Process Equipment Design (PCCH 4303)

By

Anup Kumar Bairagi

Email- [email protected]

Assistant Professor

Department of Chemical Engineering

Indira Gandhi Institute of Technology (Sarang)

CH4303 PROCESS EQUIPMENT DESIGN (3-1-0)

Following Books are Allowed –

1. M.V. Jhosi, Process Equipment Design
2. Coulson J. M. & Richardson J. F., Chemical Engineering, Vol VI, Pergamon Press
Module - I
Design of pressure vessels and storage tanks, Rotary dryers, Isothermal reactors.
Module - II
Detailed process design of the following equipments; Heat exchangers – concentric
tube, shell and tube types, Condensers – condenser coolers and de-superheater
condensers for single vapour only, Evaporators – single and multi effects,
Module - III
Absorbers – for binary systems without reactions, Distillation columns – for binary
mixtures along with tray hydraulics,
Text Book:
1. D. Q. Kern, Process Heat Transfer.
2. R. E. Treybal, Mass Transfer Operations.
Reference Book:
1. J. H. Perry, Chemical Engineers Handbook.
2. Mc Cabe W. L. & Smith J. C. & Harriot P, Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering (5th
Edition), Mc Graw Hill, New York.
Disclaimer:

This document does not claim any originality and cannot be used as a substitute for
prescribed textbooks. The information presented here is merely a collection by the
committee faculty members for their respective teaching assignments as an additional tool
for the teaching-learning process. Various sources as mentioned at the reference of the
document as well as freely available material from internet were consulted for preparing this
document. The ownership of the information lies with the respective authors or institutions.
Further, this document is not intended to be used for commercial purpose and the committee
faculty members are not accountable for any issues, legal or otherwise, arising out of use of
this document. The committee faculty members make no representations or warranties with
respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this document and specifically
disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose
 Indira Gandhi Institute of Technology
Name of the Institute:
CHEMICAL ENGG
Department:
5th SEM /B.Tech
Semester/Division/Branch:
Subject Name with code: Process Equipment Design
(PCCH 4303)
Total No. of Class (Required): 31

Faculty Name: Anup Kumar Bairagi

Lecture
Remarks
No. Brief description of the Topic/Chapter to be taught

0.
Basics Of Design
1. Introduction, Axial Stress Due
To Dead Loads
2. Axial Stresses Due To Pressures

Longitudinal Bending Stresses

3. Due To Dynamic Loads, Design
Considerations

4. Solved Problem Pressure Vessel

5. Solved Problem Pressure Vessel

6. Mechanical Design Standards

7. Design Components

8. Design Component

9. Solved Example Pressure vessel

Introduction And Types

10. Of Driers

Introduction And Types

11. Of Driers (Cont.)

12. Design Consideration Of Drier

13. Solved Problems Driers

14. Solved Problems Driers

15. Heat Exchangers Classifications

16. Thermal Design Considerations
17. Process (Thermal) Design Procedure
18. Design Problem Heat Exchangers
19. Condenser And Reboiler Design
Introduction And Evaporator
20.
Classifications
21. Methods Of Feeding Of Evaporators
22. Thermal Design Calculation
23. Solved Example In Evaporator

24. Mechanical Design Heat Exchanger

25. Introduction To Distillation
Effect Of Vapour Flow Conditions On
26.
Tray Design
27. Plate Design
28. Hand On Design

29. Provisional Plate Design

30. Provisional Plate Design

LECTURE 0
Basics of Design
A CHEMICAL engineering design project does not follow a set of standard steps , nor does it
have a single ‘correct’ solution. The considerations in a design project are many and varied. The
solution that is finally accepted is (usually) the ‘better’ solution (often based upon economic
considerations) from several alternatives. The important feature of a design study is that decisions
must be made at every stage, and compromises are frequently required.

NATURE OF DESIGN

Design is a creative activity, and as such can be one of the most rewarding and satisfying
activities undertaken by an engineer. It is the synthesis, the putting together, of ideas to achieve
a desired purpose. The designer starts with a specific objective in mind, a need, and by
developing and evaluating possible designs, arrives at what he considers the best way of
achieving that objective; be it a better chair, a new bridge, or for the chemical engineer, a new
chemical product or a stage in the design of a production process.

Constraints of Design

The following six steps in the design of a chemical process have been identified (Ulrich, 1984):

• Conception and definition

• Flow sheet development

• Design of equipment

• Economic analysis

• Optimization

• Reporting
Typical Design Process

Some basic info required at the beginning of designing a plant or project

• production rate (plant throughput);

• purity of final product;

• raw materials to be used/available;

• utilities available;

• site location;

• expected markets;

• the process route.

Process Design

• Process design establishes the sequence of chemical and physical operations;

– operating conditions;

– the duties,

– major specifications,

– and materials of construction

– the general arrangement of equipment needed to ensure proper functioning of the

plant;

– principal instrumentation.

• The process design is summarized by a process flow sheet, a material and energy
balance, and a set of individual equipment specifications.
 • Sometimes only a preliminary design and cost estimate are needed to evaluate the
advisability of further research on a new process or a proposed plant expansion or detailed
design work.

Equipment Design

• Two main categories of process equipment are proprietary and custom-designed.

• Proprietary equipment is designed by the manufacturer to meet performance

specifications made by the user.

• This category includes equipment with moving parts such as pumps, compressors, and
drivers as well as cooling towers, dryers, filters, mixers, agitators, piping equipment,
and valves, and even the structural aspects of heat exchangers, furnaces, and other
equipment.

• Custom design is needed for many aspects of chemical reactors, most vessels, multistage
separators such as fractionators, and other special equipment not amenable to complete
standardization.

Anatomy of Design

• Stage 1. Raw material storage

– Bulk Solid Handling

• Stage 2. Feed preparation

– Mechanical Operation

– Mineral processing

– Membrane separation

• Stage 3. Reactor

– Chemical Reaction Engineering

– Chemical Kinetics

• Stage 4. Product separation

– Mass Transfer Operations

– Membrane separation

• Stage 5. Purification
 – Before sale, the main product will usually need purification to meet the product
specification.

– If produced in economic quantities, the by-products may also be purified for sale.

• Stage 6. Product storage

– product packaging and transport

STANDARD’s and CODE’s

• British Standards Institution (BSI)

• National Bureau of Standards

• American National Standards Institute

• American Petroleum Institute

• American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM)

• American Society of Mechanical Engineers

• The International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

Pressure Vessel

• “PRESSURE VESSEL” means a vessel that may be used for containing, storing,
distributing, transferring, distilling, processing or otherwise handling any gas, vapour or
liquid under pressure greater than the atmospheric pressure and includes any pipeline fitting
or other equipment attached there to or used in connection there with.

Classification of pressure vessels

For the purposes of design and analysis, pressure vessels are sub-divided into two classes depending
on the ratio of the wall thickness to vessel diameter:

1. Thin-walled vessels, with a thickness ratio of less than 1 : 10;

2. Thick-walled above this ratio.

 DESIGN OF TALL VESSELS: INTRODUCTION, AXIAL STRESS
DUE TO DEAD LOADS, AXIAL STRESSES DUE TO PRESSURS,
LONGITUDINAL BENDING STRESSES DUE TO DYNAMIC LOADS,
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS OF DISTILLATION (TALL) AND
ABSORPTION COLUMN (TOWER)
Lecture 1: INTRODUCTION, AXIAL STRESS DUE
TO DEAD LOADS

INTRODUCTION
Self supporting tall equipments are widely used in chemical process industries. Tall
vessels may or may not be designed to be self supporting. Distillation column,
fractionating columns, absorption tower, multistage reactor, stacks, chimneys etc. comes
under the category of tall vertical vessels. In earlier times high structure (i.e. tall vessels)
were supported or stabilized by the use of guy wires. Design of self supporting vertical
vessels is a relatively recent concept in equipment design and it has been widely accepted
in the chemical industries because it is uneconomical to allocate valuable space for the
wires of guyed towers. In these units ratio of height to diameter is considerably large due
to that these units are often erected in the open space, rendering them to wind action.
Many of the units are provided with insulation, number of attachments, piping system etc.
For example distillation and absorption towers are associated with a set of auxiliary
equipments i.e. reboiler, condenser, feed preheater, cooler and also consists of a series of
internal accessories such as plates or trays or variety of packings. Often the vertical
vessels/columns are operated under severe conditions, and type of the material these
columns handles during operation may be toxic, inflammable or hazardous in other ways.
Structural failure is a serious concern with this type of columns. As a result the, the
prediction of membrane stresses due to internal or external pressure will not be sufficient
to design such vessels. Therefore, special considerations are necessary to take into
account and predict the stresses induced due to dead weight, action of wind and seismic
forces.

