UNIT G481 Module 3 1.3.

4 Springs & Materials  TENSILE & COMPRESSIVE FORCES 1

 Candidates should be able to :

 A pair of forces is needed to
change the size and shape of
 Describe how deformation is caused by a force in one dimension a spring or wire.
and can be tensile or compressive.
COMPRESSIVE forces are
 Describe the behaviour of springs and wires in terms of force, applied if the spring is being
extension, elastic limit, Hooke’s Law and the force constant shortened or compressed.
(i.e. force per unit extension or compression).
TENSILE forces are applied
 Select and apply the equation F = kx, where k is the force if the spring is being stretched
constant of the spring or the wire. or extended.

 Determine the area under a force / extension

(or compression) graph to find the work done by the force.  STIFFNESS OF A SPRING

 Select and use the equations for elastic potential energy  A helical spring hangs from a
E =½ Fx and E = ½ kx2. rod clamped in a retort stand
as shown opposite. Helical
 Define and use the terms stress, strain, Young modulus and spring
ultimate tensile strength (breaking stress).
Using a mass hanger and 100 g
 Describe an experiment to determine the Young modulus of a slotted masses a force is applied
extension Metre
metal in the form of a wire. to the spring and this is gradually rule
increased. Applied Force
 Define the terms elastic deformation and plastic deformation
of a material.

 Describe the shapes of the stress / strain graphs for typical The EXTENSION (x) (i.e. the
ductile, brittle and polymeric materials. increase in length of the spring)
produced for each value of the
APPLIED FORCE (F) is recorded
in the results table below.

FXA © 2008
UNIT G481 Module 3 1.3.4 Springs & Materials  Beyond point A, the graph is no longer a straight line. This is because the spring has 2
been permanently deformed; it has been stretched beyond its ELASTIC LIMIT.

Applied Force, F/N Pointer Reading/m Extension, x/m The ELASTIC LIMIT of a sample is that value of the stretching force
beyond which the sample becomes permanently deformed (i.e. it stops
0.0 behaving elastically).

1.0
 For section OA, the spring obeys HOOKE’S LAW.
2.0

A material obeys HOOKE’S LAW if the EXTENSION is directly

3.0
proportional to the APPLIED FORCE. This is true as long as the
material’s ELASTIC LIMIT is not exceeded.
4.0

5.0
 TERMS USED IN SPRINGS AND MATERIALS
6.0
 Consider a wire sample of original length (L) and
cross-sectional area (A) subjected to a force (F)
and suffering an extension (x).
wire
 Using the above results, a graph of force (F)
FORCE (F)/N versus EXTENSION (x)/m  The STRAIN of a material sample is the EXTENSION
is plotted. A produced per UNIT LENGTH.
L
Section OA of the graph is a straight gradient = k strain = extension = x
line passing through the origin, so for original length L
This section :
NOTE : Strain has no units and it is sometimes cross-sec.
Extension (x) α Force (F) O given as a percentage. area = A
extension (x)
x
From which : F = k x
FORCE, F
 The STRESS on a material sample is the FORCE
acting per unit CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA of the
(N) (N m-1) (m)
sample.

k = F/x - is called the SPRING CONSTANT or STIFFNESS. Stress = force = F (N)

x-sec. area A
- can be determined from the GRADIENT OF THE F/x GRAPH. (m2)

- the STIFFER the spring is, the GREATER is the k-VALUE. The unit of STRESS is the PASCAL (Pa).
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UNIT G481 Module 3 1.3.4 Springs & Materials 2 The table opposite shows the 3
Young modulus for a list of
different materials.
The STIFFNESS of the material being stressed is called the YOUNG MODULUS (E)
of the material.
(1 Gpa = 109 Pa).

YOUNG MODULUS, E = Stress = F/A = F L

(a) List the metals in the table
Strain x/L A x
from stiffest to least stiff
(by labelling them M1, M2..).
NOTE
 The unit of E is the PASCAL (Pa) - (1 Pa = 1 N m-2). (b) Which non-metal in the table
is the stiffest ? (Label it as
 E is usually a large number and so it is sometimes given in : NM 1).
megapascal (MPa) (i.e. Pa x 106) or gigapascal (GPa) (i.e. Pa x 109).

