power consumption and low reliability of vacuum tubes director of
research, Kelly, at bell laboratories assigned William Shockley to investigate on semiconductors
to replace these tubes. John Bardeen, Walter Brattain conducted experiments under the guidance
of Shockley.

William Shockley experimented on field – effect amplifier but failed. But later John Bardeen,
Walter Brattain researched and discovered that electrons form a barrier on the surface which is
unknown until then. This breakthrough leads to the discovery of first transistor.

In December, 1947 their experiment with two gold contacts applied to the germanium crystal
produced an output signal power greater than the input signal. Thus the first transistor
technology developed was known as point contact device and this technology was regulated by
higher performance types. This was first reported in June, 1948.

Image Resource Link: www.ece.umd.edu/class/enee312-2.S2005/

Later the limitations of point contact device, made Shockley alone, to invent junction transistor
which dominated the point contact device and is easy to manufacture.
The trading of transistors started from 1950’s and first commercial transistor was used in
telephonic equipment and military computers in 1952. In 1953 transistor is used in deaf aid, a
medical device.

Rise of Transistors

This effective rise of transistor technology is mainly due to donation and encouragement of many
companies including Bell Labs, Motorola, Philco, Raytheon, RCA, Sylvania and Texas
Instruments.

In the fabrication of amplifying crystals semiconductor material plays a major role. The first
transistor is made of semiconductor material, germanium in 1950s. When an electrical voltage is
applied, this semiconductor material is neither fully conducting nor fully insulating.

Later silicon transistors are developed. Due to successful performance at high temperatures
silicon transistor are more used from the year 1954. Commercial silicon transistors were
available from Texas Instruments. Later extensive research is made from silicon transistors and
now this lead to development of integrated circuit and microprocessor devices.

Later in 1959, first field effect transistor was developed. It consists of three layers metal (M-
gate) ,Oxide(O-insulation ), silicon (S-semiconductor).

Initially the material used for transistor case shape is plastic epoxy. But the plastic case devices
may degrade over time. So, the combinations of plastic and metal case shapes are developed in
mid 1960s.

During manufacturing of a transistor, the semiconductor material is processed with the addition
of small amounts of chemical impurities, such as arsenic or antimony. This process was referred
as “doping”.

It is required in order to create proper crystalline structure in the semiconductor to allow

transistor action. Depending on the doping elements used in semi-conductor material, transistors
can be classified as either PNP or NPN. PNP and NPN are representations of the electrical
polarity to be used with the transistor.

For example, a PNP transistor would require a specific set of Positive and Negative voltage
polarities to be used for the three transistor terminals in circuit applications. NPN transistor
requires all circuit voltage polarities to be reversed from those used for a PNP. Many circuit
applications require the both PNP and NPN transistors.

BACK TO TOP

What is a Transistor?

Transistor is symmetrical to a vacuum triode and relatively very small in size. Transistor is a
composition of two words Transfer and Varistor. A transistor consists of three layers of semi
conductor material and each layer is having the capability of transferring current to the other
layers.

This three layer semiconductor device consisting of either two n-type and one p-type layers of
material or two p-type and one n-type layers of material. First type is called an npn transistor,
while the other is called a pnp transistor respectively.

Germanium and silicon are most preferable semiconductor materials which conducts electricity
in semi energetic way. By the process of doping to the semi conductor material, the result adds
additional electrons to the material or produce holes in the material.

The outer layers have widths much greater than the inserted p-type or n-type material that is
typically in 10:1 ratio or less. Lower doping level decreases the conductivity and increases the
resistance of this material, by limiting the number of free carriers.

The difference between the diode and the transistor is: A diode is made up of two layers and one
junction. Transistor is made of three layers with two junctions. A transistor can acts as an on/off
switch or an amplifier.

BACK TO TOP

Transistor Symbols

Easy way to remember these transistor symbols is that

 PNP-Points In Permanently
 NPN-Never Points iN

In the symbol of a transistor the arrow indicates the direction of the current flow.
The positive and negative states of voltage and direction of current flow, are always be in an
opposite direction in PNP transistor with respect to NPN transistor. However the operation
performed by the NPN and PNP transistors are same.

BACK TO TOP

Operation Modes of the Transistor

There are four modes of operations they are saturation, cutoff, active and reverse active.

Saturation Mode

In this mode transistor acts as a switch. From collector to emitter the current will flow
unconditionally (short circuit). Both diodes are in state of forward biased.

Cut-off Mode

In this mode also transistor acts like a switch but there is no current flow from collector to
emitter (open circuit). There is no current flow through both emitter and collector terminals.

Active Mode

In this mode the transistor acts like an amplifier that is the current from the collector terminal to
emitter terminal is corresponding to the current through the base terminal. Base will amplify the
current moving into the collector terminal and outgoing from the emitter terminal.

Reverse active Mode

The current from the collector terminal to emitter terminal is corresponding to the current
through the base terminal but this flow is in reverse direction.
 BACK TO TOP

Back to Back Connection of a Diode

The depletion layer developed at pair of junctions namely collector-base and emitter-base of the
transistor mainly due to current carriers only. In the case of two diodes connected back to back,
the formed depletion region cannot pass current carries that are for both holes and electrons.

We already know that due to the thin base layer only the transistor is working and this layer is
nothing but the inserted part of the emitter and collector. Due to this the emitter and collector
comes very impending to each other. When strong electric field is applied then this grants the
majority carriers to pass from the emitter.

These majority carriers will spread as minority carriers over the base and inside the depletion
area of the junction at base-collector. In simple logic, device with one NP junction and one PN
junction that acts like two diodes are placed back to back.

At this condition when we apply large voltages across the base terminal the current cannot flow
through the circuit. Because the applied voltage makes one barrier large and another barrier
small from which we cannot pass the current.

In order to overcome this situation besides the main voltage supply which is placed at the top of
the N-P terminals a small voltage source is added at the lower P-N levels. Due to this small
voltage supply it will push the electrons in to the holes part.

The main voltage supply will control the current flow. By these two actions at the depletion layer
the current barriers are reduced. Thus there will be high ascending increase in the voltage
through the transistor.

BACK TO TOP
 NEXT – TRANSISTOR TYPES

Filed Under: Transistors

Classification and Different Types of

Transistors | BJT, FET, NPN, PNP
April 23, 2019 By Administrator 17 Comments

In this tutorial, we will learn about the classification and different Types of Transistors. The
Transistor became an essential component in modern electronics and we cannot imagine the
World without Transistors.

Table of Contents

 Introduction
 Transistor Tree Diagram
 Types of Transistors
o Junction Transistors
o NPN Transistor
o PNP Transistor
o FET (Field Effect Transistor)
o JFET (Junction-Field Effect Transistor)
o N-Channel JFET
o P-Channel JFET
o MOSFET
o N-Channel MOSFET
o P- Channel MOSFET
o Transistors Based on Function
o Small Signal Transistors
o Small Switching Transistors
o Power Transistors
o High Frequency Transistors
o Photo Transistor
o Unijunction Transistors:

Introduction

Transistor is a semiconductor device which is used to amplify the signals as well as in switching
circuits. Generally transistor is made of solid material which contains three terminals such as
emitter (E), Base (B) and Collector (C) for connections with other components in the circuit.
Some transistors contains fourth terminal also i.e. substrate (S). Transistor is one of the active
components.
From the time of first transistor invention to present days the transistors are classified into
different types depending on either construction or operation, they are explained using tree
diagram as below.

BACK TO TOP

Transistor Tree Diagram

The transistors classification can be understood by observing the above tree diagram. Transistors
are basically classified into two types; they are Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT) and Field
Effect Transistors (FET). The BJTs are again classified into NPN and PNP transistors. The FET
transistors are classified into JFET and MOSFET.

Junction FET transistors are classified into N-channel JFET and P-channel JFET depending on
their function. MOSFET transistors are classified into Depletion mode and Enhancement mode.
Again depletion and enhancement mode transistors are classified into N-channel JFET and P-
channel.

Nowadays, the vacuum tubes are replaced with transistors because the transistors have more
benefits over vacuum tubes. Transistors are small in size and it requires low voltage for operation
and also it has low power dissipation. Due to these reasons the transistor is used in many
applications such as amplifiers, switching circuits, oscillators and also in almost all electronic
circuits.

BACK TO TOP
Types of Transistors

Transistor is the proper arrangement of different semiconductor materials. General

semiconductor materials used for transistor are silicon, germanium, and gallium-arsenide.
Basically the transistors are classified depending on their structure. Each type of transistors has
their own characteristics, advantages and disadvantages.

Some transistors are designed primarily for switching purpose, other side some are designed for
amplification purpose and some transistors are designed for both amplification and switching
purposes. Depending on the structure the transistors are classified into BJT and FET.

BACK TO TOP

Junction Transistors

Junction transistor is generally called as Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT). The BJT transistors
have three terminals named emitter (E), Base (B), Collector (C). The name itself indicates that it
has two junctions between p-type and n-type semiconductors. The BJT transistors are classified
in to NPN and PNP transistors depending on the construction.

Unlike FET transistors, the BJT transistors are current-controlled devices. If small amount of
current flows through the base of a BJT transistor then it causes to flow large current from
emitter to collector. The BJT transistors have low input impedance and it causes to flow large
current through the transistor.

The BJT transistors are only the transistors which are turned ON by the input current which is
given to the base. Bipolar junction transistors can operate in three regions, they are

 Cut-off Region: Here the transistor is in ‘OFF’ state i.e the current flowing through the
transistor is zero.
 Active Region: Here the transistor acts as an amplifier.
 Saturation Region: Here the transistor is in fully ‘ON’ state and also works as a closed
switch.

BACK TO TOP

NPN Transistor

NPN is one of the two types of Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT). The NPN transistor consists
of two n-type semiconductor materials and they are separated by a thin layer of p-type
semiconductor. Here the majority charge carriers are electrons and holes are the minority charge
carriers. The flowing of electrons from emitter to collector forms the current flow in the
transistor through the base terminal.

A small amount of current at base terminal causes to flow large amount current from emitter to
collector. Nowadays the generally used bipolar transistor is NPN transistor, because the mobility
of electrons is greater than mobility of holes. The standard equation for the currents flowing in
the transistor is

IE = IB + IC

The symbols and structure for NPN transistors are given below.

BACK TO TOP

PNP Transistor

The PNP is another type of Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT). The PNP transistors contain two
p-type semiconductor materials and are separated by a thin layer of n-type semiconductor. The
majority charge carriers in the PNP transistors are holes and electrons are minority charge
carriers. The arrow in the emitter terminal of transistor indicates the flow of conventional
current. In PNP transistor the current flows from Emitter to Collector.

The PNP transistor is ON when the base terminal is pulled to LOW with respect to emitter. The
symbol and structure for PNP transistor is shown below.

BACK TO TOP

FET (Field Effect Transistor)

The Field-Effect-Transistor (FET) is another transistors type. Basically the FET transistors have
three terminals they are gate (G), Drain (D) and Source (S). FET transistors are classified into
Junction Field Effect transistors (JFET) and Insulated Gate FET (IG-FET) or MOSFET
transistors. For the connections in the circuit we also consider fourth terminal called base or
substrate. The FET transistors have control on the size and shape of a channel between source
and drain which is created by applied voltage. The FET transistors are uni-polar transistors
because they perform single channel operation where as BJT transistors are bipolar junction
transistors. The FET transistors have high current gain than BJT transistors.