STRESSES IN THE SHELL (TALL VERTICAL VESSEL)

Primarily the stresses in the wall of a tall vessel are: a) circumferential stress, radial stress
and axial stress due to internal pressure or vacuum in the vessel, b) compressive stress
caused by dead load such as self weight of the vessel including insulation, attached
equipments and weight of the contents.
Dead load is the weight of a structure itself, including the weight of fixtures or equipment
permanently attached to it; Live load is moving or movable external load on a structure.
This includes the weight of furnishing of building, of the people, of equipment etc. but
doesn‟t include wind load. If the vessels are located in open, it is important to note that
wind load also act over the vessel. Under wind load, the column acts as cantilever beam
as shown (Figure 6.1). Therefore while designing the vessel stresses induced due to
different parameters have to be considered such as i) compressive and tensile stress
induced due to bending moment caused by wind load acting on the vessel and its
attachments; ii) stress induced due to eccentric and irregular load distributions from
piping, platforms etc. iii) stress induced due to torque about longitudinal axis resulting
from offset piping and wind loads and iv) stress resulting from seismic forces. Apart from
that, always there are some residual stresses resulting due to methods of fabrication used
like cold forming, bending, cutting, welding etc.

Bending moment diagram under wind load

AXIAL AND CIRCUMFERENTIAL PRESSURE STRESSES

Tensile stresses resulting from internal pressure

The simple equation may be derived to determine the axial and circumferential stresses
due to internal pressure in the shell of a closed vessel. Diagram representing a thin
walled cylindrical vessel in which a unit form stress, f, may be assumed to occur in
the wall as a result of internal pressure.

Where, l = length, inches

d = inside diameter, inches

t = thickness of shell, inches and p = internal pressure, pounds/square inch gage

Longitudinal stress: In case of longitudinal stress, if the analysis limits to pressure
stresses only, the longitudinal force, P, resulting from an internal pressure, p, acting on a
thin cylinder of thickness t, length l, and diameter d is:

P = force tending to rupture vessel longitudinally

= (p  d2)/4
And a = area of metal resisting longitudinal rupture

= t d
Therefore

f = stress = P/a =
p d 2 / 4 pd
= = induced stress, pounds per square inch
t d 4t

pd
or t
4f

Longitudinal forces acting on thin cylinder (internal pressure)

Circumferential stresses: The circumferential force acting on the thin cylinder under
internal pressure. The following analysis may be developed, if one considers the
circumferential stresses are induced by the internal pressure only.

P = force tending to rupture vessel circumferentially = p × d × l

a = area of metal resisting force = 2 × t × l

P pdl pd
f = stress =  
a 2tl 2t

pd
or t
2f

Circumferential forces acting on thin cylinder (internal pressure)

Equation 6.1 and 6.2 indicates that for a specific allowable stress, fixed diameter and
given pressure, the thickness required to restrain the pressure for the condition of eq.
(6.2) is double than that of the equation (6.1). Therefore, the thickness as determined by
equation (6.2) is controlling and is the commonly used thin walled equation referred to in
the various codes for vessels. The above equation makes no allowances for corrosion and
does not recognize the fact that welded seams or joints may cause weakness. Experience
has shown that an allowance may be made for such weakness by introducing a joint
efficiency factor “j” in the equations and this factor is always less than unity and is
specified for a given type of welded construction in the various codes. The thickness of
metal, c, allowed for any anticipated corrosion is then added to the calculated required
thickness, and the final thickness value rounded off to the nearest nominal plate size of
equal or greater thickness.

pd
t +c
4f j

pd
t +c
2f j

Where, t = thickness of shell, inches

p = internal pressure, pounds per square inch
d = inside diameter, inches
f = allowable working stress, pounds per square inch
E = joint efficiency, dimensionless
c = corrosion allowance, inches
COMPRESSIVE STRESS CAUSED BY DEAD LOADS
The major sources of the load acting over tall vertical vessel are the weight of the vessel
shell and weight of the vessel fittings which includes the internal, external and auxiliary
attachments. Internal fittings: trays, packing, heating and cooling coils. External fittings:
platforms, piping, insulation, ladders. Auxiliary attachments: instruments, condenser etc.
Therefore, Stresses caused by dead loads may be considered in three groups for
convenience: (a) stress induced by shell and insulation (b) stress induced by liquid in
vessel (c) stress induced by the attached equipment.

Stress induced by shell and insulation: Stress due to weight of shell and insulation at
any distance, X from the top of a vessel having a constant shell thickness,


Wshell =
4
D 2
o 
 Di2   s  X

Where, W = weight of shell above point X from top

D0 & Di = outside and inside diameter of shell
X = distance measured from the top of the vessel
 s = density of shell material,
And stress due to weight of insulation at height „X‟

Winsulation =  Dins  ins  X  t ins

Where, Wins = weight of insulation
Dins = mean diameter of insulation
X = height measured from the top of the column
tins = thickness of insulation
ρins = density of insulation

Compressive stress is force per unit area,

 /4  (Do2 -Di2 )  X   s
f d wt shell =  Xs
 /4(Do2 -Di2 )
Similarly, the stress due to dead weight of the insulation is:

  (D  t)ins X
f d wt ins =
 Dm t s
Dm = mean diameter of shell (Dm = (Do + Di)/2)
Dins  Dm = diameter of insulated vessel
ts = thickness of shell without corrosion allowance

Therefore,

ins t ins X
f d wt ins =
ts
Stress induced due to liquid retained in column. It will be depend upon internal e.g. in
tray column, total number of plates, hold up over each tray, liquid held up in the down
comer etc. will give the total liquid contents of the column.

f d liquid =
W liquid

 Dm t s
Dm = mean diameter of vessel, feet
 ts = thickness of shell without corrosion allowance
Stress induced by the attachment, like trays, over head condenser, instruments,
platform, ladders etc.

f dattachments =
W attachments
 Dm t s
The total dead load stress, ftotal, acting along the longitudinal axis of the shell is then the
sum of the above dead weight stresses.

ftotal = fdead wt shell + fdead wt ins + fdead wt liq + fdead wt attach.

Lecture 2: AXIAL STRESSES DUE TO PRESSURS
THE AXIAL STRESSES (TENSILE AND
COMPRESSIVE) DUE TO WIND LOADS ON SELF
SUPPORTING TALL VERTICLE VESSEL
The stress due to wind load may be calculated by treating the vessel as uniformly loaded
cantilever beam. The wind loading is a function of wind velocity, air density and shape of
tower.

The wind load on the vessel is given by

Pw = ½ × CD × × Vw2 A

Where,

CD = drag coefficient
ρ = density of air
Vw = wind velocity
A = projected area normal to the direction of wind
If wind velocity is known approximate wind pressure can be computed from the
following simplified relationship.

Pw = 0.05 Vw2

Pw = min wind pressure to be used form moment calculation, N/m2

Vw = max wind velocity experienced by the region under worst weather condition, km/h

Wind velocity varies with height. This can be observed from the figure shown below
. The velocity of wind near the ground is less than that away from it. Therefore,
to take into account this factor a variable wind force may be taken. It is
recommended to calculate the wind load in two parts, because the wind pressure does not
remain constant through the height of the tall vessel. Say for example in case of vessel
taller than 20 m height, it is suggested that the wind load may be determined separately
for the bottom part of the vessel having height equal to 20 m, and then for rest of the
upper part.
Load due to wind acting in the bottom portion of the vessel.
Pbw = K1 K2 p1 h1 Do
Where,
Pbw – total force due to wind load acting on the bottom part of the vessel with height
equal to or less than 20 m.
Do - outer diameter of the vessel including the insulation thickness
h1 – height of the bottom part of the vessel equal to or less than 20 m
K1 – coefficient depending upon the shape factor (i.e. 1.4 for flat plate; 0.7 for cylindrical
surface)

Tall column subjected to wind pressure

Load due to wind acting in the upper portion of the vessel.
Puw = = K1 K2 p2 h2 Do
Where,
Puw – total force due to wind load acting on the upper part above 20 m.
Do - outer diameter of the vessel including the insulation thickness
h2 – height of the upper part of the vessel above 20 m
K2 – coefficient depending upon the period of one cycle of vibration of the vessel
(K2 = 1, if period of vibration is 0.5 seconds or less; K2 = 2, if period exceeds 0.5
seconds)
Stress due to bending moment: Stress induced due to bending moment in the axial
direction is determined from the following equations.
(i) Mw = Pbw h1/2 ; h1 ≤ 20m

(ii) Mw = Pbw h1/2 + Puw (h1 + h2/2 ) ; h1 > 20m

Therefore, the bending stress due to wind load in the axial direction
4 Mw
fw 
 t (Di + t) Di
Where,
fw - longitudinal stress due to wind moment
Mw - bending moment due to wind load
Di – inner diameter of shell
t – corroded shell thickness

THE STRESS RESULTING FROM SEISMIC LOADS

The seismic load is assumed to be distributed in a triangular fashion, minimum at the
base of the column and maximum at the top of the column. It is a vibrational load, it
produces horizontal shear in self supported tall vertical vessel (Figure 6.4).