 E = Gradient of a stress/strain graph

3 A metal bar of length 100 mm and square cross section of side 20 mm

is extended by 0.030 mm when it is subjected to a tensile force of
 PRACTICE QUESTIONS (1) 24 kN.
Calculate : (a) The stress and the strain in the bar.
1 The diagram opposite shows the
force/extension graphs for four (b) The Young modulus for the material of the bar.
springs labelled A to D.
4 Calculate the extension of a copper wire of length 1.25 m and radius
0.55 mm when a tensile force of 25 N is applied to the end of the
Which of the four springs : wire. ( Young modulus for copper = 1.30 x 1011 Pa).

(a) Has the greatest value of 5 Springs can be combined as in (a) In SERIES, or
spring constant ? as in (b) In PARALLEL.

(b) Is the least stiff ? If the spring constant of a single spring is ‘k’,
what is the equivalent spring constant for two
(c) Does not obey Hooke’s Law ? springs : (a) In SERIES ?
(b) In PARALLEL ?

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UNIT G481 Module 3 1.3.4 Springs & Materials  ELASTIC AND PLASTIC DEFORMATION 4

 DETERMINATION OF THE YOUNG MODULUS (E)  ELASTIC behaviour is shown by a wire or spring if it returns to its original
length when the applied deforming force (load) is removed.
 Two long wires (P & Q) of the same material,
To common
length and diameter are hung from a common support
 All materials show ELASTIC behaviour up to the ELASTC LIMIT.
support. Q is the wire under test and P is the
comparison wire which is used as a reference  When a sample (e.g. spring, wire..) is loaded beyond its ELASTIC
so as to avoid errors due to : LIMIT, it does not regain its original dimensions when the load is
P Q test wire removed (i.e. it suffers permanent deformation).
 Expansion occurring as a result of reference wire
temperature change.
 Sagging of the support. vernier scale
fixed scale  PLASTIC behaviour is shown by some materials when they are loaded beyond the
elastic limit. The material is permanently deformed (or strained) when the load is
 The ORIGINAL LENGTH (L) of wire Q is
measured using a metal tape measure.
fixed weight

load
 The CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA (A) is
determined by using a micrometer screw
gauge to measure the diameter of Q at

several points along the length of the wire. A to B
The mean diameter and hence the mean STRESS
radius (R) is calculated. Then A = ∏R2. There is ELASTIC deformation - When C
the stress is removed, the sample goes
back to its original dimensions ( i.e. there B
 The EXTENSION (x) of wire Q when it is is zero strain).
loaded, is accurately measured by the
vernier arrangement between P and Q.
 B onwards

 The test wire Q is then incrementally loaded and the corresponding extensions are There is PLASTIC deformation - When
measured and noted. The results are used to plot a graph of FORCE (LOAD) (F) versus the stress is removed, the sample is left A D
STRAIN
EXTENSION (x) whose gradient = F/x. Then : permanently deformed (i.e. there is a
residual strain = AD).

Young modulus, E = stress = F/A = F L = gradient of F/x graph x L

Strain x/L x A A

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UNIT G481 Module 3 1.3.4 Springs & Materials  STRESS/STRAIN GRAPHS 5

 MATERIAL STRENGTH BRITTLE MATERIALS (e.g. glass, cast iron)

 When we talk about the STRENGTH of a material, we are referring to the STRESS  As the stress on a brittle material
value at which the material breaks. is gradually increased, it stretches
slightly, but further increase in the
The ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH or BREAKING STRESS of a material is applied stress causes fracture.
the stress value at which the material breaks.
 Brittle materials show ELASTIC
behaviour up to the point of fracture
(Up to that point, if the applied stress
Consider the STRESS/STRAIN graphs for is removed the sample returns to its
two different materials A & B shown opposite. original length).

 Sudden application of a large stress

will cause a brittle material to shatter
Material A has a greater UTS value than (e.g. dropping it onto a hard floor).
material B and this means that material A
is stronger than material B.