BACK TO TOP

JFET (Junction-Field Effect Transistor)

The Junction-Field-Effect transistor (JFET) is an earliest and simple type of FET transistors.
These JFETs are used as switches, amplifiers and resistors. This transistor is a voltage controlled
device. It doesn’t need any biasing current. The voltage applied between gate and source controls
the flow of electric current between source and drain of a transistor. The JFET transistors are
available in both N-channel and P-channel types.

BACK TO TOP

N-Channel JFET

In N-channel JFET the current flow is due to the electrons. When voltage is applied between gate
and source, a channel is formed between source and drain for current flow. This channel is called
N-channel. Nowadays N-channel JFET transistor is most preferable type than P-channel JFET.
The symbols for N-channel JFET transistor are given below.

BACK TO TOP
P-Channel JFET

In this JFET transistor the current flow is because of holes. The channel between source and
drain is called P-channel. The symbols for P-channel JFET transistors are given below. Here
arrow marks indicates the direction of current flow.

BACK TO TOP

MOSFET

Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET) is most useful type of among all
transistors. The name itself indicates that it contains metal gate terminal. The MOSFET has four
terminals drain, source, gate and body or substrate (B). MOSFET has many advantages over BJT
and JFET, mainly it offer high input impedance and low output impedance. It is used in low
power circuits mainly in chip designing technologies.

The MOSFET transistors are available in depletion and enhancement types. Further the depletion
and enhancement types are classified into N-channel and P-channel types.

BACK TO TOP

N-Channel MOSFET

The MOSFET having N-channel region between source and drain is called N-channel MOSFET.
Here the source and gate terminals are heavily doped with n-type materials and substrate is
doped with p-type semiconductor material. Here the current flow between source and drain is
because of electrons. The gate voltage controls the current flow in the circuit. N-channel
MOSFET is most preferable than P-channel MOSFET because the mobility of electrons is high
than mobility of holes. The symbols for N-channel MOSFET transistors are given below.

BACK TO TOP

P- Channel MOSFET

The MOSFET having P-channel region between source and drain is called as P-channel
MOSFET. Here the source and drain terminals are heavily doped with P-type material and the
substrate is doped with N-type material. The current flow between source and drain is because of
holes concentration. The applied voltage at gate will controls the flow of current through channel
region. The symbols for P-channel MOSFET transistors in depletion and enhancement types are
given below.
 BACK TO TOP

Transistors Based on Function

Transistors are also classified depending on the functions that mean what the transistors do.
Different types of transistors based on their function are explained below.

BACK TO TOP

Small Signal Transistors

The basic function of small signal transistors is to amplify small signals even these transistors are
used for switching purpose. Small signal transistors are available in market in the form of NPN
and PNP transistors. We can see some value on the body of small signal transistor this value
indicates hFE of transistor.

Depending on this hFE value we can understand the capacity of transistor to amplify the signal.
The hFE values are present within the range of 10 to 500. The collector current value of these
transistors is 80 to 600mA. This type of transistors operates with the frequency range of 1 to
300MHz. The name of the transistor itself indicates that these transistors amplify small signals
which use small voltages and currents, such as few milli volts and milli amperes of current.

Resource link: learningaboutelectronics.com/images/Small-signal-

transistor.png

Small signal transistors are used in almost all types of electronic equipments and also these
transistors are used in several applications, some of them are ON or OFF switches for general
use, LED diode driver, Relay driver, Audio mute function, Timer circuits, Infrared diode
amplifier, Bias supply circuits etc.

BACK TO TOP

Small Switching Transistors

Small switching transistors are the transistors which are primarily used for switching after that
also used for amplification. Like small signal transistors, small switching transistors are also
available in the form of NPN and PNP and these type of transistors are also have hFE values.
The hFE value range for these transistors is from 10 to 200. At hFE value 200 the transistors are
not good amplifiers even though they act as better switches. The collector current values ranges
from 10 to 1000mA. These transistors are used mostly in switching applications.
 Resource link: learningaboutelectronics.com/images/Small-
switching-transistor.png

BACK TO TOP

Power Transistors

The transistors which are used in the high power amplifiers and power supplies are called as
“power amplifiers”. The collector terminal of this transistor is connected to the base of a metal
device and this structure acts as heat sink which dissipates excess power for the applications.

These types of transistors are available in the form of NPN, PNP and Darlington transistors. Here
the collector current values range from 1 to 100A. The operating frequency range from 1 to
100MHz. The power values of these transistors are range from 10 to 300W. The name of the
transistor itself indicates that the power transistors are used in the applications where high power,
high voltage and high current are required.

Resource
link: learningaboutelectronics.com/images/Power-transistors.png

BACK TO TOP

High Frequency Transistors

High frequency transistors are used for small signals which operate at high frequencies and these
are used in high speed switching applications. High frequency transistors are also called as RF
Transistors. These transistors have maximum frequency values of about 2000MHz. The collector
current (IC) value ranges from 10 to 600mA. These types of transistors are also available in the
form of NPN and PNP. These are mainly used in the applications of high frequency signals and
also this transistors must be ON or OFF at high speeds only. These transistors are used in HF,
VHF, UHF, CATV and MATV oscillator and amplifier circuits.

Resource link: learningabouelectronics.com/images/High-frequency-

transistors.jpg

BACK TO TOP

Photo Transistor

Photo transistors are the transistors which operate depending on the light that means these
transistors are light sensitive. The general photo transistor is nothing but a bipolar transistor
which contains light sensitive area instead of base terminal. The photo transistors have only 2
terminals instead of general 3 terminals. The transistor operates depending on the light. When the
light sensitive area is dark then no current flows in transistor i.e. transistor is in OFF state.

Resource link: learningaboutelectronics.com/images/Phototransistors.jpg

When light sensitive area is exposed to light then a small amount of current generates at base
terminal and it causes to flow large current from collector to emitter. The photo transistors are
available in both BJT and FET transistor types. These are named as photo-BJTs and photo-FETs.

Unlike photo-BJTs, the photo-FETs are generating gate current by using light which controls the
current flow between drain and source terminals. Photo-FETs are more sensitive to light than
photo-BJTs. The symbols for photo-BJT and photo-FETs are shown above.

BACK TO TOP

Unijunction Transistors:

Resource link: learningaboutelectronics.com/images/Unijunction-transistor.png

Unijunction transistors are used only as electrically controlled switches. These transistors do not
contain any amplification characteristics because of their design. These are generally three lead
transistors. Now we see the operation of unijunction transistor. If there is no potential difference
between emitter and any one of the base terminals (B1 or B2) then a small amount of current
flows between B1 and B2.

If sufficient amount of voltage is applied to the emitter terminal then high current generates at
emitter terminal and it adds to small current between B1 and B2, then it causes to flow large
current in the transistor. Here the emitter current is the primary current source for total current in
the transistor. The current between the terminals B1 and B2 is very small, due to this reason
these transistors are not suitable for amplification purpose.

BACK TO TOP

PREVIOUS – TRANSISTORS INTRODUCTION

NPN Transistor
January 23, 2015 By Administrator 5 Comments

Table of Contents

 Introduction
 NPN Transistor Circuit
 NPN Transistor Working
 α, β and γ Relationship in NPN Transistor
 NPN Transistor Examples
 Common Emitter Configuration
o Output Characteristics of NPN Transistor
 NPN Transistor Applications
Introduction

NPN transistor is one of the Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) types. The NPN transistor consists
of two n-type semiconductor materials and they are separated by a thin layer of p-type
semiconductor. Here the majority charge carriers are the electrons. The flowing of these
electrons from emitter to collector forms the current flow in the transistor. Generally the NPN
transistor is the most used type of bipolar transistors because the mobility of electrons is higher
than the mobility of holes. The NPN transistor has three terminals – emitter, base and collector.
The NPN transistor is mostly used for amplifying and switching the signals.

The above figure shows the symbol and structure of NPN transistor. In this structure we can
observe the three terminals of transistor, circuit currents and voltage value representations. Now
let us see the operation of the NPN transistor with explanation.

BACK TO TOP

NPN Transistor Circuit

The above figure shows the NPN transistor circuit with supply voltages and resistive loads. Here
the collector terminal always connected to the positive voltage, the emitter terminal connected to
the negative supply and the base terminal controls the ON/OFF states of transistor depending on
the voltage applied to it.
 BACK TO TOP

NPN Transistor Working

The working of NPN transistor is quite complex. In the above circuit connections we observed
that the supply voltage VB is applied to the base terminal through the load RB. The collector
terminal connected to the voltage VCC through the load RL. Here both the loads RB and RL can
limit the current flow through the corresponding terminals. Here the base terminal and collector
terminals always contain positive voltages with respect to emitter terminal.

If the base voltage is equal to the emitter voltage then the transistor is in OFF state. If the base
voltage increases over emitter voltage then the transistor becomes more switched until it is in
fully ON state. If the sufficient positive voltage is applied to the base terminal i.e. fully-ON state,
then electrons flow generated and the current (IC) flows from emitter to the collector. Here the
base terminal acts as input and the collector-emitter region acts as output.

To allow current flow between emitter and collector properly, it is necessary that the collector
voltage must be positive and also greater than the emitter voltage of transistor. Some amount of
voltage drop presented between base and emitter, such as 0.7V. So the base voltage must be
greater than the voltage drop 0.7V otherwise the transistor will not operate. The equation for
base current of a bipolar NPN transistor is given by,

IB = (VB-VBE)/RB

Where,

IB = Base current
VB = Base bias voltage
VBE = Input Base-emitter voltage = 0.7V
RB = Base resistance
The output collector current in common emitter NPN transistor can be calculated by applying
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL).

The equation for collector supply voltage is given as

VCC = ICRL + VCE ………… (1)

From the above equation the collector current for common emitter NPN transistor is given as

IC = (VCC-VCE)/RL

In a common emitter NPN transistor the relation between collector current and emitter current is
given as

IC = β IB

In active region the NPN transistor acts as a good amplifier. In common emitter NPN transistor
total current flow through the transistor is defined as the ratio of collector current to the base
current IC/IB. This ratio is also called as “DC current gain” and it doesn’t have any units. This
ratio is generally represented with β and the maximum value of β is about 200. In common base
NPN transistor the total current gain is expressed with the ratio of collector current to emitter
current IC/IE. This ratio is represented with α and this value is generally equal to unity.

BACK TO TOP

α, β and γ Relationship in NPN Transistor

Now let us see the relationship between the two ratio parameters α and β.

α = DC current gain for common base circuit = Output current/Input current

In common base NPN transistor output current is collector current (IC) and input current is
emitter current (IE).

α = IC/IE ………..(2)

This current gain (α) value is very close to unity but less than the unity.
We know that the emitter current is the sum of small base current and large collector current.

IE = IC + IB

IB = IE – IC

from equation 2, the collector

IC = αIE
 IB = IE – αIE

IB = IE (1-α)

β = DC current gain for common emitter circuit = Output current/Input current

Here output current is collector current and input current is base current.

β = IC/IB

β = IC/IE (1-α)

β = α/(1-α)

From the above equations the relationship between α and β can be expressed as

α = β (1-α) = β/(β+1)

β = α (1+β) = α/ (1-α)

The β value may vary from 20 to 1000 for low power transistors which operate with high
frequencies. But in general this β value can have the values in between the range of 50-200.

Now we will see the relationship between α, β and γ factors.