Seismic forces on tall column

 Seismic forces on tall column

The load may, therefore be considered as acting at a distance 2/3 from the bottom of the
vessel.
Load, F = Sc W
Where, W = weight of the vessel
Sc = seismic coefficient
Seismic coefficient depends on the intensity and period of vibrations. For example if the
vibration lasts for more than one second seismic coefficient value varies from minimum,
moderate to maximum Sc = 0.02, 0.04, and 0.08 respectively.
Stress induced due to bending moment up to height X from the top of the column is given
by:
Sc W X 2 (3 H - X)
MsX = ×
3 2
Where X = H, maximum bending moment is at the base of column
Msb= 2/3 × Sc W H
The resulting bending stress due to seismic bending moment is given by:
4 MsX
fsb =
π D2 t
The maximum bending moment is located at the base of the vessel (X = H). Thus
substituting H for X in Eq. (6.17)
Sc W H 2 (3 H - H)
f = 4× ×
sb 3 H 2 π D2 t

2 Sc W H
f =
sb 3 π R t 2
The possibility of the wind load and seismic load acting simultaneously over the column
is rare. So both the loads are computed separately and whichever is more severe is used
to calculate the maximum resultant stress.
Maximum tensile stress at the bottom of the skirt
ftensile = (fwb or fsb) - fdb
Maximum compressive stress on the skirt
fcompressive = (fwb or fsb) + fdb, here, fdb - dead load stress
Taking into account the complexity of the final equation for maximum stresses, it is
customary to assume a suitable thickness „t‟ of the skirt and check for the maximum
stresses, which should be less than the permissible stress value of the material.
STRESS DUE TO ECCENTRICITY OF LOADS
(TENSILE OR COMPRESSIVE)
M e (e)
fe =  
( /4) Do2 (t s c)
Me = summation of eccentric load
e = eccentricity
Key words: wind load, bending moment, seismic load, eccentric loads
Lecture 3: LONGITUDINAL BENDING STRESSES
DUE TO DYNAMIC LOADS, DESIGN
CONSIDERATIONS
ESTIMATION OF HEIGHT OF THE TALL VESSEL (X)
Height of the tall vessel „X‟ can be estimated be combining all the stresses acting in the
axial direction may be added and equated to the allowable tensile stress, excluding the
stresses due to eccentricity of load and seismic load.

Stress due to wind load at distance 'X' + Longitudinal stress due to internal pressure -
W attachments
(X )
= f t max
 Dm t s

Stress due to wind load at distance 'X' + Longitudinal stress due to internal pressure -
W attachments
(X )
- f t all J  0
 Dm t s
Here, ts is the thickness of the shell
In the above equation ft max is replaced by ft all
Hence, above equation can be represented in the following form
a X2 + b X + c = 0
-b  b 2  4ac
from which X =
2a
Once the value of „X‟ is estimated, it is described to adjust the plate thickness, t, for the
top portion of the column, so that the height of portion X will be multiple of the plate
width used. The plate thickness which is originally selected is satisfactory up to a
considerable height. Trays below the distance X of the column must have an increased
thickness. If the above condition does not satisfy then calculation of the axial stress with
an increase in the thickness according to equation (6.5, 6.23) are repeated, and this
repetitive steps in calculation helps to estimate subsequent height ranges to corresponds
with increase thickness. The procedure is repeated till the entire height of the vessel is
covered.
COLUMN INTERNALS
Design and construction features of plate and trays
Plate or trays can be constructed either as one piece trays or as sectional trays. Several
factors control the design and construction features of plates or trays. These factors
includes 1) down coming liquid impact, liquid weight, load on the tray due to dead
weight; 2) expansion due to rise in temperature; 3) fabrication and installation ease; 4)
support type; 5) material of construction and safety.
One piece tray may be made of material such as cast iron, copper or steel including the
risers and down comers, with a thickness of 2 to 6 mm depending on the diameter and the
material. The sectional tray is made from section in the form of floor plates cut form
sheets, which are laid on the supporting beams and peripheral ring. A clearance is
provided between adjacent sections and clamping devices are used for fixing.
The cast iron tray is able to withstand compressive forces created due to thermal
expansion within reasonable limits and their diameters are also limited to small sizes.
Whereas the one piece shaped tray made of ductile material is comparatively thin and has
a limited ability to absorb forces due to thermal expansion. Therefore, in order to prevent
the distortion of the tray floor, provision of packing seal between the edge of the tray and
column wall help to relieve these problem. On the other hand one of the main advantages
of the sectional tray is its ability to cope with thermal expansion. The individual sections
of the tray are placed on the supporting structures, an asbestos jointing material inserted
between the section and the support member. Each section is finally held by frictional
clamping devices. Sectional trays are also necessary when these are to be taken inside
through the limited size of column man holes in parts and assembled inside.
Loading conditions of trays and plates
Plates and trays used in the tall column have to be maintained flat in order to provide a
uniform seal of the liquid on their surfaces. During operation various loads acts on the
plates and trays, and due to that plates and trays are likely to deflects greatly, unless they
are provided with sufficient supporting systems or and made adequately thick.
Deflections caused by the different loads are: a) tray weight with contacting devices and
down comers; b) liquid weight; c) impact load of the down coming liquid; d) weight of
maintenance personnel and tools; e) expansion due to a rise in temperature (if prevented).
Usually these have provision for free expansion. Load due to this may be ignored.
wv
Load =
g
Where, w - weight of liquid per sec.
v – velocity per sec., g- gravitation constant.
Load „a‟ and „c‟ need to be considered for estimation of deflection. In general, a
deflection of 3 mm permissible and in special cases this is may be limited to 2 mm.
Similarly, for cleaning and assembly or inspection operations, loads „a‟ and „e‟ should be
considered. The design is based not on the permissible deflection but on the permissible
stresses.
Deflection and stresses
Deflection and stress determination for trays depends on the methods used for the
supporting structure. Usually three methods are used.
a) Tray supported on a peripheral ring
b) Tray supported on a truss
c) Vertical supports
The deflection and stresses in the three methods indicated above can be calculated as
follows:
a) Tray supported on a peripheral ring
The deflection in case of tray supported on a peripheral ring can be calculated by
considering a circular flat plate fixed at the circumference and subjected to a
uniform load over its surface.
3 (m2 -1)
 .PL .R 4

E m16 t 2 3
For metal if Poisson‟s ratio is taken as 1/3 i.e., m=3
PL .R 4
Then, 
16 E t 3
Where, E – modulus of elasticity
t – thickness of the plate
PL – loads a to c causing deflection per unit area of the plate
R – radius of the plate
Equation 6.26, need to be modified in view of the actual construction for each type of
tray. Because the tray is perforated and not solid sheet, as in the case of dual flow,
turbogrid or sieve tray. While in case of bubble cap tray, the holes are reinforced by
risers. The load may not be as uniformly distributed as it is assumed and fixing of the tray
at the edge may be only partial and may not be complete. The above equation can be
modified by taking the value of constant in the above equation as 1/2 instead of 1/6.
During cleaning and assembly operations a uniformly distributed load of tray and down
comers may produce a stress in the tray which is estimated by:
3P.R 2
f1 
4 t2
Where, p - uniformly distributed load per unit area
R, t – radius and thickness of tray
Whereas the stress induced due to concentrated load of maintenance personnel and tools
will be given by:
3w  R 
f2  2 
1.33log  1
2 t  x 
Where, w - concentrated load at the centre of the tray
R, t – radius and thickness of tray
x - any intermediate radius, when the load is present
In equations 6.27 and 6.28, the value of Poisson‟s ratio is taken as 0.33. From the above
calculation it can be observed that the tray supported merely on a peripheral ring has to
be handled with a minimum loading during actual operation and maintenance. Its
application is limited to small diameter vessels.
b) Tray supported on a truss
The size of each beam of the truss is determined by the span and the load shared by the
beam. The load on the tray will be shared by the beams in proportion to the area of the
tray supported by it. The deflection of the beam has to be limited and is given by
5 W l3
 =
384 EI
Where, W – load carried by the beam including its own weight
l – beam
E- modulus of elasticity
I – moment of inertia
The stress is given by
Wl
f =
8 Z1
for uniformly distributed load and concentrated load is given by
Wl
f =
4 Z2
Where, Z – section modulus of beam
Lecture 4: SOLVED PROBLEM
Example 1: A tall vertical column 2.5 m in outer diameter and 42 m in height is to be
installed. The available specifications are: Operating temperature and pressure – 160oC
and 4 kg/cm2(g).

Skirt height – 3.0 m. Insulation thickness – 120 mm.

Tray spacing – 0.6 m. Permissible material stress of shell – 780

kg/m2.
Top space disengagement – 1.2 m.
Welded joint efficiency – 0.80
Weir height – 60 mm.
Density of shell mtl. – 7600 kg/m3.
Bottom space separation – 1.8 m
2
Density of insulation – 500 kg/m3.
Tray loading with liquid – 110 kg/m
Over head vapor pressure line – 2280 mm
Tray support ring – 45 mm x 45mm x 11
mm angles Weight of ladder – 30 kg/m.

