The Varnes classification of landslide types, an update

Abstract The goal of this article is to revise several aspects of the well-known classification of landslides, developed by
Varnes (1978). The primary recommendation is to modify the definition of landslide-forming materials, to provide
compatibility with accepted geotechnical and geological terminology of rocks and soils. Other, less important
modifications of the classification system are suggested, resulting from recent developments of the landslide science. The
modified Varnes classification of landslides has 32 landslide types, each of which is backed by a formal definition. The
definitions should facilitate backward compatibility of the system as well as possible translation to other languages.
Complex landslides are not included as a separate category type, but composite types can be constructed by the user of
the classification by combining two or more type names, if advantageous.

Falls and topples

1. Rock/ice fall: Detachment, fall, rolling, and bouncing of rock or ice fragments. May occur singly or in clusters, but there
is little dynamic interaction between the most mobile moving fragments, which interact mainly with the substrate (path).
Fragment deformation is unimportant, although fragments can break during impacts. Usually of limited volume.

2. Boulder/debris/silt fall: Detachment, fall, rolling and bouncing of soil fragments such as large clasts in soil deposits, or
blocks of cohesive (cemented or unsaturated) soil. The mechanism of propagation is similar to rock fall, although impacts
may be strongly reduced by the weakness of the moving particles.

3. Rock block topple: Forward rotation and overturning of rock columns or plates (one or many), separated by steeply
dipping joints. The rock is relatively massive and rotation occurs on welldefined basal discontinuities. Movement may
begin slowly, but the last stage of failure can be extremely rapid. Occurs at all scales.

4. Rock flexural topple: Bending and forward rotation of a rock mass characterized by very closely spaced, steeply dipping
joints or schistose partings, striking perpendicular to the fall line of the slope. The rock is relatively weak and fissile. There
are no well-defined basal joints, so that rotation of the strata must be facilitated by bending. The movement is generally
slow and tends to self-stabilize. However, secondary rotational sliding may develop in the hinge zone of the topple. Occurs
at large scale.

5. Gravel/sand/silt block topple: Block toppling of columns of cohesive (cemented) soil, separated by vertical joints.

Slides in rock

6. Rock rotational slide (“rock slump”): Sliding of a mass of weak rock on a cylindrical or other rotational rupture surface
which is not structurally controlled. The morphology is characterized by a prominent main scarp, a characteristic back-
tilted bench at the head and limited internal deformation. Usually slow to moderately slow.

7. Rock planar slide (“block slide”): Sliding of a mass of rock on a planar rupture surface. The surface may be stepped
forward. Little or no internal deformation. The slide head may be separating from stable rock along a deep, vertical tension
crack. Usually extremely rapid.

8. Rock wedge slide: Sliding of a mass of rock on a rupture surface formed of two planes with a downslope-oriented
intersection. No internal deformation. Usually extremely rapid.

9. Rock compound slide: Sliding of a mass of rock on a rupture surface consisting of several planes, or a surface of uneven
curvature, so that motion is kinematically possible only if accompanied by significant internal distortion of the moving
mass. Horst-and-graben features at the head and many secondary shear surfaces are typical. Slow or rapid.

10. Rock irregular slide (“rock collapse”): Sliding of a rock mass on an irregular rupture surface consisting of a number of
randomly oriented joints, separated by segments of intact rock (“rock bridges”). Occurs in strong rocks with nonsystematic
structure. Failure mechanism is complex and often difficult to describe. May include elements of toppling. Often very
sudden and extremely rapid.

Slides in soil
11. Clay/silt rotational slide (“soil slump”): Sliding of a mass of (homogeneous and usually cohesive) soil on a rotational
rupture surface. Little internal deformation. Prominent main scarp and back-tilted landslide head. Normally slow to rapid,
but may be extremely rapid in sensitive or collapsive soils.

12. Clay/silt planar slide: Sliding of a block of cohesive soil on an inclined planar rupture surface, formed by a weak layer
(often pre-sheared). The head of the slide mass separates from stable soil along a deep tension crack (no active wedge).
May be slow or rapid.

13. Gravel/sand/debris slide: Sliding of a mass of granular material on a shallow, planar surface parallel with the ground.
Usually, the sliding mass is a veneer of colluvium, weathered soil, or pyroclastic deposits sliding over a stronger substrate.
Many debris slides become flow-like after moving a short distance and transform into extremely rapid debris avalanches.