In common collector NPN transistor the current gain is defined as the ratio emitter current IE to
base current IB. This current gain is represented with γ.

γ = IE/IB

We know that emitter current

IE = IC + IB

γ = (IC + IB )/IB

γ = (IC/IB) + 1

γ = β +1

Hence the relationships between α, β and γ are given as below

α = β / (β+1), β = α / (1-α), γ = β +1

BACK TO TOP
NPN Transistor Examples

1. Calculate the base current IB to switch a resistive load of 4mA of a Bipolar NPN transistor
which having the current gain (β) value 100.

IB = IC/β = (4*10-3)/100 =40uA

2. Calculate the base current of a bipolar NPN transistor having the bias voltage 10V and the
input base resistance of 200kΩ.

We know the equation for base current IB is,

IB = (VB-VBE)/RB

We know the values,

VBE = 0.7V,

VB = 10V,

RB = 200Ω.

Now we substitute these values in the above equation,

We get,

IB = (VB-VBE)/RB= (10-0.7)/200kΩ = 46.5uA.

The base current of NPN transistor is 46.5uA.

BACK TO TOP

Common Emitter Configuration

The common emitter configuration circuit is one of the three BJT configurations. These common
emitter configuration circuits are used as voltage amplifiers. Generally the BJT transistors have
three terminals but in the circuit connections we need to take any one terminal as common. So
we use one of the three terminals as common terminal for both input and output actions. In this
configuration we use emitter terminal as common terminal, thus it is named as common-emitter
configuration.

This configuration is used as a single stage common emitter amplifier circuit. In this
configuration base acts as input terminal, collector acts as output terminal and emitter as
common terminal. The operation of this circuit starts with biasing the base terminal such that
forward biasing the base-emitter junction. The small current in the base controls the current flow
in the transistor. This configuration always operates in the linear region to amplify the signals at
output side.

This common emitter amplifier gives the inverted output and can have very high gain. This gain
value is influenced by temperature and bias current. The common-emitter amplifier circuit is
mostly used configuration than other BJT configurations because of its high input impedance and
low output impedance and also this configuration amplifier provides high voltage gain and
power gain.

The current gain for this configuration is always greater than unity usually the typical value is
about 50. These configuration amplifiers are mostly used in the applications where low
frequency amplifier and radio frequency circuits are required. The circuit diagram for the
common-emitter amplifier configuration is shown below.

BACK TO TOP

Output Characteristics of NPN Transistor

The family of output characteristics curves of a bipolar transistor is given below. The curves
show the relationship between the collector current (IC) and the collector-emitter voltage (VCE)
with the varying of base current (IB). We know that the transistor is ‘ON’ only when at least a
small amount of current and small amount of voltage is applied at its base terminal relative to
emitter otherwise the transistor is in ‘OFF’ state.
The collector current (IC) is mostly affected by the collector voltage (VCE) at 1.0V level but this
IC value is not highly affected above this value. Already we know that the emitter current is the
sum of base and collector currents. i.e. IE =IC+ IB. The current flowing through the resistive
load (RL) is equal to the collector current of the transistor. The equation for the collector current
is given by,

IC= (VCC-VCE)/ RL

The straight line indicates the ‘Dynamic load line’ which is connecting the points A (where VCE
= 0) and B (where IC = 0). The region along this load line represents the ‘active region’ of the
transistor.

The common emitter configuration characteristics curves are used to calculate the collector
current when the collector voltage and base current is given. The load line (red line) is used to
determine the Q-point in the graph. The slope of the load line is equal to the reciprocal of the
load resistance. i.e. -1/RL.

BACK TO TOP

NPN Transistor Applications

 NPN transistors are mainly used in switching applications.

 Used in amplifying circuit applications.
 Used in the Darlington pair circuits to amplify weak signals.
 NPN transistors are used in the applications where there is a need to sink a current.
  Used in some classic amplifier circuits, such as ‘push-pull’ amplifier circuits.
 In temperature sensors.
 Very High frequency applications.
 Used in logarithmic convertors.

BACK TO TOP

PREVIOUS – TRANSISTOR TYPES

NEXT – PNP TRANSISTOR

Basics of PNP Transistor | Working, Example

Circuit, Applications
April 24, 2019 By Administrator 5 Comments

In this tutorial, we will try to understand the basics of PNP Tansistor. We ill learn its working,
Pins, basic circuit, identification of terminals, example and a few applications.

Table of Contents

 Introduction
 PNP Transistor Working
 PNP Transistor Example
 BJT Transistor Matching
 PNP Transistor Identification
 PNP Transistor as a Switch
 Applications

Introduction

PNP transistor is another type of Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT). The structure of the PNP
transistor is completely different from the NPN transistor. The two PN-junction diodes in the
PNP transistor structure are reversed with respect to the NPN transistor, such as the two P-type
doped semiconductor materials are separated by a thin layer of N-type doped semiconductor
material.

In PNP transistor, the majority current carriers are holes and electrons are the minority current
carriers. All the supply voltage polarities applied to the PNP transistor are reversed. In PNP, the
current sinks in to the base terminal. The small base current in the PNP has the ability to control
the large emitter-collector current because it is a current-controlled device.

The arrow for BJT transistors is always located on the emitter terminal and also it indicates the
direction of conventional current flow. In PNP transistor this arrow indicates as ‘pointing in’ and
the current direction in PNP is completely opposite to the NPN transistor. The structure of PNP
transistor is completely opposite to the NPN transistor. But the characteristics and operation of
the PNP transistor is almost same as NPN transistor with small differences. The symbol and
structure for PNP transistor is shown below.

The above figure shows the structure and symbol of PNP Transistor. This transistor mainly
consists of 3 terminals and they are Emitter (E), Collector (C) and Base (B). Here if you observe,
the base current flows out of the base unlike NPN transistor. The emitter voltage is much
positive with respect to base and collector.

BACK TO TOP

PNP Transistor Working

The circuit connection of PNP transistor with supply voltages is given below. Here the base
terminal has negative bias with respect to emitter and the emitter terminal has positive bias
voltage with respect to both base and collector because of PNP transistor.
The polarities and current directions are reversed here compared to NPN transistor. If the
transistor is connected to all the voltage sources as shown above then the base current flows
through the transistor but here the base voltage needs to be more negative with respect to the
emitter to operate transistor. Here the base- emitter junction acts as a diode. The small amount of
current in the base controls the flowing of large current through emitter to collector region. The
base voltage is generally 0.7V for Si and 0.3V for Germanium devices.

Here the base terminal acts as input and the emitter- collector region acts as output. The supply
voltage VCC is connected to the emitter terminal and a load resistor (RL) is connected to the
collector terminal. This load resistor (RL) is used to limits the maximum current flow through the
device. One more resistor (RB) is connected to the base terminal which is used to limit the
maximum current flow through the base terminal and also a negative voltage is applied to the
base terminal. Here the collector current is always equal to the subtraction of base current from
emitter current. Like NPN transistor, the PNP transistor also has the current gain value β. Now
let us see the relation between the currents and current gain β.

The collector current (IC) is given by,

IC = IE – IB

The DC current gain (β) for the PNP transistor is same as the NPN transistor.

DC current gain = β = Output current/Input current

Here output current is collector current and input current is base current.

β = IC/IB

From this equation we get,

IB = IC/β

IC = β IB

And also we define the current gain as,

Current gain = Collector current/ Emitter current (In common base transistor)

α = IC/IE

The relation between α and β is given by,

β = α / (1- α) and α = β/ (β+1)

The collector current in PNP transistor is given by,

IC = – α IE + ICBO where ICBO is the saturation current.

Since IE = -(IC + IB)

IC = – α (-(IC + IB)) + ICBO

IC – α IC = α IB + ICBO

IC (1- α) = α IB + ICBO

IC = (α/ (1- α)) IB + ICBO/ (1- α)

Since β = α / (1- α)

Now we get the equation for collector current

IC = β IB + (1+ β) ICBO

The output characteristics of PNP transistor are same as NPN transistor characteristics. The small
difference is that the PNP transistor characteristic curve rotates 1800 to calculate the reverse
polarity voltages and current values. The dynamic load line also exists on the characteristic curve
to calculate the Q-point value. The PNP transistors are also used in switching and amplifying
circuits like NPN transistors.
 BACK TO TOP

PNP Transistor Example

Consider a PNP transistor, which is connected in the circuit with the supply voltages VB = 1.5V,
VE = 2V, +VCC = 10V and –VCC = -10V. And also this circuit connected with the resistors of RB
= 200kΩ and RE = RC (or RL) = 5kΩ. Now calculate the current gain values (α, β) of the PNP
transistor.

Here

VB = 1.5V

VE = 2V

+VCC = 10V and –VCC = -10V

RB = 200kΩ

RE = RC (or RL) = 5kΩ

Base current,

IB = VB/ RB = 1.5/ (200*103) = 7.5uA.

Emitter current,

IE = VE/ RE = (10-2)/ (5*103) = 8/ (5*103) = 1.6mA.

Collector current,

IC = IE – IB = 1.6*10-3 – 7.5*10-6 = 1.59mA.

Now we have to calculate α and β values,

α = IC/IE = 1.59*10-3/1.6*10-3 = 0.995

β = IC/IB = 1.59*10-3/7.5*10-6 = 212

Finally we get the current gain values of a considered PNP transistor are,

α = 0.995 and β = 212

BACK TO TOP

BJT Transistor Matching

Transistor matching is nothing but connecting the both NPN and PNP transistors in a single
design to generate high power. This structure is also called as “matched pair”. The both NPN and
PNP transistors are called complementary transistors. Mainly these matched pair circuits are
used in power amplifiers, such as class B amplifiers. If we connect the complementary transistors
which are having the same characteristics then it is very useful to operate the output stages in
motors and large machinery designs by producing high power continuously.

The NPN transistor conducts only in the positive half cycle of signal and the PNP transistor
conducts only in the negative half cycle of the signal, due to this the device operates
continuously. This continuous operation is very useful in the power motors to produce
continuous power. The complementary transistors need to have same DC current gain (β) value.
These matched pair circuits are used in motors controlling, robotics and power amplifier
applications.

BACK TO TOP

PNP Transistor Identification

Generally we identify the PNP transistors with their structure. We have some differences in the
structures of both NPN and PNP transistors when compared. One more thing to identify the PNP
transistor is generally the PNP transistor is in OFF for positive voltage and it is in ON when
small output current and negative voltage at its base with respect to emitter. But to identify them
with most efficiently we use some other technique by calculating the resistance between the three
terminals, such as base, emitter and collector.

We have some standard resistance values for identifying the both NPN and PNP transistors. It is
necessary to test each pair of terminals in both directions for resistance values so totally six tests
are needed. This process is very much useful to identify the PNP transistor easily. Now we see
the operation behavior of each pair of terminals.

 Emitter-Base Terminals: The emitter-base region acts as a diode but it conducts only in
one direction.
 Collector-Base Terminals: The collector-base region also acts as diode which conducts
I only one direction.
 Emitter-Collector Terminals: The emitter- collector region looks like a diode but it will
not conduct in either direction.

Now let us see the resistance value table to identify both NPN and PNP transistors as shown in
the following table.

BACK TO TOP

PNP Transistor as a Switch

The circuit in the above figure shows the PNP transistor as a switch. The operation of this circuit
is very simple, if the input pin of transistor (base) is connected to ground (i.e. negative voltage)
then the PNP transistor is in ‘ON’, now the supply voltage at emitter conducts and the output pin
pulled up to the larger voltage. If the input pin connected to the high voltage (i.e. positive
voltage) then the transistor is ‘OFF’, so the output voltage has to be low (zero). This operation
shows the switching conditions of a PNP transistor due to their ON and OFF states.