Corrosion allowance – 1.5 mm Weight of 280 mm outer diameter pipe –

60 kg/m
Wind force acting over vent – 110 kg/m2

Design pressure – 4 × 1.2 = 4.8 kg/cm2

Solution:
Design pressure = 4 ×1.2 = 4.8 Kg/cm2

Thickness of shell -
PD0 4.8× 2.5×103
= + c = 9.5mm + 2mm = 11.5mm
2 f J + P 2×780×0.8 + 4.8
Assuming standard plate thickness -10 mm.

If assuming elliptical head with major to minor axis ratio - 2:1


( D0  Di )  
3 3
Weight of elliptical head =
6

Π 3 3
= (2.52 - 2.50 )×7600 = 1504 kg
6
Axial stress in the cylindrical shell due to internal pressure

PD 4.8  2.5 kg
fa =   375 2
4(t  c) 4(10  2) cm
Estimate dead weight:

kg
1. Stress induced due to dead weight of shell = i x  7600 x 2
cm
(  .t )ins .x 500  0.12.x kg
2. Dead weight of insulation =   7500x 2
ts 0.008 m

Weight of attachments = weight of load + weight of loader + weight of overhead

vapor line + weight of pipe insulation

= 1504 + 30x + 60 x + (0.52  0.28 2 )500 x
6

= 1504 + 157.38 x kg.

1504  (157.38x)
Stress due to weight of attachments Fd attach   23936  (2504.78x)
(2.5)(0.008)

Now, calculate number of trays up to height x from top

x 1
n  1  2x  1
0.6
weight of liquid on the trays is calculated on the basis of water & 0.05 m water depth.

 2 
Weight of liquid (WL )  D  0.05  980  2x  1  (2.5) 2  0.05  980  2x 1  240.52(x 1)
4 4

 2 
Weight of tray  .D  2x  1  .(2.5) 2   2x  1  4.908  2x  1
4 4
Weight of liquid + Weight of tray
 240.52  x  1  4..908  x 1  245.428  x 1
Stress induced due to tray & liquid over the tray

245  2x  1 245.428  2x  1 kg
Fd liq tray    3906.1 2x  1 3
D.t   2.5  0.008 m
Total stress due to dead weight = 7600x + 7500x + 23936 + 2504.78x + 7812.2x –
3906.1 = 25416.98x + 20029.9
Stress due to wind load , wind load acting over the vessel

PW = k1 k2 (P1)Deff

= 0.7 × 110 × Deff

Deff = Diameter of insulation + Diameter of overhead line

= (2.7 + 0.5) = 3.2 m.

PW = 0.7 (110) 3.2 = 246.4 x kg

Bending moment induced and calculated upto height „x‟ from top.

MW = 246.4 x. x/2 kg.m

MW = 123.2 x2 kg.m

MW 123.2x 2
Stress induced due to bending moment FW   3137.26x 2
( / 4).D 2 .t (  ).(2.5)2 .0.008
4

Combined stress under operating condition on upward side gives:

Ftensile = Fwx +Fa press – Fd x = 3137.26 x2 + 375×104 - 25416.98 X - 20029.9

= 3137.26 x2 - 25416.98 x – 3729970.1

As per the condition stress should be less than the permissible stress of the mtl .

3137.26 x2 - 25416.98 x + 3729970.1 = 780 × 104 × 0.85

3137.26 x2 – 25416.98x -2900029.9 = 0

x2 – 8.1016x – 924.38 = 0

x = 34.72 m.

Similarly estimate the combined stress under operating condition on down wind side.
Fcmax =Fwx+ Fapress+Fdx

= 3137.26x2 - 375×104 + 25416.98x + 20029.9

= 3137.26x2 + 25416.98x - 3729970.1

Permissible compressive stress = 1/3 yield stress

= 1/3 × 1350 = 450

3137.26x2 + 25416.98x - 3729970.1 = 4.550 × 106

x2 + 8.10x – 2623.29 = 0

- 8.10  8.10   4  2623.99

2

x=
2

- 8.10  102.75
=
2

x = 47.32m or -55.42m

47.32 > 42 m
Lecture 5: SOLVED PROBLEM
Example 2: Make a preliminary estimate for fabricating a plate thickness required for
column of diameter 2.5 m and 60m in height. Skirt support height is 2.5 m. Hundred
sieve plates are equally spaced in the column.

Insulation wall thickness = 70 mm

Operating pressure = 11 bar (absolute)

Joint factor = 1

Column is made of stainless steel, with design stress and design temperature of 130
N/mm2 and 210oC respectively (RC, pg 841)

Solution:

Design pressure is 10% more than operating pressure

= (11-1)×1.1 = 11 bar, say 10bar

= 1.0N/mm2

1  2.5  10 3
For a given pressure loading minimum thickness is  9.61mm
2  130  1

Basically base of the column needs to be much thicker to with stand the wind load and
dead weights load.

For trial purpose divide the column is to five sections. We can consider the increasing
thickness by 2 mm per section. Try 10, 12, 14, 16, 18 mm.

- Dead weight of vessel

use avg thickness in the equation, mm

Take Cv = 1.15, vessel with plates

Dm = 2.5 + 14×10-3= 2.514

x = 60 m, t = 14 mm

Weight of vessel = 240 × 1.15 × 2.514 (60 + 0.8 × 2.514) 14

= 602382.75 N

= 602 KN
Weight of plates -


Plate area = (2.5) 2  4.9m 2
4

weight of plate = 1.2 × 4.9 = 5.9 KN

for 100 plates = 100 × 5.9 = 590 KN

Weight of insulation -

density = 130 kg/m3

volume =  2  60  70 103  26.38m2

Weight = 26.38 × 130 × 9.81× 10-3 = 33.64 KN

double this to allow for fittings = 66 KN

total weight = 602 + 590 + 66 KN = 1258 KN

Wind loading:

Dynamic wind pressure = 1280 N/m2

Mean diameter, including insulation = 2.5 + 2(14 + 70)10-3 = 2.668 m.

loading = Fw = 1280 × 2.668 = 3415.04 N/m

Bending moment at bottom = Mx = (3415.4/2) 602= 614707.2 Nm

Stress Analysis:

1 2.5 10
3
Stress due to pressure at bottom f L   34.72 N / mm2
4 18

1 2.5 10
3
fh   69.44 N / mm2
2 18

1258 103
Dead weight of stress f w   8.83N / mm2
(2500  18)18

Bending stress Do = 2500 + 2 × 18 = 25336 mm


I  (2536 4  2500 4 )  1.128  1011 mm 4
64
 6147072  10 3  2500 
Fb   11 
 18   69.06 N / mm 2
1.128  10  2 

The resulting longitudinal stress is: fz = fL + fw + fb

fb(upwind) = 34.72 – 8.83 + 64.06 = 94.95 N/mm

fb = (downwind ) = 34.72 – 8.883 – 69.06 = - 43.17 N/mm2

The greatest difference between the principle stress will be on the down wind side:

69.44 – (-43.17) = 112.61 N/mm2

Elastic stability:

18
Critical buckling stress: fC  2.0 104   141.95 N / mm2
2536

The maximum compressive stress will occur when the vessel is not under pressure

= 8.83 + 69.06 = 77.83 N/mm2

The value 77.83 is well below the critical buckling stress. Therefore design is
satisfactory.
Example 3: Determine the shell thickness for a tall vessel of following specification. As
a generation guide it is to be noted that for each 5.6 m height, shell thickness can be
increased by 1.2mm. This general guide is required to determine the number of shell
courses.
Max wind speed expected (for height up to 20 m) = 150 km/h

Shell outside diameter = 2.5 m

Shell length tangent to tangent = 18.0 m

Skirt height = 3.8 m

Operating temperature = 310oC

Operating pressure = 0.6 MN/m

Design temperature = 330oC

Design pressure = 0.9 MN/mm2

Corrosion allowance = 2.5 mm.

Tray spacing = 0.7 m

Top designing space = 1.0 m

Bottom separating space = 2.5 m

Weir height = 80 mm

Down comer clearance = 30 mm

Weight of each head = 7.5 KN

Tray loading (excluding liquid) = 1.0 KN/m2 of tray area

Tray support rings = 50mm x 50mm x 10mm angles

Insulation = 70 mm asbestos

Weld joint efficiency factor = 0.85

Solution:

Thickness of shell required for internal pressure:

PD0 0.9  2.5

ts  C   0.003  0.016 m  16 mm
2 fJ  P 2  98.1 0.85  0.9

(Allowable stress of shell material a design temperature = 98.1 MN/m2)

The shell thickness observed to be small compared to diameter for rest of calculation
following dimension will be used = Do = Di = (Di +t) = 2.5 m

PD 0.9  2.5
Axial stress due to pressure: f a    51.1MN / m2
4t 4  0.011

Axial stress due to dead weights: ws   s  N

f d  9.81 7850  X 106 MN / m2  0.077 X MN / m2

Assume constant thickness of shell,

Winsulation = weight of insulation for a length of X meters =

( intins ) X 5640  0.07  X 106

   0.0358. X MN/m2
t 0.011

Wliq = wt of liquid supported for a distance X from tap

 x-1   4x-1 
No. of trays =  =   1   
 0.75   3 

Liquid wt on the trays are calculated on the basis of water and 0.070 m depth.