DUCTILE MATERIALS (e.g. copper, gold)

 PRACTICE QUESTIONS (2)

 As stress is applied to a ductile
material it will behave elastically up
1 For each of the materials to the ELASTIC LIMIT, but beyond
a, b and c whose this stress value the sample stretches
more and more and it does not return
STRESS/STRAIN graphs
to its original length when the stress
are shown opposite : is removed. The material shows
PLASTIC behaviour and it is then
permanently strained.

(a) Calculate the value of the

YOUNG MODULUS (E).  Ductile materials can be shaped by
stretching, rolling, squashing and
hammering (useful for making wires,
(b) State the ULTIMATE
jewellery etc.).
TENSILE STRENGTH.

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UNIT G481 Module 3 1.3.4 Springs & Materials  ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH (UTS) 6

 The value of the stress at which a

POLYMERIC MATERIALS (e.g. polythene, perspex) material breaks is called the
ULTIMATE TENSILE STRESS (UTS)
or the BREAKING STRESS.
 The behaviour of different polymers
depends on their temperature as well
as their molecular structure.
In the stress/strain graph shown
opposite, material A is stronger than
material B, since its UTS is greater.
 The infamous shopping carrier bag is
made of polythene and as we all know,
it is very stretchy and easy to deform.
Under stress, polythene quickly undergoes  ELASTIC POTENTIAL (STRAIN) ENERGY
PLASTIC deformation and stretches a lot
before becoming much stiffer and snapping
( behaving much like a DUCTILE metal).
 This is the energy stored when a solid is stretched or compressed.

 If the solid has been strained ELASTICALLY, the stored energy can be recovered.

If the solid has been strained PLASTICALLY, some of the work done has gone into
 Perspex is a very tough, hard plastic which, when stressed, stretches elastically
moving atoms past each other and the energy is non-recoverable.
until it snaps (BRITTLE material behaviour). When it is warmed however, it
ceases to be brittle and can be moulded into any shape. It is used for contact
lenses, dentures, artificial eyes and a huge variety of other industrial uses.
 Consider a wire subjected to a gradually FORCE
increasing force.

Up to the elastic limit :

MATERIAL BEHAVIOUR SUMMARY

Extension α applied force
 All materials show ELASTIC behaviour up to the
ELASTIC LIMIT.
Initial value of force = 0
 BRITTLE materials break at the ELASTIC LIMIT Final value of force = F EXTENSION
and shatter when subjected to a large , sudden Average value of force = ½ F
stress.
Elastic Potential Energy stored in the wire = Work done by the average force
 DUCTILE materials exhibit PLASTIC behaviour = average force x extension
(i.e. suffer permanent deformation) when they = ½F x x
are stretched beyond the ELASTIC LIMIT. Elastic Potential energy stored in the wire = ½ Fx

(J) (N) (m)

FXA © 2008
UNIT G481 Module 3 1.3.4 Springs & Materials 3 A spring has a force constant of 3.8 x 103 N m-1. Calculate the 7
ELASTIC POTENTIAL ENERGY stored in such a spring when it is
 Elastic Potential Energy stored in the wire = Area Enclosed by the F/x Graph stretched by 8.5 mm.
= ½ x base x height
= ½xx F
= ½ Fx
4 An elastic string of cross-sectional area 3 mm2 and length 2.5 m,
stretches by 2.0 cm when a force of 4.0 N is applied to it.
 PRACTICE QUESTIONS (3)
Calculate : (a) The YOUNG MODULUS of the string.
1 For each of the materials,
a, b and c shown in the (b) The ELASTIC POTENTIAL ENERGY stored in the
stress/strain graph opposite, string when it is stretched by 2.0 cm.
deduce the values of the
YOUNG MODULUS and the
ULTIMATE TENSILE 5 The graph opposite shows the
STRESS. variation of extension with applied
LOAD/ N
load for a wire of length 4.0 m and
radius 0.25 mm.
100

Calculate :
2 The diagram opposite shows
a simplified FORCE - (a) The STRESS in the wire when
EXTENSION graph for a the load is 100 N. 0
metal. 0 8
EXTENSION / mm
(b) The ELASTIC POTENTIAL
Use the graph to calculate : ENERGY stored in the wire
when the load is 100 N.
(a) The STRAIN ENERGY
stored when the metal 6 The diagram shows the force/extension
is stretched to its graph for two pieces of polymer. State
ELASTIC LIMIT. with an explanation which polymer :

(a) Has the greater stiffness.