BACK TO TOP

Applications

 PNP transistors are used to source current, i.e. current flows out of the collector.
 PNP transistors are used as switches.
 These are used in the amplifying circuits.
  PNP transistors are used when we need to turnoff something by push a button. i.e.
emergency shutdown.
 Used in Darlington pair circuits.
 Used in matched pair circuits to produce continuous power.
 Used in heavy motors to control current flow.
 Used in robotic applications.

BACK TO TOP

PREVIOUS – NPN TRANSISTOR

Different Configurations of Transistors

April 26, 2019 By Administrator 32 Comments

In this transistor tutorial, we will learn about Different Configurations of Transistors. Since a
Bipolar Junction Transistor is a 3-terminal device, there are three different configurations of
Transistors possible with BJTs. Understanding these different configurations of transistors will
help you in better implementation of your application.

Table of Contents

 Introduction
 Common Base Configuration
o Input Characteristics
o Output Characteristics
 Common Collector Configuration
o Input Characteristics
o Output Characteristics
 Common Emitter Configuration
o Input Characteristics
o Output Characteristics
 Configurations of Transistors Summary

Introduction

We know that generally the transistor has three terminals – emitter (E), base (B) and collector.
But in the circuit connections we need four terminals, two terminals for input and another two
terminals for output. To overcome these problems we use one terminal as common for both input
and output actions.

Using this property we construct the circuits and these structures are called transistor
configurations. Generally there are three different configurations of transistors and they are
common base (CB) configuration, common collector (CC) configuration and common emitter
(CE) configuration.

The behavior of these three different configurations of transistors with respect to gain is given
below.

 Common Base (CB) Configuration: no current gain but voltage gain

 Common Collector (CC) Configuration: current gain but no voltage gain
 Common Emitter (CE) Configuration: current gain and voltage gain

Now we discuss about these three different configurations of transistors with their input and
output characteristics in the below sections.

BACK TO TOP

Common Base Configuration

In this configuration we use base as common terminal for both input and output signals. The
configuration name itself indicates the common terminal. Here the input is applied between the
base and emitter terminals and the corresponding output signal is taken between the base and
collector terminals with the base terminal grounded. Here the input parameters are VEB and
IE and the output parameters are VCB and IC. The input current flowing into the emitter terminal
must be higher than the base current and collector current to operate the transistor, therefore the
output collector current is less than the input emitter current.

The current gain is generally equal or less than to unity for this type of configuration. The input
and output signals are in-phase in this configuration. The amplifier circuit configuration of this
type is called as non-inverting amplifier circuit. The construction of this configuration circuit is
difficult because this type has high voltage gain values.
The input characteristics of this configuration are looks like characteristics of illuminated photo
diode while the output characteristics represents a forward biased diode. This transistor
configuration has high output impedance and low input impedance. This type of configuration
has high resistance gain i.e. ratio of output resistance to input resistance is high. The voltage gain
for this configuration of circuit is given below.

AV = Vout/Vin = (IC*RL) / (IE*Rin)

Current gain in common base configuration is given as

α = Output current/Input current

α = IC/IE

The common base circuit is mainly used in single stage amplifier circuits, such as microphone
pre amplifier or radio frequency amplifiers because of their high frequency response. The
common base transistor circuit is given below.

BACK TO TOP

Input Characteristics

Input characteristics are obtained between input current and input voltage with constant output
voltage. First keep the output voltage VCB constant and vary the input voltage VEB for different
points then at each point record the input current IE value. Repeat the same process at different
output voltage levels. Now with these values we need to plot the graph between IE and
VEB parameters. The below figure show the input characteristics of common base configuration.
The equation to calculate the input resistance Rin value is given below.
 Rin = VEB / IE (when VCB is constant)

BACK TO TOP

Output Characteristics

The output characteristics of common base configuration are obtained between output current
and output voltage with constant input current. First keep the emitter current constant and vary
the VCB value for different points, now record the IC values at each point. Repeat the same
process at different IE values. Finally we need to draw the plot between VCB and IC at constant
IE. The below figure show the output characteristics of common base configuration. The equation
to calculate the output resistance value is given below.

Rout = VCB / IC (when IE is constant)

 BACK TO TOP

Common Collector Configuration

In this configuration we use collector terminal as common for both input and output signals. This
configuration is also known as emitter follower configuration because the emitter voltage follows
the base voltage. This configuration is mostly used as a buffer. These configurations are widely
used in impedance matching applications because of their high input impedance.

In this configuration the input signal is applied between the base-collector region and the output
is taken from the emitter-collector region. Here the input parameters are VBC and IB and the
output parameters are VEC and IE. The common collector configuration has high input
impedance and low output impedance. The input and output signals are in phase. Here also the
emitter current is equal to the sum of collector current and the base current. Now let us calculate
the current gain for this configuration.

Current gain,

Ai = output current/Input current

Ai = IE/IB

Ai = (IC + IB)/IB

Ai = (IC/IB) + 1

Ai = β + 1
The common collector transistor circuit is shown above. This common collector configuration is
a non inverting amplifier circuit. The voltage gain for this circuit is less than unity but it has
large current gain because the load resistor in this circuit receives both the collector and base
currents.

BACK TO TOP

Input Characteristics
The input characteristics of a common collector configuration are quite different from the
common base and common emitter configurations because the input voltage VBC is largely
determined by VEC level. Here,

VEC = VEB + VBC

VEB = VEC – VBC

The input characteristics of a common-collector configuration are obtained between inputs

current IB and the input voltage VCB at constant output voltage VEC. Keep the output voltage VEC
constant at different levels and vary the input voltage VBC for different points and record the IB
values for each point. Now using these values we need to draw a graph between the parameters
of VBC and IB at constant VEC.

BACK TO TOP

Output Characteristics

The operation of the common collector circuit is same as that of common emitter circuit. The
output characteristics of a common collector circuit are obtained between the output voltage VEC
and output current IE at constant input current IB. In the operation of common collector circuit if
the base current is zero then the emitter current also becomes zero. As a result no current flows
through the transistor

If the base current increases then the transistor operates in active region and finally reaches to
saturation region. To plot the graph first we keep the IB at constant value and we will vary the
VEC value for various points, now we need to record the value of IE for each point. Repeat the
same process for different IB values. Now using these values we need to plot the graph between
the parameters of IE and VCE at constant values of IB. The below figure show the output
characteristics of common collector.

BACK TO TOP

Common Emitter Configuration

In this configuration we use emitter as common terminal for both input and output. This common
emitter configuration is an inverting amplifier circuit. Here the input is applied between base-
emitter region and the output is taken between collector and emitter terminals. In this
configuration the input parameters are VBE and IB and the output parameters are VCE and IC.

This type of configuration is mostly used in the applications of transistor based amplifiers. In this
configuration the emitter current is equal to the sum of small base current and the large collector
current. i.e. IE = IC + IB. We know that the ratio between collector current and emitter current
gives current gain alpha in Common Base configuration similarly the ratio between collector
current and base current gives the current gain beta in common emitter configuration.
Now let us see the relationship between these two current gains.

Current gain (α) = IC/IE

Current gain (β) = IC/IB

Collector current IC =α IE = βIB

This configuration is mostly used one among all the three configurations. It has medium input
and output impedance values. It also has the medium current and voltage gains. But the output
signal has a phase shift of 1800 i.e. both the input and output are inverse to each other.
 BACK TO TOP

Input Characteristics

The input characteristics of common emitter configuration are obtained between input current IB
and input voltage VBE with constant output voltage VCE. Keep the output voltage VCE constant
and vary the input voltage VBE for different points, now record the values of input current at each
point. Now using these values we need to draw a graph between the values of IB and VBE at
constant VCE. The equation to calculate the input resistance Rin is given below.

Rin = VBE/IB (when VCE is at constant)

 BACK TO TOP

Output Characteristics

The output characteristics of common emitter configuration are obtained between the output
current IC and output voltage VCE with constant input current IB. Keep the base current IB
constant and vary the value of output voltage VCE for different points, now note down the value
of collector IC for each point. Plot the graph between the parameters IC and VCE in order to get the
output characteristics of common emitter configuration. The equation to calculate the output
resistance from this graph is given below.

Rout = VCE/IC (when IB is at constant)

 BACK TO TOP

Configurations of Transistors Summary

The table which gives the main characteristics of a transistor in the three configurations is given
above. The BJT transistors have mainly three types of configurations. They are common-emitter,
common-base and common-collector configurations. Among all these three configurations
common-emitter configuration is mostly used type. These three have different characteristics
corresponding to both input and output signals. And also these three configurations have few
similarities.

BACK TO TOP

PREVIOUS – PNP TRANSISTOR

Introduction to Junction Field Effect
Transistor (JFET)
May 6, 2019 By Administrator 1 Comment

In this tutorial, we will learn about a variation of Field Effect Transistors (FET) called Junction
Field Effect Transistor or simply JFET. We will see the circuit symbols, basic biasing condition,
the V-I characteristics, a simple amplifier circuit and few applications.

Table of Contents

 Introduction
 Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET)
 N-channel JFET Biasing
 Pinch-off Effect
 JFET V-I Characteristics
 JFET Common Source Amplifier
 JFET Applications

Introduction

The FET transistors are voltage controlled devices, where as the BJT transistors are current
controlled devices. The FET transistors have basically three terminals, such as Drain (D), Source
(S) and Gate (G) which are equivalent to the collector, emitter and base terminals in the
corresponding BJT transistor.

In BJT transistors the output current is controlled by the input current which is applied to the
base, but in the FET transistors the output current is controlled by the input voltage applied to the
gate terminal.

In the FET transistors the output current passes between the drain and source terminals and this
path is called channel and this channel may be made of either P-type or N-type semiconductor
materials. In BJT transistor a small input current operates the large load, but in FET a small input
voltage operates the large load at the output.

The BJT transistors are ‘bipolar’ devices because they operates with both types of charge
carriers, such as electrons and holes but the FET transistors are ‘unipolar’ devices because they
operate with the charge carriers of either electrons (for N-channel) or holes (for P-channel).

The FET transistors can be made smaller in size compared to BJT transistor and also they have
less power dissipation. Due to this high efficiency the FET transistors are used in many
electronic circuit applications by replacing the corresponding BJT transistors. These FET
transistors are very useful in the chip designing due to their low power consumption behavior.
Like BJT the FET transistors are also available in both P-channel and N-channel.
The FET transistors have high input impedance where as BJT has relatively low. Due to this high
impedance values the FET transistors are very sensitive to small input voltages. The FET
transistors are mainly classified into two types; they are Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET)
and Insulated Gate FET (IG-FET) or Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET (MOSFET).

FET Transistor Symbols

BACK TO TOP

Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET)

The Junction Field Effect transistor (JFET) is one of the types of FET transistors. JFET is a
simplest form of FET transistors and it has three terminals. The JFET transistors are used as
electronically controlled switches, Voltage controlled resistors and as amplifiers.