  4X  1 6
WL  ( D) 2  0.075  9810     10 MN
4  3 

WL 75  9.81  10 6  4 X  1   4X  1
FL      0.0267  MN / m
2

Dt 2.5  0.011  3   3 

weight of top head = 7.5 × 10-3 MN

weight of ladder = 3.65 × 10-4 (X) MN

   4X  1 3
weight of trays = ( D) 2  1  9810     10 MN
4  3 

 4 X 1 
Hence, Wa = wt of attachments = 7.5 103  3.65 104  4.90 103    MN
 3 

Wa  4X  1
fa   0.086  4.22  10 3 X  0.056     0.00792 X  0.0671
Dt  3 

 4 X 1 
f d  0.077 X  0.0358 X  0.0267    .  0.0792 X  0.0671  0.2276 X  0.0581
 3 

Stress due to wind load: PW  0.05 w2  0.05  (150) 2  1125N / m 2

For calculation purpose wind load,

PW = K1 .K2.Pw. X. Do = 1000N/m2

Do = 2.0 + 0.07 × 2 = 2.14 m.

K1 = 0.7 and K2 = 1

Pw = 0.7 × 1. 1000 .X . 2.14 = (1498 X) N

MW= Pw . X/2 = (749 X2) J

4 Mw
f bm = 106
D t
2

4  749  x 2
= 106
 2.5 0.011
2

= 0.0138 X2 MN/m2

Resultant tangential stress: ftensile = fa – fd + fbm

= 51.13 – 0.792X – 0.0671 +0.0138 X2

=0.0138X2 – 0.792 X + 51.0629

ftensile max = 98.1 × 0.85 = 83.0 MN/m2

0.0138X2 – 0.792X – 31.93 = 0

 0.792   0.792   4  0.0138  31.93
2

X
2  0.0138
0.792  1.5458
X=
2  0.0138
X = 84 >> 18 m

fcompressive maximum = 0.125 E (t/Do) = 0.125 × 2 × 105(0.011/2.5)

= 110 MN/m2

fcompressive stress = fd + fbm - fa = 0.0138 X2 + 0.792 X + 0.0671 – 51.13

110= 0.0138X2+ 0.792X – 51.06

0.0138X2 + 0.792X – 161.06 = 0

0.792   0.792   4  0.0138 161.03

2

X
2  0.0138
0.792  3.085
X=
2  0.0138
-0.792+3.085 -0.792-3.085
X= or
2×0.0138 2×0.0138

X = 83 or -140.47
X = 83 >> 16 m

If reinforcement of shell by tray support rings are also considered, X value will further
increase.

If we consider longitudinal stress alone it is observed that hoop stress controlling the
design and a uniform thickness of 16 mm is sufficient throughout the shell length.
Lecture 6: Mechanical Design Standards
MECHANICAL DESIGN STANDARDS OF SHELL
AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGERS
Mechanical design of heat exchangers includes design of various pressure and non-
pressure parts. The structural rigidity and satisfactory service of heat exchangers depends
on the appropriate mechanical design. Mechanical design is generally performed
according to the design standardsand codes. Some mechanical design standards used in
heat exchanger design are: TEMA (United States), IS:4503-1967 (India);BS: 3274
(United Kingdom) and BS: 20414 (United Kingdom). The design structure of IS: 4503-
1967 is provided in Table 2.1 [1].
Most countries of the world follow the TEMA (Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers
Association) standards for the mechanical design of unfired shell and tube heat
exchangers. The TEMA standards are applicable for the maximum shell ID and wall
thickness of 60 and 2 inch, a maximum design pressure of 3000 psi and a maximum
nominal diameter (inch) × design pressure (psi) of 60000 lb/in, respectively[2].
Three basic classes of TEMA standards are: ‘C’, ‘B’ and ‘R’.
- The class ‘C’ specifies the standards for general service exchangers.
- The class ‘B’ specifies the standards of heat exchangers for chemical services.
- The class ‘R’ specifies the standards of heat exchangers for more severe
application in petroleum and related processes.
 Structure of IS: 4503-1967[1].

Part 1 Scope Part 13 Baffles and support plates

Part 2 Types and nomenclature Part 14 Floating heads
Part 3 Terminology Part 15 Channels and channel covers
Part 4 Classification and permitted pressures Part 16 Nozzles and branch pipes
Part 5 Material of constructions Part 17 Gaskets and gland packings
Part 6 Design stress Part 18 Flanges
Part 7 General design Part 19 Supports
Part 8 Corrosion and corrosion allowance Part 20 Inspection
Part 9 Shells Part 21 Testing
Part 10 Tubes Part 22 Marking
Part 11 Tube sheet Part 23 Preparation for dispatch
Part 12 Shell covers Part 24 Certificates of compliance
Types of shells, front end and rear ends (TEMA classifications)
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Design pressure and temperature
Design pressure of a heat exchanger is the gage pressure at the top of the vessel. This
pressure is used to determine the minimum wall thickness of the various pressure parts.
The IS: 4503 species that the design pressure should at least 5% greater than the
maximum allowable working pressure. Usually a 10% higher value is used. The
maximum allowable working pressure is the gage pressure for a specified operating
temperature that is permitted for the service of the exchanger units. According the IS:
4503, the shell and tube sides pressure should be specified individually. The design
pressure specification is at 250, 120 and 65ºC for carbon steel, stainless steel and non-
ferrous metals respectively. The maximum permissible stresses for various heat
exchanger components should not be exceeded at the allowable pressure.
The design temperature is used to determine the minimum wall thickness of various parts
of the exchanger for a specified design pressure. It is normally 10ºC greater than the
maximum allowable temperature.
 Materials of construction
All materials used construction of shell and heat exchangers for pressure parts must have
the appropriate specification as given in IS: 4503 Appendix C. The materials of
construction should becompatible with process fluids and others parts of materials and
also should be cost effective. The maximum permitted operating fluid temperatures
should not exceeds for the various pressure-retaining components as specified by IS:4503
given inTable 2.2 [1].High chrome-Mo-Ni alloys (Cr content 12-27%)can be used for
high temperature services upto 2100ºC. Useof any carbon or low alloy steel is not
recommended for the construction of heat exchangers forthe service below 0ºC.
Materials of constructions [1].

Materials of construction Allowable fluid temperature, °C (°F)

Carbon steel 540 (1004)
C-Mo steel 590 (1094)
Cr-Mo steel 650 (1202)
Low alloy steel (< 6 % Cr) 590 (1094)
Alloy steel (<17 % Cr) 590 (1094)
Austenitic Cr-Ni steel 650 (1202)
Cast iron 200 (392)
Brass 200 (392)
Lecture 7: Design Components
Design components
The major mechanical design components of shell and tube heat exchangers are: shell
andtube-sheet thickness, shell cover, flanges, nozzles, gaskets, stress calculations and
design of supports.
Shell diameter and thickness
The nominal diameter (outside diameter in millimeters rounded is to the nearest integer)
of the heat exchanger is specified inIS: 2844-1964 in case of shells manufactured from
flat sheet. The following diameters (in mm) should be preferably used in the case of
cylindrical pipe shell: 159, 219, 267, 324, 368, 419, 457, 508, 558.8, 609.6, 660.4,
711.2,762, 812.8, 863.6, 914.4 and 1016.
The shell thickness (𝑡𝑠 ) can be calculated from the equation below based on the
maximum allowable stress and corrected for joint efficiency [2]:
𝑝𝐷 𝑠
𝑡𝑠 = 𝑓𝐽 −0.6𝑝 +𝑐

(2.1)
𝑡𝑠 =shell thickness
𝑝= design pressure
𝐷𝑠 = Shell ID
𝑓=Maximum allowable stress of the material of construction
𝐽=Joint efficiency (usually varies from 0.7 to 0.9)
The minimum shell thicknesses should be decided in compliance with the nominal shell
diameter including the corrosion allowance as specified by IS: 4503. Usually the
minimum shell thicknesses are in order for various materials for the same service:Cast
iron> Carbon steel≥ Al and Al-alloys (up to 700°C)> Cu and Cu-alloys≥ Ni≥
Austenitic stainless steel= Monel inconel.
Shell cover
There are different types shell covers used in shell and tube heat exchangers: flat,
torispherical, hemispherical, conical and ellipsoidal. Out of various types of head covers,
torispherical head is the most widely used in chemical industries for operating pressure
up to 200psi.The thickness of formed head is smaller than the flat for the same service
[2].Accordingthe IS: 4503, the minimum thickness of the shell cover should be at least
equal to the thickness of the shell.
The required thickness of a torispherical head ( 𝑡𝑕 ) can be determined by:

pRiW
th  c
(2 fJ 0.2 p )
(2.2)
1 R 
W   3 i 
4  ri 
(2.3)
𝑅𝑖 = Crown radius, 𝑟𝑖 =Knucle radius, 𝑐=corrosion allowance
Channel coversdiameter and thickness
The outside diameter of the channel shall be the same as that of the shell. The thickness
of the channel shall be greater of the two values: (i) shell thickness or (ii) thickness
calculated on the basis of the design shown below pressure.
The effective channel cover thickness (𝑡𝑐𝑐 in mm) is calculated from the formula (IS:4503
section 15.6.1)[1]:
𝐷 𝐶1 𝑝
𝑡𝑐𝑐 = 10𝑐 𝑓