14. Clay/silt compound slide: Sliding of a mass of soil on a rupture surface consisting of several planes, or a surface of
uneven curvature, so that motion is kinematically possible only if accompanied by significant internal distortion of the
moving mass. Horst-and-graben features at the head and many secondary shear surfaces are observed. The basal segment
of the rupture surface often follows a weak horizon in the soil stratigraphy

Spreading

15. Rock slope spread: Near-horizontal stretching (elongation) of a mass of coherent blocks of rock as a result of intensive
deformation of an underlying weak material, or by multiple retrogressive sliding controlled by a weak basal surface.
Usually with fairly limited total displacement and slow.

16. Sand/silt liquefaction spread: Extremely rapid lateral spreading of a series of soil blocks, floating on a layer of saturated
(loose) granular soil, liquefied by earthquake shaking or spontaneous liquefaction.

17. Sensitive clay spread: Extremely rapid lateral spreading of a series of coherent clay blocks, floating on a layer of
remoulded sensitive clay

Flow-like landslides

18. Rock/ice avalanche: Extremely rapid, massive, flow-like motion of fragmented rock from a large rock slide or rock fall.

19. Dry (or non-liquefied) sand/silt/gravel/debris flow: Slow or rapid flow-like movement of loose dry, moist or
subaqueous, sorted or unsorted granular material, without excess porepressure.

20. Sand/silt/debris flowslide: Very rapid to extremely rapid flow of sorted or unsorted saturated granular material on
moderate slopes, involving excess pore-pressure or liquefaction of material originating from the landslide source. The
material may range from loose sand to loose debris (fill or mine waste), loess and silt. Usually originates as a multiple
retrogressive failure. May occur subaerially, or under water.

21. Sensitive clay flowslide: Very rapid to extremely rapid flow of liquefied sensitive clay, due to remolding during a
multiple retrogressive slide failure at, or close to the original water content.

22. Debris flow: Very rapid to extremely rapid surging flow of saturated debris in a steep channel. Strong entrainment of
material and water from the flow path.

23. Mud flow: Very rapid to extremely rapid surging flow of saturated plastic soil in a steep channel, involving significantly
greater water content relative to the source material. Strong entrainment of material and water from the flow path
(Plasticity Index>5 %).

24. Debris flood: Very rapid flow of water, heavily charged with debris, in a steep channel. Peak discharge comparable to
that of a water flood.

25. Debris avalanche: Very rapid to extremely rapid shallow flow of partially or fully saturated debris on a steep slope,
without confinement in an established channel. Occurs at all scales.
26. Earthflow: Rapid or slower, intermittent flow-like movement of plastic, clayey soil, facilitated by a combination of
sliding along multiple discrete shear surfaces, and internal shear strains. Long periods of relative dormancy alternate with
more rapid “surges”.

27. Peat flow: Rapid flow of liquefied peat, caused by an undrained failure

Slope deformation

28. Mountain slope deformation: Large-scale gravitational deformation of steep, high mountain slopes, manifested by
scarps, benches, cracks, trenches and bulges, but lacking a fully defined rupture surface. Extremely slow or unmeasurable
movement rates.

29. Rock slope deformation: Deep-seated slow to extremely slow deformation of valley or hill slopes. Sagging of slope
crests and development of cracks or faults, without a well-defined rupture surface. Extremely slow movement rates.

30. Soil slope deformation: Deep-seated, slow to extremely slow deformation of valley or hill slopes formed of (usually
cohesive) soils. Often present in permafrost slopes with high ice content.

31. Soil creep: Extremely slow movement of surficial soil layers on a slope (typically less than 1 m deep), as a result of
climate-driven cyclical volume changes (wetting and drying, frost heave).

32. Solifluction: Very slow but intensive shallow soil creep involving the active layer in Alpine or polar permafrost. Forms
characteristic solifluction lobes.

Summary

A summary of the proposed landslide type classes appears in Table 5. There are now 32 landslide-type keywords,
compared with 29 used in the 1978 Varnes Classification, thus the system remains simple. Ambiguities will always remain,
especially where types grade from one to another, without a clear-cut boundary. However, the proposed revision of the
Varnes classification meets the objectives laid out at the beginning of this article and the authors hope the classification
may be found useful by researchers and practitioners.