BJT transistors are constructed with the PN-junctions but the JFET transistors have a channel
instead of the PN-junctions. This channel is formed due to the either of P-type or N-type
semiconductor materials.
JFET symbols and channel construction

The JFET transistors are classified into two types; they are N-channel JFET and P-channel JFET.
In the N-channel JFET the channel is doped with the donor impurities due to this the current
passing through the channel is negative (i.e. due to electrons) but in the P-channel JFETs the
channel is doped with the acceptor impurities due to this the current flowing through this channel
is positive (i.e. due to holes).

The N-channel JFET has more current conduction than P-channel JFET because the mobility of
electrons is greater than the mobility of holes. So the N-channel JFETs are widely used than P-
channel JFETs. The small voltage at the gate (G) terminal controls the current flow in the
channel (between drain and source) of the JFET.

The emitter and collector terminals are connected using PN-junctions in BJT but in JFET the
Drain and Source terminals are connected with the channel. The small voltage applied at the gate
terminal controls the current flow in the channel between the drain and source of the JFET. This
gate voltage is negative in N-channel JFET and it is positive in P-channel JFET.

One of the main differences between the BJT and JFET transistors is that when the JFET has
reverse-biased junction, then the gate current may be zero, but in the BJT the base current always
must be greater than zero. The comparison of symbols between BJT and JFET is shown in the
below figures.

Comparison symbols between JFET and BJT

Comparison between different channels of BJT and JFET

BACK TO TOP

N-channel JFET Biasing

The internal diagram for N-channel JFET transistor is shown below. This is a transistor with N-
type of channel and with P-type materials of the region. If the gate is diffused into the N-type
channel, then a reverse biased PN-junction is formed which results a depletion region around the
gate terminal when no external supply is applied to the transistor. Generally the JFETs are called
as depletion mode devices.
Biasing circuit of N-channel JFET

This depletion region produces a potential gradient with the variation of thickness around the
PN-junction. This PN-junction opposes the current flow through the channel by reducing the
channel width and by increasing the channel resistance.

Now the channel of JFET conducts with zero bias voltage applied as input. Because of the large
portion of the depletion region formed between the gate-drain and the small portion of the
depletion region between gate and source.

If small voltage (VDS) applied between the drain-source with zero gate voltage (VG) then current
(IDS) will flow through this channel. Now if we apply a small amount of negative voltage (-VGS)
(i.e. reverse biased condition) then the depletion region width increases, which results in
decreasing the portion of the channel length and reduces the conduction of the channel.

This process is called “squeezing effect”. If we will increase more negative voltage at the gate
terminal then it reduces the channel width until no current flows through the channel. Now at this
condition the JFET is said to be “pinched-off”. The applied voltage at which the channel of FET
closes is called as “pinched-off voltage (VP)”.

BACK TO TOP

Pinch-off Effect
N-channel JFET Biasing Circuit for Pinched-off Condition

The JFET with N-channel structure is shown above. At primarily if the gate voltage is zero, then
the channel resistance is also zero and the conduction of the channel is high. If the gate voltage
(i.e. negative voltage) increases to above zero, then the resistance of the channel also increases
and the small amount of current will flows through the channel.

If we apply a large amount of negative voltage at the gate terminal, then the channel totally
blocks the flow of current through it. In this condition, there is no current flow through the
channel and now the JFET acts as a perfect resistor.

The state of JFET in which the channel closes is called “pinched-off” and the voltage applied at
gate in that situation is called “pinched-off voltage (VP)”. At the pinched-off condition the gate
voltage (VGS) controls the channel current. The P-channel JFET operation is same as the N-
channel JFET with some variations, such as the channel current is positive because of the
conduction due to holes and it is needed the reverse polarity to apply gate voltage.

BACK TO TOP

JFET V-I Characteristics

The V-I characteristics of N-channel JFET are shown below. In this N-channel JFET structure
the gate voltage (VGS) controls the current flow between the source drain. The JFET is a voltage
controlled device so no current flows through the gate, then the source current (IS) is equal to the
drain current (ID) i.e. ID = IS.

In this V-I characteristic the voltage VGS represents the voltage applied between the gate and the
source and the voltage VDS represents the voltage applied between the drain and source.

V-I characteristics of JFET transistor

The JFET has different characteristics at different stages of operation depending on the input
voltages and the characteristics of JFET at different regions are explained below. Mainly the
JFET operates in ohmic, saturation, cut-off and break-down regions.

Ohmic Region: If VGS = 0 then the depletion region of the channel is very small and in this
region the JFET acts as a voltage controlled resistor.

Pinched-off Region: This is also called as cut-off region. The JFET enters into this region when
the gate voltage is large negative, then the channel closes i.e.no current flows through the
channel.

Saturation or Active Region: In this region the channel acts as a good conductor which is
controlled by the gate voltage (VGS).

Breakdown Region: If the drain to source voltage (VDS) is high enough, then the channel of the
JFET breaks down and in this region uncontrolled maximum current passes through the device.
The V-I characteristic curves of P-channel JFET transistor are also same as the N-channel JFET
with some exceptions, such as if the gate to source voltage (VGS) increases positively then the
drain current decreases.

The drain current ID flowing through the channel is zero when applied voltage VGS is equal to
pinch-off voltage VP. In normal operation of JFET the applied gate voltage VGS is in between 0
and VP, In this case the drain current ID flowing through the channel can be calculated as follows.

ID = IDSS (1-(VGS/VP))2

Where

ID = Drain current

IDSS = maximum saturation current

VGS = gate to source voltage

VP = pinched-off voltage

The drain-source resistance is equal to the ratio of the rate of change in drain-source voltage and
rate of change in drain current.

RDS = Δ VDS/ Δ ID = 1/gm

Where

RDS = drain-source resistance

VDS = drain to source voltage

ID = drain current

Gm= Trans-conductance gain

BACK TO TOP

JFET Common Source Amplifier

Like BJT transistors the FET transistors are also used in the designing of single stage class A
amplifiers. The common source amplifier of a JFET is similar to the common emitter amplifier
of BJT transistor. The advantage of JFETs over BJTs is their high input impedance.

A common source amplifier circuit with biasing network formed by resistors R1 and R2 is given
below.
Common Source Amplifier Circuit of JFET

This is a common source amplifier circuit which is biased in class A mode. The required gate
voltage is calculated using RS value. Generally the voltage across the source resistor is set to
quarter to the VDD i.e. VS = VDD/4. We need to set the DC quiescent voltage by proper selection
of resistors R1 and R2.

Here, the drain current is controlled by the negative gate voltage. In N-channel JFET transistor
the gate never contains the positive voltage because the drain current flows through the gate
instead of passing through the source and results in damage to JFET.

The P-channel JFET amplifier circuit operation is also similar to the N-channel JFET if the
voltage polarities are reversed. The equations to calculate the different parameters of the
common source amplifier circuit are given below.

VS = ID RS = VDD/4
 VS = VG – VGS

VG = (R2/ (R1+R2))*VDD

ID = VS/RS = (VG – VGS)/RS

Where

VS = source voltage

ID = drain current

RS = source resistance

VDD = supply voltage at drain

VG = gate voltage

VGS = gate to source voltage

R1 & R2 = Biasing resistors

BACK TO TOP

JFET Applications

 JFET is used as a switch.

 JFET is used as a chopper.
 Used as an amplifier.
 Used as a buffer.
 Used in the oscillatory circuits because of its low frequency drift.
 Used in digital circuits, such as computers, LCD and memory circuits because of their
small size.
 Used in communication equipments, such as FM and TV receivers because of their low
modulation distortion.
 Used as voltage controlled resistors in operational amplifiers.
 JFETs are used in cascade amplifiers and in RF amplifiers.

BACK TO TOP

PREVIOUS – TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATIONS

NEXT – MOSFET
Introduction to MOSFET | Enhancement,
Depletion, Amplifier, Applications
May 2, 2019 By Administrator 1 Comment

In this tutorial, we will have a brief introduction to MOSFET i.e. the Metal Oxide Semiconductor
Field Effect Transistor. We will learn about different types (Enhancement and Depletion),
internal structure, a simple Amplifier circuit and a few common applications.

Table of Contents

 Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET

o 1. Depletion Type
o 2. Enhancement Type
 Structure of MOSFET
 Depletion Mode
 Enhancement Mode
 N-Channel MOSFET Amplifier
 Applications

Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET

The Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET) is one type of FET
transistor. In these transistors the gate terminal is electrically insulated from the current carrying
channel so that it is also called as Insulated Gate FET (IG-FET). Due to the insulation between
gate and source terminals the input resistance of MOSFET may be very high such as in mega
ohms (MΩ).

Like JFET the MOSFET also acts as a voltage controlled resistor when no current flows into the
gate terminal. The small voltage at the gate terminal controls the current flow through the
channel between the source and drain terminals. In present days, the MOSFET transistors are
mostly used in the electronic circuit applications instead of the JFET.

Like JFET, the MOSFET transistors also have three terminals, such as Drain (D), Source (S)
and Gate (G) and also one more terminal called substrate or Body (B) is used in the circuit
connections. The MOSFETs are also available in both types, N-channel (NMOS) and P-channel
(PMOS). The MOSFETs are basically classified in to two forms they are Depletion type and
Enhancement type transistors.
Channel Construction of MOSFET

BACK TO TOP

1. Depletion Type

The depletion type MOSFET transistor is equivalent to a “normally closed” switch. The
depletion type of transistors requires gate – source voltage (VGS) to switch OFF the device.

Symbols of Depletion Mode MOSFET

The symbols for depletion mode of MOSFETs in both N-channel and P-channel types are shown
above. In the above symbols we can observe that the fourth terminal substrate is connected to the
ground, but in discrete MOSFETs it is connected to source terminal. The continuous thick line
connected between the drain and source terminal represents the depletion type. The arrow
symbol indicates the type of channel, such as N-channel or P-channel. In this type of MOSFETs
a thin layer of silicon is deposited below the gate terminal. The depletion mode MOSFET
transistors are generally ON at zero gate-source voltage (VGS). The conductivity of the channel in
depletion MOSFETs is less compared to the enhancement type of MOSFETs.

BACK TO TOP

2. Enhancement Type

The Enhancement mode MOSFET is equivalent to “Normally Open” switch and these types of
transistors require gate-source voltage to switch ON the device. The symbols of both N-channel
and P-channel enhancement mode MOSFET transistors are shown below.

Symbols of Enhancement Mode MOSFET

Here we can observe that the broken line is connected between the source and drain which
represents the enhancement mode type. In enhancement mode MOSFETs the conductivity
increases by increasing the oxide layer which adds the carriers to the channel.

Generally, this oxide layer is called as ‘Inversion layer’. The channel is formed between the
drain and source in the opposite type to the substrate, such as N-channel is made with a P-type
substrate and P-channel is made with an N-type substrate. The conductivity of the channel due to
electrons or holes depends on N-type or P-type channel respectively.

BACK TO TOP

Structure of MOSFET
Internal Structure of MOSFET

The basic structure of the MOSFET is shown in the above figure. The construction of the
MOSFET is very different as compared to the construction of the JFET. In both enhancement
and depletion modes of MOSFETs an electric field is produced by gate voltage which changes
the flow charge carriers, such as electrons for N-channel and holes for P-channel.

Here we observed that the gate terminal is injected into the thin metal oxide insulated layer at the
top and two N-type regions are used below the drain and source terminals.

In the above MOSFET structure the channel between drain and source is an N-type which is
formed opposite to the P-type substrate. It is easy to bias the MOSFET gate terminal for the
polarities of either positive (+ve) or negative (-ve).
If there is no bias at the gate terminal, then the MOSFET is generally in non-conducting state so
that these MOSFETs are used to make switches and logic gates. Both the depletion and
enhancement modes of MOSFETs are available in N-channel and P-channel types.