(2.4)
𝐷𝑐 = diameter of the cover [mm] usually same as the outside shell diameter
𝐶1 = a factor which is 0.25 when the cover is bolted with fullfaced gaskets and 0.3 when
bolted with narrow faced or ring type gaskets
𝑝= design pressure in kgf/cm2and
𝑓= allowable stress value in kgf/mm2 at design temperature
Pass partition plate
IS: 4503, specifies that the minimum thickness of channel pass partition plates including
corrosion allowance should be 10 mm for both carbon steel and alloy upto channel size of
600 mm. For higher channel size, the same should be 13 mm carbon steel and 10 mm for
alloy.
Tube sheet thickness
Tube sheet is a circular flat plate with regular pattern drilled holes according to the tube
sheet layouts. The open end of the tubes is connected to the tube sheet. The tube sheet is
fixed with the shell and channel to form the main barrier for shell and tube side fluids.
The tube sheet is attached either by welding (called integral construction) or bolting
(called gasketed construction) or a combination of both types. T
The minimum tube-sheet thickness (TEMA standard) to ‘resist bending’can be
calculated by [2]:

FG p P
tts 
3 kf

(2.5)
Where, 𝐹=1 for fixed tube and floating type tube sheet; 𝐹=1.25 for U-tube tube sheet
𝐺𝑝 =diameter over which pressure is acting (for fixed tube sheet heat exchanger 𝐺𝑝 =𝐷𝑠 ,
shell ID; 𝐺𝑝 is port inside diameter for kettle type, for floating tube sheet𝐺𝑝 shall be used
for stationery tube sheet).
𝑓= allowable stress for the tube sheet material
Mean ligament efficiency (𝑘):
0.907
𝑘 =1− 𝑃𝑇 2
for triangular pitch
𝑑𝑜

(2.6)
0.785
𝑘 =1− 𝑃𝑇 2
for square or rotated pitch
𝑑𝑜

(2.7)
The effective pressure, 𝑃 = 𝑃𝑠 + 𝑃𝑏 or 𝑃 = 𝑃𝑡 + 𝑃𝑏 when the tube sheet is extended as a
flange for bolting heads.
𝑃𝑠 = shell side pressure, 𝑃𝑡 = tube side pressure, 𝑃𝑏 = equivalent bolting pressure
For fixed tube sheet and U-tube tube sheet, 𝑃 is effective shell side or effective tube side
pressure as defined by TEMA standards[3].
The effective tube sheet to ‘resist shear’ is given by:
0.31𝐷𝐿 𝑃
𝑡𝑡𝑠 = 𝑑
1− 𝑜 𝑓
𝑃𝑇

(2.8)
4𝐴
Where,𝐷𝐿 = is the equivalent diameter of the perforated tube sheet
𝐶

𝐶is the perimeter measured by connecting the center to center of the outermost tubes of
tube layout.
𝐴 =Total area enclosed by 𝐶
The shear formula does not control the tube sheet thickness when:
𝑃 𝑑 2
< 1.6 1 − 𝑃𝑜
𝑓 𝑇

(2.9)
The effective thickness of the tube sheets also can be calculated by the method given in
Appendix Eof IS:4503, by trial and error approach. IS:4503 specifies that the minimum
tube sheet thickness should be between 6 and 25.4 mm based on the outside tube
diameter.

shell shell shell

channel channel channel

tube tube tube

tube sheet tube sheet tube sheet

a). b). c).

Tube sheet connections: a) Integral construction on both sides, b). one side integral construction and other side gasketed
construction, c). both side gasketed construction.
Impingement plates or baffles
Impingement plates are fixed on the tube side between the tube bundle and inlet nozzle to
deflect the liquid or vapor-liquid mixture to protect the tubes from erosion.
According to the IS:4503, the protection against impingement may not be required for the
services involving non-corrosive, non-abrasive, single phase fluids having entrance line
values of 𝜌𝑢2 <125, where 𝑢is the linear velocity of the fluid in m/s and 𝜌 is the density
in g/cm3. In all other cases, the tube bundle at the entrance against impinging fluids
should be protected. Usually a metal plate about ¼ inch (6 mm) thick is used as the
impingement plate.
Nozzles and branch pipes
The wall thickness of nozzles and otherconnections shall be not less than that defined for
the applicableloadings, namely, pressure temperature, bending and static loads (IS:4503).
Butin no case, the wall thickness of ferrous piping,excluding the corrosion allowance
shall be less than (0.04𝑑𝑜𝑐 + 2.5) mm,where 𝑑𝑜𝑐 is the outside diameter of the
connection. The typical nozzle size with shell ID is provided in Table .
. Nozzle size with shell ID.

Shell ID, inch Nozzle ID, inch

<12 2
12 to 𝟏7.25 3
19.25 to 21.25 4
23.23 to 29 6
31-38 8
>39 10
Lecture 8: Design Components
Gaskets
Gaskets are used to make the metaltometal surfaces leak-proof. Gaskets are elasto-plastic
materials and relatively softer than the flange materials. Deformation of gaskets under
load seals the surface irregularities between metal to metal surfaces and prevents leakage
of the fluid.For design pressures<16 kgf/cm2 and when there is no contact with oil or oil
vapor, the compressed asbestos fiber, natural or synthetic rubber or other suitable gasket
and packing materials having the appropriate mechanical and corrosion resisting
properties may be used (IS:4503).
A preliminary estimation of gaskets is done using following expression:
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑘𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝐺𝑎𝑠𝑘𝑒𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 – (𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒)
The residual gasket force should be greater than that required to prevent the leakage of
the internal fluid. This condition results the final expression in the form of:
𝐷𝑂𝐺 𝑌−𝑝𝑚
=
𝐷𝐼𝐺 𝑌−𝑝(𝑚 +1)

𝐷𝑂𝐺 =outside gasket diameter [mm]

𝐷𝐼𝐺 =inside gasket diameter [mm]; usually, 𝐷𝐼𝐺 =𝐷𝑠 +0.25
𝑝=design pressure
Y= minimum design seating stress
𝑚= gasket factor
Calculate the width of the gasket width, 𝑁 = (𝐷𝑂𝐺 − 𝐷𝐼𝐺 )/2
The IS:4503 specifies that the minimum width of peripheral ring gaskets for
external joints shall be 10 mm for shell sizes up to 600 mm nominal diameter and 13
mm for all larger shell sizes]
 Gasket factors and minimum gasket seating force [4].

Gasket materials Gasket Maximum design seating

factor stress (𝒀), kgf/mm2
(𝒎)
Flat metal Soft Al 3.25 3.87
jacketed, asbestos Soft Cu or brass 3.50 4.57
fill Iron or soft steel 3.75 5.35
Monel 3.50 5.62
Chrome 4-6% 3.75 6.33
Stainless steel 3.75 6.33
Solid flat metal Soft Al 4.00 6.19
Soft Cu or brass 4.75 9.14
Iron or soft steel 5.50 12.65
Monel 6.00 15.32
Chrome 4-6% 6.00 15.32
Stainless steel 6.50 18.28
Corrugated metal Soft Al 2.50 2.04
with asbestos fill Soft Cu or brass 2.75 2.60
Iron or soft steel 3.00 3.16
Monel 3.00 3.87
Chrome 4-6% 3.25 3.87
Stainless steel 3.50 4.57

Bolts design
The bolt design procedure is as follows:
The minimum initial bolt load (𝑊𝑚1 ) at atmospheric pressure and temperature is given
by:

Wm1   bGY

The gasket is compressed under tight pressure. The required bolt load (𝑊𝑚2 ) is given by:

Wm 2  H H
P
 2 bGmp  G2 p
4
𝐷𝑂𝐺 +𝐷𝐼𝐺
Where, mean gasket diameter, 𝐺 = 2
𝜋
Total hydrostatic end force,𝐻 = 4 𝐺 2 𝑝
Total joint contact surface compression load, 𝐻𝑃 = 2𝜋𝑏𝐺𝑚𝑝
1
Effective gasket seating width, 𝑏=𝑏𝑜 for 𝑏𝑜 < inch (6 mm) and 𝑏=0.5 𝑏𝑜 for 𝑏𝑜 >
4
1
inch (6 mm)
4
Basic gasket seating width 𝑏𝑜 = 𝑁/2 for flat flange
Determine the controlling load: the greater value of𝑊𝑚2 or𝑊𝑚1
Calculate the required (minimum) bolt crosssectional area, 𝐴𝑚 based on the controlling
load:
𝑊𝑚 2 𝑊𝑚 1
𝐴𝑚 = 𝑜𝑟
𝑓𝑏 𝑓𝑎

𝑓𝑏 = allowable bolt stress at design temperature, 𝑓𝑎 = allowable bolt stress at ambient

temperature
Select the number ofbolts (usually a multiple of 4 is used), bolt circle diameter (𝐶𝑏 ), root
diameter (𝑑𝑏𝑟 ) and bolt edge distance (𝐸)(follow IS: 4864-1968, to select bolts details).
From the number ofbolts chosen, find out the actual bolt area (𝐴𝑏 ). Always𝑨𝒃 should
be greaterthan 𝑨𝒎 .
𝑏 𝑏 𝐴 𝑓
Check for the minimum gasket width, 𝑁𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2𝜋𝑌𝐺

𝑁should be greater than𝑁𝑚𝑖𝑛 .