(b) The TOTAL WORK which needs to be done to break the metal. (b) Requires the greater force to break it.
(c) Requires the greater amount of work to
be done in order to break it.
FXA © 2008
UNIT G481 Module 3 1.3.4 Springs & Materials 3 Part of a force against extension 8
graph for a spring is shown opposite.
 HOMEWORK QUESTIONS The spring obeys HOOKE’S LAW for
forces up to 5.0 N.

1 (a) (i) Define STRESS. (ii) Define STRAIN.

(a) Calculate the EXTENSION produced
(b) Describe an experiment to determine the YOUNG MODULUS of a metal in the by a force of 5.0 N.
form of a wire. Your description should include :

 A labelled diagram of the apparatus.

 The measurements to be taken.
 An explanation of how the equipment is used to obtain
the measurements.
 An explanation of how the measurements would be used
to determine the Young modulus.

(OCR AS Physics - Module 2821 - Jan 2005)

2 (a) Define the YOUNG MODULUS.

(b) The diagram above shows a second identical spring that has been put in parallel with
the first spring. A force of 5.0 N is applied to this combination of springs.
(b) The wire used in a piano string is made from steel. The original length of wire used
was 0.75 m. Fixing one end and applying a force to the other stretches the wire. For this arrangement, calculate :
The extension produced is 4.2 mm.
(i) The EXTENSION of each spring.
(i) Calculate the STRAIN produced in the wire.
(ii) The ELASTIC POTENTIAL ENERGY stored in the springs.
(ii) The Young modulus of the steel is 2.0 x 1011 Pa and the cross-sectional
area of the wire is 4.5 x 10-7 m2. Calculate the FORCE required to produce
the strain in the wire calculated in (i).
(c) The Young modulus of the wire used in the springs is 2.0 x 1011 Pa. Each spring is
made from a straight wire of length 0.40 m and cross-sectional area 2.0 x 10-7 m2.
(c) A different material is used for one of the strings in the piano. It has the same Calculate the EXTENSION produced when a force of 5.0 N is applied to this
length, cross-sectional area and force applied. Calculate the EXTENSION produced straight wire.
in this wire if the Young modulus of this material is half that of steel.

(d) (i) Define DENSITY. (d) Describe and explain, without further calculations, the difference in the elastic
potential energies in the straight wire and in the spring when a force of 5.0 N is
(ii) State and explain what happens to the density of the material of a wire when applied to each.
it is stretched. Assume that when the wire stretches, the cross-sectional
area remains constant. (OCR AS Physics - Module 2821 - June 2006)
(OCR AS Physics - Module 2821 - June 2004)

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UNIT G481 Module 3 1.3.4 Springs & Materials 9
(b) Using the graph or otherwise, describe the stress against strain behaviour of
4 Use the words ELASTIC, PLASTIC, BRITTLE and DUCTILE to deduce what the the cast iron up top and including the point of fracture.
following observations tell you about the materials described.
(OCR AS Physics - Module 2821 - Jan 2006)

(a) If you tap a cast iron bath gently with a hammer, the hammer bounces off. If you
hit it hard, the bath shatters.

(b) Aluminium drinks cans are made by forcing a sheet of aluminium into a mould at
high pressure.

(c) ‘SILLY PUTTY’ can be stretched to many times its original length if it is pulled
gently and slowly. If it is pulled hard and rapidly, it snaps.

The diagram above shows a stress against strain graph up to the point of fracture
For a rod of cast iron.

(a) The rod of cast iron has a cross-sectional area of 1.5 x10-4 m2. Calculate :

(i) The FORCE applied to the rod at the point of fracture.

(ii) The YOUNG MODULUS of cast iron.

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