BACK TO TOP

Depletion Mode

The depletion mode MOSFETs are generally known as ‘Switched ON’ devices, because these
transistors are generally closed when there is no bias voltage at the gate terminal. If the gate
voltage increases in positive, then the channel width increases in depletion mode.

As a result the drain current ID through the channel increases. If the applied gate voltage more
negative, then the channel width is very less and MOSFET may enter into the cutoff region. The
depletion mode MOSFET is rarely used type of transistor in the electronic circuits.

Characteristic Curve of Depletion Mode MOSFET

The V-I characteristics of the depletion mode MOSFET transistor are given above. This
characteristic mainly gives the relationship between drain- source voltage (VDS) and drain
current (ID). The small voltage at the gate controls the current flow through the channel.

The channel between drain and source acts as a good conductor with zero bias voltage at gate
terminal. The channel width and drain current increases if the gate voltage is positive and these
two (channel width and drain current) decreases if the gate voltage is negative.

BACK TO TOP

Enhancement Mode

The Enhancement mode MOSFET is commonly used type of transistor. This type of MOSFET is
equivalent to normally-open switch because it does not conduct when the gate voltage is zero. If
the positive voltage (+VGS) is applied to the N-channel gate terminal, then the channel conducts
and the drain current flows through the channel.

If this bias voltage increases to more positive then channel width and drain current through the
channel increases to some more. But if the bias voltage is zero or negative (-VGS) then the
transistor may switch OFF and the channel is in non-conductive state. So now we can say that
the gate voltage of enhancement mode MOSFET enhances the channel.
Characteristics Curve of Enhancement Mode MOSFET

Circuit symbols of Enhancement Mode MOSFET

Enhancement mode MOSFET transistors are mostly used as switches in electronic circuits
because of their low ON resistance and high OFF resistance and also because of their high gate
resistance. These transistors are used to make logic gates and in power switching circuits, such as
CMOS gates, which have both NMOS and PMOS Transistors.
The V-I characteristics of enhancement mode MOSFET are shown above which gives the
relationship between the drain current (ID) and the drain-source voltage (VDS). From the above
figure we observed the behavior of an enhancement MOSFET in different regions, such as
ohmic, saturation and cut-off regions.

MOSFET transistors are made with different semiconductor materials. These MOSFETs have
the ability to operate in both conductive and non-conductive modes depending on the bias
voltage at the input. This ability of MOSFET makes it to use in switching and amplification.

BACK TO TOP

N-Channel MOSFET Amplifier

Like JFETs the MOSFET transistors are also used to make single-stage ‘class A’ amplifier
circuits. The N-channel enhancement mode MOSFET with common source configuration is the
mainly used type of amplifier circuit than others. The depletion mode MOSFET amplifiers are
very similar to the JFET amplifiers.

The input resistance of the MOSFET is controlled by the gate bias resistance which is generated
by the input resistors. The output signal of this amplifier circuit is inverted because when the
gate voltage (VG) is high the transistor is switched ON and when the voltage (VG) is low then the
transistor is switched OFF.
MOSFET Amplifier Circuit

The general MOSFET amplifier with common source configuration is shown above. This is an
amplifier of class A mode. Here the voltage divider network is formed by the input resistors R1
and R2 and the input resistance for the AC signal is given as Rin = RG = 1MΩ.

The equations to calculate the gate voltage and drain current for the above amplifier circuit are
given below.

VG = (R2/ (R1+R2))*VDD

ID = VS/ RS

Where

VG = gate voltage

VS = input source voltage

VDD = supply voltage at drain

RS = source resistance

R1 & R2 = input resistors

The different regions in which the MOSFET operates in their total operation are discussed
below.

Cut-off Region: If the gate-source voltage is less than the threshold voltage then we say that the
transistor is operating in the cut-off region (i.e. fully OFF). In this region drain current is zero
and the transistor acts as an open circuit.

VGS < VTH => IDS = 0

Ohmic (Linear) Region: If the gate voltage is greater than threshold voltage and the drain-
source voltage lies between VTH and (VGS – VTH) then we say that the transistor is in linear
region and at this state the transistor acts as a variable resistor.

VGS > VTH and VTH < VDS < (VGS – VTH) => MOSFET acts as a variable resistor

Saturation Region: In this region the gate voltage is much greater than threshold voltage and
the drain current is at its maximum value and the transistor is in fully ON state. In this region the
transistor acts as a closed circuit.

VGS >> VTH and (VGS – VTH) < VDS < 2(VGS – VTH) => IDS = Maximum
The gate voltage at which the transistor ON and starts the current flow through the channel is
called threshold voltage. This threshold voltage value range for N-channel devices is in between
0.5V to 0.7V and for P-channel devices is in between -0.5V to -0.8V.

The behavior of a MOSFET transistor in depletion and enhancement modes depending on the
gate voltage is summarized as follows.

MOSFET Type VGS = +ve VGS = 0 VGS = -ve

N-Channel Depletion ON ON OFF
N-Channel Enhancement ON OFF OFF
P-Channel Depletion OFF ON ON
P-Channel Enhancement OFF OFF ON

BACK TO TOP

Applications

 MOSFETs are used in digital integrated circuits, such as microprocessors.

 Used in calculators.
 Used in memories and in logic CMOS gates.
 Used as analog switches.
 Used as amplifiers.
 Used in the applications of power electronics and switch mode power supplies.
 MOSFETs are used as oscillators in radio systems.
 Used in automobile sound systems and in sound reinforcement systems.

BACK TO TOP

PREVIOUS – JFET

NEXT – TRANSISTOR AS SWITCH

Working of Transistor as a Switch

May 14, 2019 By Administrator 13 Comments
In this Transistor tutorial, we will learn about the working of a Transistor as a Switch. Switching
and Amplification are the two areas of applications of Transistors and Transistor as a Switch is
the basis for many digital circuits.

Table of Contents

 Introduction
 Operating Modes of Transistors
o Active Mode
o Cutoff Mode
o Saturation Mode
 Transistor as a Switch
o NPN Transistor as a Switch
o Example of NPN Transistor as a Switch
o PNP Transistor as a Switch
o Example of PNP Transistor as a Switch
 Common Practical Examples of Transistor as a Switch
o Transistor to Switch the LED
o Transistor to Operate the Relay
o Transistor to Drive the Motor

Introduction

As one of the significant semiconductor devices, transistor has found use in enormous electronic
applications such as embedded systems, digital circuits and control systems. In both digital and
analog domains transistors are extensively used for different application usage like amplification,
logic operations, switching and so on.

This article mainly concentrates and gives a brief explanation of transistor application as a
switch.

The Bipolar Junction Transistor or simply BJT is a three layer, three terminal and two junction
semiconductor device. Almost in many of the applications these transistors are used for two
basic functions such as switching and amplification.

The name bipolar indicates that two types of charge carriers are involved in the working of a
BJT. These two charge carriers are holes and electrons where holes are positive charge carriers
and electrons are negative charge carriers.
The transistor has three regions, namely base, emitter and collector. The emitter is a heavily
doped terminal and emits electrons into the base. Base terminal is lightly doped and passes the
emitter-injected electrons on to the collector. The collector terminal is intermediately doped and
collects electrons from base. This collector is large as compared with other two regions so it
dissipates more heat.

BJTs are of two types NPN and PNP, both functioning is same but differ in terms of biasing and
power supply polarity. In PNP transistor, between two P- type materials N- type material is
sandwiched whereas in case of NPN transistor P- type material sandwiched between two N- type
materials. These two transistors can be configured into different types like common emitter,
common collector and common base configurations.

BACK TO TOP

Operating Modes of Transistors

Depends on the biasing conditions like forward or reverse, transistors have three major modes of
operation namely cutoff, active and saturation regions.

Active Mode

In this mode transistor is generally used as a current amplifier. In active mode, two junctions are
differently biased that means emitter-base junction is forward biased whereas collector-base
junction is reverse biased. In this mode current flows between emitter and collector and amount
of current flow is proportional to the base current.

Cutoff Mode

In this mode, both collector base junction and emitter base junction are reverse biased. This in
turn not allows the current to flow from collector to emitter when the base-emitter voltage is low.
In this mode device is completely switched off as the result the current flowing through the
device is zero.

Saturation Mode

In this mode of operation, both the emitter base and collector base junctions are forward biased.
Current flows freely from collector to emitter when the base-emitter voltage is high. In this mode
device is fully switched ON.

The below figure shows the output characteristics of a BJT Transistor. In the below figure cutoff
region has the operating conditions as zero collector output current, zero base input current and
maximum collector voltage. These parameters causes a large depletion layer which further
doesn’t allow current to flow through the transistor. Therefore, the transistor is completely in
OFF condition.

Similarly, in the saturation region, a transistor is biased in such a way that maximum base current
is applied that results maximum collector current and minimum collector-emitter voltage. This
causes the depletion layer to become small and to allow maximum current flow through the
transistor. Therefore, the transistor is fully in ON condition.

Hence, from the above discussion, we can say that transistors can be made to work as ON/OFF
solid state switch by operating transistor in cutoff and saturation regions. This type of switching
application is used for controlling motors, lamp loads, solenoids, etc.

BACK TO TOP

Transistor as a Switch

A transistor is used for switching operation for opening or closing of a circuit. This type solid
state switching offers significant reliability and lower cost as compared with conventional relays.

Both NPN and PNP transistors can be used as switches. Some of the applications use a power
transistor as switching device, at that time it may necessary to use another signal level transistor
to drive the high power transistor.

NPN Transistor as a Switch

Based on the voltage applied at the base terminal of a transistor switching operation is
performed. When a sufficient voltage (Vin > 0.7 V) is applied between the base and emitter,
collector to emitter voltage is approximately equal to 0. Therefore, the transistor acts as a short
circuit. The collector current Vcc/Rc flows through the transistor.

Similarly, when no voltage or zero voltage is applied at the input, transistor operates in cutoff
region and acts as an open circuit. In this type of switching connection, load (here LED lamp) is
connected to the switching output with a reference point. Thus, when the transistor is
switched ON, current will flow from source to ground through the load.

BACK TO TOP

Example of NPN Transistor as a Switch

Consider the below example where base resistance Rb = 50 k ohm, collector resistance Rc = 0.7k
ohm, Vcc is 5V and the beta value is 125. At the base input a signal varying between 0 and 5V is
given so we are going to see the output at the collector by varying the Vi at two states that is 0
and 5V as shown in figure.

Ic = Vcc/Rc when VCE = 0

Ic = 5V/0.7k ohm

Ic = 7.1 mA

Base Current Ib = Ic / β

Ib = 7.1 mA/125

Ib = 56.8 µA

From the above calculations, the maximum or peak value of the collector current in the circuit is
7.1mA when Vce is equal to zero. And the correspond base current to which collector current
flows is 56.8µA. So, it is clear that when the base current is increased beyond the 56.8 micro
ampere then the transistor comes into the saturation mode.

Consider the case when zero volt is applied at the input. This causes the base current zero and as
the emitter is grounded, emitter base junction is not forward biased. Therefore, the transistor is in
OFF condition and the collector output voltage is equal to 5V.