2.3.10. Design of flange
Calculation of flange forces:
𝜋𝐵 2 𝑝
Hydrostatic end force on area inside of the flange is given, 𝐻𝐷 = 4

Where, 𝐵 is the centre line to centre line bolt-spacing can be taken same as outside shell
diameter)
Pressure force on the flange face, 𝐻𝑇 = 𝐻 − 𝐻𝐷
Gasket load under operating conditions, 𝐻𝐺 = 𝑊 − 𝐻
For gasket seating condition, 𝐻𝐺 = 𝑊
Calculation of flange moment:
Calculate the summation of flange moments for the operating condition,
𝑀𝑓 = 𝑀𝐷 + 𝑀𝑇 + 𝑀𝐺
Moment due to𝐻𝐷, 𝑀𝐷 = 𝐻𝐷 𝑕𝐷 ; where 𝑕𝐷 = (𝐶𝑏 − 𝐵)/2
Moment due to 𝐻𝑇, 𝑀𝑇 = 𝐻𝑇 𝑕𝑇 ; where 𝑕𝑇 = (𝑕𝐷 + 𝑕𝐺 )/2
Moment due to 𝐻𝐺, 𝑀𝐺 = 𝐻𝐺 𝑕𝐺 ; where 𝑕𝐺 = (𝐶𝑏 − 𝐺)/2
𝐴𝑚 +𝐴𝑏 𝑓𝑎
The flange bolt load, 𝑊 = 2
for gasket seating condition and,

𝑊 = 𝑊𝑚2 forthe operating condition

 𝑊(𝐶𝑏 −𝐺)
Calculate the flange moment for the gasket seating condition: 𝑀𝑓𝑜 = 2

Calculate the flange thickness (𝑡𝑓 ) based on the maximum value for the gasket seating
condition or operating condition given by:

𝑀𝑓 𝑌 𝑀𝑓𝑜 𝑌
𝑡𝑓 = 𝑜𝑟 which one is greater
𝑓𝑓 𝐵 𝑓 𝑓𝑎 𝐵

𝑓𝑓 = allowable flange stress at design temperature, 𝑓𝑓𝑎 = allowable flange stress at ambient
temperature.
You can determine Y as a function of 𝐾. The value 𝐾 is available in standard pressure
vessel design book.
𝐴
𝐾 = 𝐵 ; where flange OD, 𝐴 =bolt circle (𝐶𝑏 ) diameter + 2𝐸

[The standards of flanges, gaskets, and flange faces design are given in IS: 4864-
1968 to IS: 4870-1968]
Design of supports
The selection of the type of support for a pressure vessel depends on various parameters
like the vessel elevation from the ground, materials of construction, wall thickness,
operating temperature, external loads (such as wind loads, seismic condition
etc).Supports for The vertical pressure vessels units are supported generally by i). skirt
supports, ii). ring supports and iii).lug supports. Whereas, the horizontal pressure vessels
are supported by i). saddle supports, ii). leg supports and iii). ring supports. Saddle
supports are widely used in horizontal heat exchanger units.
IS:4503 specifies that the horizontal heat exchanger units shall be provided with at least
two supporting saddles with holes for anchor bolts. The holes in at least one of the
supports shall be elongated to provide for expansion of the shell. The vertical units shall
be provided with at least two supports of sufficient size to carry the unit in a supporting
structure of sufficient width to clear shell flanges.
Lecture 9: Hand on Calculations
SOLVED EXAMPLE
Part 2: Mechanical design

The minimum information required for the mechanical design of some important
components of shell and tube exchanger is summarized below:

a. Shell side and tube side passes: 1 shell pass and 6 tube passes.

b. Number, type, size, and layout of tubes: Number of tubes 318; tube length 20΄
(6.096 m as per IS: 4503-1967 and IS:2844-1964 standards); tube OD 1΄΄
(25.4 mm); tube ID: 0.834΄΄ (21.2 mm); square pitch (𝑃𝑇 = 114 "); fixed tube
sheet.

c. Shell diameter and head: Shell ID 31΄ (787.4 mm); torispherical head is
selected;carbon steel for both shell and head.

d. Corrosion allowance: Corrosion allowance of 3 mm for carbon steel is taken

as per IS:4503 for the service in the petroleum industries.

e. Design temperature and pressure: design temperature 1.1×160=176°F (80°C)

(10% greater than the highest process fluid temperature is taken); design
pressure 0.38 N/mm2 (55 psia) (10% higher than the inlet pressure of both the
streams).

f. Permissible stress, 𝑓 =100.6 N/mm2 for carbon steel.

i. Shell thickness calculation (refer to section 2.3.1)
𝑝𝐷 𝑠
𝑡𝑠 = 𝑓𝐽 −0.6𝑝 + 𝑐; 𝐽 = 0.8

(2.1)
=3.72 mm
Including corrosion allowance 6.72 mm, use 8 mm thickness
(This value is in accordance to IS:4503 corresponding to the shell diameter)
ii. Torispherical head (refer to section 2.3.2)
Crown radius, Ri = 787.4 mm (crown radius, Ri = Ds is considered)

Knuckle radius ri =0.06 of Ri = 47.24 mm (knuckle radius ri =6% of Ds is taken)

Inside depth of the head (𝑕𝑖 ) can be calculated as:

1
2
 D  D  
h  R   R  s  R  s  2 ri 
i i  i 2  i 2  
= 105.4 mm

Effective exchanger length ( Leff ) = Lt  2  hi = 6.096 m + 2×0.1054 m

= 6.306 m

pRiW
t   c ; 𝐽=1 is taken for head design
Thickness of head h (2 fJ 0.2 p )
(2.2)
1 R 
W   3 i  =1.77 for r =0.06× R
4  ri  i i

(2.3)
𝑡𝑕 = 2.63; Including corrosion allowance 5.63 mm, use same thickness as for shell, i.e., 8
mm
iii. Channel cover thickness (refer to section 2.3.3)
Channel cover material: carbon steel
𝐷 𝐶1 𝑝
𝑡𝑐𝑐 = 10𝑐 𝑓

(2.4)
𝐷𝑐 =Outside shell diameter=803.4 mm; 𝐶1 =0.3; 𝑝=3.88 kgf/cm2 (0.38 N/mm2)
𝑓=10.26 kgf/mm2 (100.6 N/mm2)
𝑡𝑐𝑐 =8.5 mm; Use 12 mm including the corrosion allowance
iv. Tube sheet thickness (refer to section 2.3.5)
The tube sheet thickness is calculated based on the bending and considering the design
pressure only. It is assumed that shear does not control the design. Carbon steel is used
for tube sheet material.
FG p P
tts 
3 kf
(2.5)
𝐹=1 for fixed tube sheet; 𝑘 =0.5 (square pitch)

𝑡𝑡𝑠 =22.8 mm (satisfies the IS:4503 specification for 1΄΄ outside diameter tube)

v. Impingement plate (refer to section 2.3.6)

The density (ρk) of the tube side fluid (kerosene) =0.8g/cm3 (800 kg/m3);mass flow rate (
.
m k ) of kerosene =18.91 kg/s (150000 lb/h)
.
mk 18.91
Kerosene velocity, 𝑢𝑘 = 𝜋𝐷2
= 𝜋 ×0.2032 2
=0.73 m/s
𝑛 𝜌 ×800
4 4

Where, nozzle diameter,𝐷𝑛 = 203.2 mm=0.2032 m

The impingement parameter, 𝜌𝑣 2 = 0.8 × 0.732 =0.426<<125
Therefore the impingement protection is not required.
vi. Nozzle thickness (𝒕𝒏 ) (refer to section 2.3.7)
Use carbon steel for the nozzle (same material)
Considering diameter of nozzle (𝐷𝑛 ) to be 203.2 mm (8 inch) (Table 2.3); 𝐽=0.8

pDn =0.48 mm
tn  c
2 fJ  p

(2.1)
Use 6 mm thickness including the corrosion allowance.