When Vi = 0V, Ib = 0 and Ic =0,

 Vc = Vcc – (IcRc)

= 5V – 0

= 5V

Consider that input voltage applied is 5 volts, then the base current can be determined by
applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law.

When Vi = 5V

Ib = (Vi – Vbe) / Rb

For silicon transistor Vbe = 0.7 V

Thus, Ib = (5V – 0.7V)/ 50K ohm

= 86 µA which is greater than 56.8 µA

Therefore the base current is greater than 56.8 micro ampere current, the transistor will be driven
to saturation that is fully ON when 5V is applied at the input. Thus the output at the collector
becomes approximately zero.

BACK TO TOP

PNP Transistor as a Switch

PNP transistor works same as NPN for a switching operation, but the current flows from the
base. This type of switching is used for negative ground configurations. For the PNP transistor,
the base terminal is always negatively biased with respect to the emitter. In this switching, base
current flows when the base voltage is more negative. Simply a low voltage or more negative
voltage makes transistor to short circuit otherwise it will be open circuited or high impedance
state.

In this connection, load is connected to the transistor switching output with a reference point.
When the transistor is turned ON, current flows from the source through transistor to the load
and finally to the ground.
Example of PNP Transistor as a Switch

Similar to the NPN transistor switch circuit, PNP circuit input is also base, but the emitter is
connected to constant voltage and the collector is connected to ground through the load as shown
in figure.
In this configuration base is always biased negatively with respect to the emitter by connecting
the base at negative side and the emitter at the positive side of the input supply. So the voltage
VBE is negative and the emitter supply voltage with respect to the Collector is positive (
VCE positive).

Therefore, for the conduction of transistor emitter must be more positive with respect to both
collector and base. In other words base must be more negative with respect to the emitter.

For calculating the base and collector currents following expressions are used.

Ic = Ie – Ib
Ic = β. Ib
Ib = Ic / β

Consider the above example, that the load requires 100 milli ampere current and the transistor
has the beta value of 100. Then the current required for the saturation of the transistor is
 Minimum base current = collector current / β

= 100 mA / 100

= 1mA

Therefore, when the base current is 1 mA, the transistor will be fully ON. But practically 30
percent of more current is required for guaranteed saturation of transistor. So, in this example the
base current required is 1.3mA.

BACK TO TOP

Common Practical Examples of Transistor as a Switch

Transistor to Switch the LED

As discussed earlier that the transistor can be used as a switch. The schematic below shows how
a transistor is used to switch the Light Emitting Diode (LED).

 When the switch at the base terminal is open, no current flows through the base so the
transistor is in the cutoff state. Therefore, the circuit acts as open-circuit and the LED
becomes OFF.
 When the switch is closed, base current starts flowing through the transistor and then
drives into saturation results to LED become ON.
 Resistors are placed to limit the currents through the base and LED. It is also possible to
vary the intensity of LED by varying the resistance in the base current path.
 BACK TO TOP

Transistor to Operate the Relay

It is also possible to control the relay operation using a transistor. With a small circuit
arrangement of a transistor able to energise the coil of the relay so that the external load
connected to it is controlled.

 Consider the below circuit to know the operation of a transistor to energize the relay coil.
The input applied at the base causes to drive the transistor into saturation region, which
further results the circuit becomes short circuit. So the relay coil gets energized and relay
contacts get operated.
 In inductive loads, particularly switching of motors and inductors, sudden removal of
power can keep a high potential across the coil. This high voltage can cause considerable
damage to the rest circuit. Therefore, we have to use the diode in parallel with inductive
load to protect the circuit from induced voltages of the inductive load.
 BACK TO TOP

Transistor to Drive the Motor

 A transistor can also used to drive and regulate the speed of the DC motor in a
unidirectional way by switching the transistor in regular intervals of time as shown in the
below figure.
 As mentioned in above, the DC motor is also an inductive load so we have to place a
freewheeling diode across it to protect the circuit.
 By switching the transistor in cutoff and saturation regions, we can turn ON and OFF the
motor repeatedly.
 It is also possible to regulate the speed of the motor from standstill to full speed by
switching the transistor at variable frequencies. We can get the switching frequency from
control device or IC like microcontroller.
Have you got the clear idea of how a transistor can be used as a switch? We acknowledge that
the furnished information clarifies the entire switching concept with relevant images and
examples. Further any doubts, suggestions and comments on this post you can write below.

BACK TO TOP

PREVIOUS – MOSFET

NEXT – FET AS SWITCH

Working of FET as a Switch

April 11, 2019 By Administrator 4 Comments

In this tutorial, we will learn about Field Effect Transistors or FET, its working, regions of
operation and see the working of a FET as a Switch. We will see both how both JFET and
MOSFET can be used in switching applications.

Table of Contents
  Introduction
 FET and its Operating Regions
 FET as a Switch (JFET)
o FET Used as a Shunt Switch
o FET Used as a Series Switch
o Example of N-Channel JFET as a Switch
 P Channel JFET as a Switch
o Example of P-channel JFET as a Switch
 MOSFET as a Switch
o Example of MOSFET as a Switch

Introduction

Wide variety of advantages such as high input impedance, simple fabrication, simple operations,
etc. makes the Field Effect Transistors (FETs) to be used popularly in different applications
particularly in integrated circuit systems.

FETs are the 2nd generation transistors after the BJTs. These can be used as amplifiers in
oscilloscopes, testing and measuring instruments, electronic voltmeters, etc. and also used in
switching actions.

Let us see in detail of the working of a FET as a switch. But before that, we have to first take a
look at the basics of a FET and its operation.

BACK TO TOP

FET and its Operating Regions

Field Effect Transistor is a unipolar device in which the current is carried only by the majority
carriers (either by hoes or electrons). FET is a voltage controlled device that means, by
controlling the voltage between gate and source, the output current gets varied.

Let us consider N channel JFET for understanding the operating regions. The operation or
characteristics of JFET divided into three different regions, namely ohmic, saturation and cutoff
region. The voltage applied to the drain is termed as VDS (some times also referred as VDD) and
the voltage to the gate is termed as VGS or VGG.
N-Channel JFET

Modes of Operation of FET

Ohmic Region (VDS> 0 and VDS < VP)

In this region channel depletion layer is very small and the FET acts as a variable resistor.

In this, the VDS value is greater than zero and less than VP so there is no pinch off of the channel
and the current ID increases. When we increase the gate source voltage VGS, the channel
conductance falls and the resistance is increased. Therefore, the depletion regions will spread
more that makes a narrow channel. The channel resistance changes generally from 100 ohms to
10K ohms and obviously controls the voltage. Hence transistor acts as voltage controlled resistor
in this region.

Saturation Region (VDS > VGS – VP )

This region starts from the point where VDS is greater than VGS minus VP, here VP is the pinch-
off voltage. In this region, the drain current ID entirely depends on the VGS and not a function of
VDS. The FET operates in this region to amplify the signals as well as for switching operations.
From the figure it is observed that when VGS is zero, the maximum current ID flows. When we
change the VGS more negative, then, the drain current is falling. At a particular value of VGS the
drain current flows constantly through the device. Hence, this region is also called constant
current region.

Cutoff Region (VGS < VP)

This is the region in which the drain current ID is zero and the device is OFF. In this the gate
source voltage VGS is less than pinch off voltage VP. This means the value of VGS is more
negative than VP. Therefore, the channel closes and doesn’t allow any current flow through the
device.

BACK TO TOP

FET as a Switch (JFET)

From the above discussion, it is clear that the FET can be used as a switch by operating it in two
regions, they are cutoff and saturation region. When the VGS is zero the FET operates in
saturation region and maximum current flows through it. Hence it is like a fully switched ON
condition. Similarly, when the VGS applied is more negative than the pinch off voltage, FET
operates in cutoff region and doesn’t allow any current flow through the device. Hence FET is in
fully OFF condition. The FET can be used as switch in different configurations, some of these
are given below.

BACK TO TOP

FET Used as a Shunt Switch

Let us look at the below figure where FET is connected in parallel with the load and it acts like
an analog switch.
  When the VGS applied is zero the FET is turned ON by operating in saturation region
and its resistance is very small nearly 100 ohms. The output voltage across the across the
FET is VOUT= Vin * {RDS/ (RD + RDS (ON))}. Since the resistance RD is very large, the
output voltage is approximately considered as zero.
 When we apply the negative voltage which is equal to the pinch off voltage at the gate,
FET operates in the cutoff region and acts as a high resistance device and the output
voltage is equal to the input voltage.

FET as a Parallel Switch Circuit

BACK TO TOP

FET Used as a Series Switch

Below figure shows another configuration of FET switch circuit. In this circuit FET acts as a
series switch. It acts as a closed switch if the control voltage is zero and open switch if control
voltage is negative. When the FET is ON, the input signal will appear at the output and when it is
OFF the output is zero.
FET as a series Switch Circuit

BACK TO TOP

Example of N-Channel JFET as a Switch

The below figure demonstrates how a N-channel JFET used to switch the LED. The LED is
connected between supply and source terminal through a resistor. Here resistor is used to limit
the current through the LED. Gate terminal of the transistor connected to the negative supply.

 From the above discussion, zero voltage on the gate terminal makes current to flow
through the LED because FET is in saturation mode. Therefore, the LED becomes ON.
 With a sufficient negative voltage on the gate terminal (about 3-4 volts), JFET drives into
cutoff mode so the LED becomes turned OFF.
N-channel JFET to Switch LED Circuit

BACK TO TOP

P Channel JFET as a Switch

Up to now we have discussed about N channel JFET as a switch. Another type of JFET is a P
channel JFET and the operation of this FET is also similar to N-type, but only the difference is
the positive voltage at the gate terminal.

 When the gate source voltage is zero the FET operates in saturation region so the FET is
switched ON which in turn causes the current to flow from drain to source.
 And a positive voltage between the gate and the source causes to cut off the current
through the FET. So the FET is in open circuit condition.
P Channel JFET as a Switch Circuit

BACK TO TOP

Example of P-channel JFET as a Switch

Similar to the N-channel JFET driven LED, P-channel JFET switched LED circuit is given
below. The difference between the two circuits is the supply source at the gate terminal.

 Turn ON condition remains same for both circuits that is zero voltage at the gate terminal
causes the LED to glow as the FET is active.
 For switching the FET into cutoff, a sufficient positive voltage (about 3 to 4 volts in this
case) stops the current flow through the circuit. Therefore the LED is turned OFF. We
can also use FETs for turning the relay circuits, motor drivers, and other electronic
controlling circuits.
P-Channel JFET to Switch LED

BACK TO TOP

MOSFET as a Switch

Another type of FET is a MOSFET which is also a voltage controlled device. The level of VGS at
which the drain current will increase or starts flowing is called threshold voltage VT. Therefore,
if we increase the VGS, the drain current also increases. And if we increase the VGS by keeping
the VDS constant, then the drain current will reach to a saturation level as in the case of JFET.

MOSFET operates in the cutoff mode when VGS is below the threshold level. Therefore, no drain
current flows in this mode. Hence acts as OPEN switch
For a better understanding consider the below figure where N-channel enhancement type
MOSFET is switched for different voltages at the gate terminal.

 In the below figure, MOSFET gate terminal is connected to VDD, so that the voltage
applied at gate terminal is maximum. This makes the channel resistance becomes so
small and allows maximum drain current to flow. This is called as saturation mode and in
this mode the MOSFET is completely turned ON as a closed switch. For P-channel
enhancement MOSFET, for turning ON, gate potential must be more negative with
respect to source.
 In cutoff region, VGS applied is less than the threshold voltage level so the drain current is
zero. Hence, the MOSFET is in OFF mode just as open switch as shown in figure.
MOSFET as a Switch Circuit

BACK TO TOP
Example of MOSFET as a Switch

Let us consider the MOSFET circuit which drives the LED as shown in figure. Here N-channel
enhancement MOSFET is used to switch the LED with a simple switch.

 When the switch is in open condition causes the zero voltage at the gate with respect to
ground or source. So the MOSFET remains turned OFF and LED will not glow.
 When the switch is pressed to make it close, the appropriate positive voltage (5V in this
case) is applied at gate terminal. so, the MOSFET is turned ON and the LED will starts
glowing.
 Here it is a simple resistive load, but in case of any inductive loads like motors, relays we
have to use freewheeling diodes across the load to protect the MOSFET against the
induced voltages.

MOSFET to Switch LED

Most of the circuits use MOSFET as switch compared to JFET due to the advantages offered by
it. We can also use switching circuit (to operate the load at particular switching frequency) for
the JFETs and MOSFETs for getting the PWM signals based on the load requirements.

We hope that this overall information given might have enabled you to understand how can we
switch the loads using FETs with switching conditions and necessary figures. You can also write
us for any doubts or technical help on this concept in comment section below.
 BACK TO TOP

PREVIOUS – TRANSISTOR AS SWITCH

NEXT – DARLINGTON TRANSISTOR

Darlington Transistor (Darlington Pair)

May 16, 2019 By Administrator 4 Comments

In this tutorial, we will learn about Darlington Transistor or Darlington Pair. We will see what is
the use of a Darlington pair, few example circuits, some common applications and advantages
and disadvantages.

Table of Contents

 Introduction to Darlington Transistor

o Why We Use Darlington Transistor?
 Darlington Transistor or Darlington Pair
o Example of Darlington Transistor Circuit
 Applications of Darlington Transistor
o NPN Darlington Transistor as Switch
o PNP Darlington Transistor as Switch
o Darlington Transistor as Amplifier
 Advantages of Darlington Pair
o Disadvantages of Darlington Transistor

Introduction to Darlington Transistor

A Darlington transistor or simply Darlington pair is mainly used to offer a very high current gain
even with low base current. Darlington configuration was invented by Sidney Darlington in the
year of 1953.

In today’s market, wide variety of Darlington transistors are available that are varied by polarity,
collector current, power dissipation, package type, maximum CE voltage and so on.

These transistors are found in different types of applications such as power regulators, motor
controllers, audio amplifiers, etc. Many opto-isolator circuits are made with Darlington
transistors to have high current capacity at the output stage. Let us look in brief about this
transistor with applications.
Darlington Transistor

BACK TO TOP

Why We Use Darlington Transistor?

As we know that to drive the transistor into the conduction mode a small base current is required,
when the base is connected as input, emitter as common and collector as the output.

But, when we consider the load at the collector terminal, this small base current may not enough
to drive the transistor into conduction. The current gain or beta of a transistor is the ratio of
collector current to base current.

Transistor gain or Current gain (β) = load or collector current/ input or base current

Load current = Current gain (β) × base current

For a normal transistor β value is 100.

The above relation tells that the current available to drive the load is 100 times that of the input
current of the transistor.

Consider the below figure where NPN transistor is used to switch the lamp with variable resistor
connected between the source and the base terminal. Here, in this circuit the base current is the
only factor that decides the current flow through the collector and emitter so that the light will
glow from dim to very bright by varying the resistance of the variable resistor.

If the resistance value of the variable resistor is more, the base current is reduced so the transistor
becomes OFF. When the resistance is too small, sufficient amount of current will flow through
the base which results a very large current flow through the lamp so the lamp becomes brighter.
This is the current amplification in the transistor.

Standard Single Transistor Switching

In the above example, we have seen driving of a load (Lamp) using single transistor. But in some
applications, the input base current from source may not sufficient to drive the load. We know
that the load current in the transistor is the product of input current and gain of the transistor.

Since the increasing of base current is not possible due to the supply source, the only way to
increase the load current capability is to increase the gain of the transistor. But it is also fixed for
each transistor. However we can increase the gain by the using combination of two transistors.
This configuration is called as Darlington transistor configuration.

BACK TO TOP

Darlington Transistor or Darlington Pair

A Darlington transistor is a back to back connection of two transistors that comes as a complete
package with three leads base, emitter and collector as equivalent to the single transistor. The
pair of bipolar transistors provides a very high current gain as compared with single standard
transistor as mentioned above.
A pair of these transistors can be PNP or NPN depends on the application used. The below figure
shows the Darlington pair configuration with NPN as well as PNP transistors.

Darlington Transistor Configurations

Consider the NPN configuration of Darlington transistor. In this a very small base current causes
a large emitter current to flow which is then applied to the base of the next transistor.

Amplified current in the first transistor is again amplified by the current gain of the second
transistor. Therefore, the emitter current of the second transistor is very large which is high
enough to drive high loads.

Suppose if the current gain of the first transistor is β1 and the current gain of next transistor is
β2, then the overall current gain of transistors will be the product of β1 and β2. For a standard
transistor β is 100. So the overall current gain is 10000. This value is very high as compared with
a single transistor so this high current gain gives a high load current.

Generally, to turn ON the transistor, the base input voltage must be greater than 0.7V. Since the
two transistors are used in this configuration therefore the base voltage must be greater than
1.4V.

From the figure, Current gain of the first transistor

β1= IC1/IB1,

therefore IC1 = β1 IB1

Similarly, the current gain of next transistor,

 β2= IC2/IB2, then IC2 = β2 IB2

Total current at the collector is IC= IC1+IC2

IC = β1 IB1 + β2 IB2

But the base current of the second transistor,

IB2 = IB + IC1

IB2 = β1 IB + IB

IB2 = IB (1 + β1)

Substituting in the above equation,

IC = β1 IB + β2IB (1 + β1)

IC = IB (β1 + β2 + β1 β2)

In the above relation individual gains are neglected and the total equation is approximated as

IC= IB (β1 β2)

That is the total gain,

β = (β1 β2)

And also VBE = VBE1 + VBE2.

BACK TO TOP

Example of Darlington Transistor Circuit

Consider the following circuit where Darlington pair is used to switch the load that is rated at
12V and 80W. The current gains of first and second transistors are given as 50 and 60
respectively. So, the base current required to make the lamp fully ON is calculated as follows.
Darlington Transistor Circuit

The collector current is equal to the load current,

IC = 80/12 = 6.67 A

Darlington transistor output current is given as Ic = IB (β1 + β2 + β1 β2),

IB= IC / (β1 + β2 + β1 β2)

Current gains, β1 = 50 and β2 = 60

So, IB= 6.67 / (50 + 60 + (60 × 50))

IB = 2.2 mA

From the above calculation, it is clear that with small base current we can switch the larger lamp
loads. This small base input voltage can be applied from any microcontroller output or any
digital logic circuits.

BACK TO TOP

Applications of Darlington Transistor

Darlington transistors are mainly used in switching and amplification applications for delivering
a very high DC current gain. Some of the key applications are high and low side switches, sensor
amplifiers and audio amplifiers. For light-sensitive applications photodarlingtons are used. Let us
look at the operation of a Darlington transistor for a specific application.

BACK TO TOP

NPN Darlington Transistor as Switch

The below figure shows driving of an LED using the Darlington transistor. A switch at the base
terminal can also be replaced with a touch sensor so that for a touch sensing LED turns ON. A
100k ohm resistor acts as a protective resistor for the pair of transistors.

Darlington Transistor as Switch

 When the switch is closed, a specified voltage greater than 1.4V is applied across the
Darlington transistor. This causes the Darlington pair to become active and drives the
 current through the load. This result the LED to glow very bright, even with change in
resistance at the base.
 When the switch is opened, both bipolar transistors are in cutoff mode and current
through the load is zero. So the LED becomes OFF.
 It is also possible to use the Darlington pair to drive the inductive loads such as relays,
motors. As compared with single transistor, driving the inductive loads with Darlington
pair is more effective since it offers a high load current with a small base input current.
 Below figure shows a Darlington pair that drives the relay coil. As we know that for
inductive loads, a parallel freewheeling diode is necessary to protect the circuit against
induced currents. Similar to the above LED circuit operation, the relay coil gets energized
when the base current is applied. We can also use a DC motor as inductive load in place
of relay coil.

Darlington Transistor to Switch Relay

 BACK TO TOP

PNP Darlington Transistor as Switch

 We can make use of PNP transistors as Darlington pair, but most commonly NPN
transistors are used. There is no much difference in the circuit using NPN or PNP. Below
figure shows a simple sensor circuit which gives an alarm with the functioning of
Darlington pair.
 This circuit is a simple water level indicator wherein Darlington pair is used as a switch.
We know that this transistor configuration provides a large collector current so it is able
drive the buzzer at the output.
 When the water level is not enough to close the sensor, Darlington transistor is in OFF
state. Therefore, the circuit becomes open and no current flows through it.
 As the water level increases, sensor become active and gives a necessary base current to
the Darlington pair. Therefore, the circuit becomes short and load current flows so that
the buzzer gives an alarm or sound.

PNP Darlington Transistor as Switch

BACK TO TOP

Darlington Transistor as Amplifier

In case of power or voltage amplifiers the load resistance at the output is very low to have high
current flow. This current flows through the collector terminal of a transistor if transistor is used
for amplification. To be capable to suit for power amplifiers, transistors must drive high load
currents.

This requirement may not be possible with single transistor that driven by a small base current.
To meet the high load current requirement, the Darlington pair is used which offers a high
current gain.

Darlington Transistor as Amplifier

Above figure shows a class A amplifier circuit that uses a Darlington transistor configuration to
have a high collector current. Darlington transistor offers a gain that equal to the product of two
individual gains.

Therefore, with a small base current, the output current at the collector terminal is very high. So
with the arrangement of Darlington transistor, this amplifier provides enough amplified current
to the load.

BACK TO TOP

Advantages of Darlington Pair

Darlington pair has several advantages as compared with standard single transistor. Some of
them are

 It produces a very high current gain than standard single transistor

 It offers a very High input impedance or good impedance transformation that it can alter
a high impedance input or source to low impedance load.
 These can be made by two separate transistors or comes with a single package.
 Easy and convenient circuit configuration as few components are used.
 In case of photo-Darlington pair, noise introduced is very less compared with
phototransistor with an external amplifier.

BACK TO TOP

Disadvantages of Darlington Transistor

 Switching speed is low

 Bandwidth is limited
 At certain frequencies in negative feedback circuit, this configuration introduces a phase
shift.
 The base-emitter voltage required is high and is two times the single standard transistor.
 High power dissipation due to high saturation voltage.
 The overall leakage current is high because the leakage current of the first transistor is
amplified by the next transistor. That’s why the three or more stages of Darlington is
impossible.

Hence, the Darlington pair is very useful in most of the application because it provides high
current gain at low base currents. Although it has some limitations, these pairs are extensively
used in the applications where high frequency response is not needed and the high gain current
levels are required.

In case of audio power amplifier circuits, this configuration causes to provide a better output. We
hope this article has provided quality information on this topic. If you felt that this content is
helpful and informative, don’t hesitate to write us your comments in the comment section below.

BACK TO TOP

PREVIOUS – FET AS SWITCH