The pressures at the entry point of both shell side and tube fluid are same.
Therefore, the same nozzle specification can be used for tube side fluid also.

vii. Design of gaskets (refer to section 2.3.8)

𝐷𝑂𝐺 𝑌−𝑝𝑚
=
𝐷𝐼𝐺 𝑌−𝑝(𝑚 +1)

(2.10)
Gasket factor 𝑚=3.75, minimum design seating stress Y= 5.35 kgf/mm2 (for flat iron
jacketed, asbestos fill) (Table 2.4)
𝐷𝑂𝐺
= 1.05; 𝐷𝐼𝐺 =787.4 + 0.25=787.65 mm
𝐷𝐼𝐺

𝐷𝑂𝐺 ≈830 mm
Gasket width, 𝑁 = (𝐷𝑂𝐺 − 𝐷𝐼𝐺 )/2=22 mm, Use 35 mm
(2.11)
𝐷𝑂𝐺 +𝐷𝐼𝐺
Mean gasket diameter 𝐺 = = 808 mm
2

Basic gasket seating width 𝑏𝑜 = 𝑁/2 =17.5 mm

Effective gasket seating width, 𝑏=0.5 𝑏𝑜 = 2.09 mm
viii. Bolts (refer to section 2.3.9)
The bolt load due to gasket reaction under atmospheric conditions is given:

Wm1   bGY =278515 N

(2.12)
The bolt load under tight pressure:

Wm 2  2 bGmp  G 2 p  15120  194848  209968 N
4
(2.13)
Therefore, 𝑊𝑚1 is the controlling load because 𝑊𝑚1 >𝑊𝑚2

The minimum bolt cross sectional area (bolt material carbon steel and 𝑓𝑎 = 𝑓𝑏 :
𝑊𝑚 1 278515
𝐴𝑚 = = = 2769 mm2
𝑓𝑎 100.6

(2.18)
M16 nominal thread diameter with bolt circle diameter (𝐶𝑏 ) of 860 mm, 32 bolts and 18
mm root diameter (𝑑𝑏𝑟 ) are selected from IS:4866-1968.
2 𝜋
Corresponding actual bolt circle diameter, 𝐴𝑏 = 4 𝑑𝑏𝑟 × 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠=8143 mm2

𝐴𝑏 >𝐴𝑚 ; Therefore the selected bolts are suitable.

𝐴𝑏 𝑓 𝑏
The minimum gasket width, 𝑁𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
2𝜋𝑌𝐺

(2.19)
8143 ×100.6
= 2𝜋×5.35×808 =30.1 mm (compared to 35 mm selected gasket width)

ix. Flange thickness (refer to section 2.3.10)

i. For the gasket seating condition (no internal load applied)

𝐴 +𝐴 𝑓 2769+8143 ×100.6
𝑊= 𝑚 2𝑏 𝑎= =548874 N
2
(2.28)
𝑜 𝑊(𝐶𝑏 −𝐺) 529458 (860−808)
𝑀𝑓 = = =14270714 N-mm
2 2
(2.30)

ii. For operating condition

𝜋𝐵 2 𝑝 𝜋×803.42 ×0.38
𝐻𝐷 = = = 192635 N; 𝑕𝐷 = (𝐶𝑏 − 𝐵)/2=1/2(860-803.4)=28.3 mm;
4 4

(2.25)
𝑀𝐷 = 𝐻𝐷 𝑕𝐷 =5451570 N-mm
(𝐵=Outside shell diameter=787.4+16=803.4 mm)

𝜋𝐺 2 𝑝 𝜋×808 2 ×0.38
𝐻𝐺 = 𝑊 − 𝐻; 𝐻 = = =194848; 𝑊 = 𝑊𝑚2 = 207870 N
4 4
𝜋𝐺 2 𝑝
𝐻𝐺 = 𝑊𝑚2 − 4
=207870-194848=13022 N
𝐶𝑏 −𝐺
𝑕𝐺 = = (860-808)/2=26 mm; 𝑀𝐺 = 𝐻𝐺 𝑕𝐺 =338572 N-mm
2
𝐻𝑇 = 𝐻 − 𝐻𝐷 =194848-192635=2213 N, 𝑕𝑇 = (𝑕𝐷 + 𝑕𝐺 )/2=(28.3 +26)=27.15 mm
(2.26)
𝑀𝑇 = 𝐻𝑇 𝑕𝑇 =60083 N-mm
Summation moments under operating condition 𝑀𝑓 = 𝑀𝐷 + 𝑀𝑇 + 𝑀𝐺 =5850225 N-m
Therefore 𝑀𝑓𝑜 is the controlling moment (𝑀𝑓𝑜 > 𝑀𝑓 ).

𝑀𝑓𝑜 𝑌
Flange thickness (carbon steel): 𝑡𝑓 = 𝑓 𝑓𝑎 𝐵

(2.31)
𝐴 900
𝐾 = 𝐵 = 803.4=1.12 mm; 𝑌 =18

(𝐴 = ~900mm for the chosen bolts: IS:4866-1968)

14270714 ×18
𝑡𝑓 = =56.4 mm
100.6×803.4
DESIGN OF DRYERS: INTRODUCTION, TYPES OF DRIERS, DESIGN
CONSIDERATION OF DRIERS
Lecture 10: INTRODUCTION AND TYPES
OF DRIERS

INTRODUCTION

The term drying refers generally to the removal of moisture from a substance. It is one
of the oldest, most commonly used and most energy consuming unit operation in the
process industries. Drying is often necessary in various industrial operations
particularly in chemical process industries to remove moisture from a wet solid, a
solution or a gas to make it dry and choice of drying medium is depends on the
chemical nature of the materials. Three basic methods of drying are used today 1) sun
drying, a traditional method in which materials dry naturally in the sun, 2) hot air
drying in which matrials are exposed to a blast of hot air and 3) freeze drying, in
which frozen materials are placed in a vacuum chamber to draw out the water. The
fundamental nautre of all drying porcess is the removal of volatile substances (mainly
moisture) from mixture to yield a solid product. In general drying is accomplished by
thermal techniques and thus involves the application of heat, most commonly by
convection from current of air. Throughout the convective drying of solid materials,
two processes occur simultaneously namely, transfer of energy from the local
environemnt in the dryer and transfer of moisture from within the solid. Therefore this
unit operation may be considered as simultaneous heat and mass transfer operation.
Drying processes and equipment may be categorised according to several criteria,
incuding the nature of material and the method of heat supply and the method of
operation. For example In the sugar industry washed and centrifuged sugar crystals
are dried to get finisehd product for packing. Drying is an important operation in food
processing. Milk is dried in a spray chamber to produce milk powder. All the above
examples indicates that wet material loses moisture in direct contact with hot air/gas.
The hot air/gas supplies the energy required for drying and also carries away the
moisture released by the solid. For heat sensitive materials much of the resistance to
drying resides within the material. Unduly high heat and mass transfer rates applied at
the surface only result in overheating or over drying of the surface layer resulting in
quality problems without major increase in the drying kinetics. The rate of migration
of the moisture from within the solid to the evaporation front often controls the
overall drying rate. Therefore, drying may be defined as an operation in which the
liquid, generally water, present in a wet solid is removed by vaporization to get a
relatively liquid free solid product. Drying of a solid does not demand or ensure
complete removal of the moisture. Sometimes it is desirable to retain a little mositure
in the solid after drying. Dryer and drying process selection for a specific operation is
a complex problem, and many factors have to be taken into account. Though, the
overall selection and design of a drying system for a perticular material is dictated by
the desire to achieve a favourable combination of a product quality and process
economics. In general, with respect to the rate and total drying time, dryer
performance is dependent on the factors such as air characteristics, product
cheracteristics, eqipment characteristics. But despite the many commercially available
drying techniques at present most dehydrated products (i.e. fruits and vegetables) are
still produced by the method of hot air drying. Because this is regarded as the simplest
and most economical . There are other water/liquid removal processes such as
filtration, settling, centrifugation, supercritical extraction of water from gels etc. In all
these operations liquid is removed by mechanical means but a considerable amount of
liquid is still retained in the solid. This residual liquid can be removed by drying. One
such example is the production of condensed milk involves evaporation, but the
production of milk powder involves drying. The phase change and production of a
soild phase as end product are essential features of the drying process. Drying is an
essential operation in chemical, agricultural, biotechnology, food, polymer,
pharmaceutical, pulp and paper, mineral processing, and wood processing industries.

PHYSICAL MECHANISM OF DRYING

Drying does not mean only removal of the moisture but during the process, physical
structure as well as the apperance has to be preserved. Drying is basically governed
by the principles of transport of heat and mass. When a moist solid is heated to an
appropriate temperature, moisture vaporizes at or near the solid surface and the heat
required for evaporating moisture from the drying product is supplied by the external
drying medium, usually air or a hot gas. Drying is a diffusional process in which the
transfer of moisture to the surrounding medium takes place by the evaporation of
surface moisture, as soon as some of the surface moisture vaporizes, more moisture is
transported from interior of the solid to its surface. This transport of moisture within a
solid takes place by a variety of mechanisms depending upon the nature and type of
the solid and its state of aggregation. Different types of solids may have to be handled
for drying crystalline, granular, beads, powders, sheets, slabs, filter-cakes etc. The
mechanism of moisture transport in different solids may be broadly classified into (i)
transport by liquid or vapour diffusion (ii) capillary section, and (iii) pressure induced
transport. The mechanism that dominates depends on the nature of the solid, its pore
structure and the rate of drying. Different mechanisms may come into play and
dominate at different stages of drying of the same material.

The following term are commonly used in designing of drying systems.

Moisture content of a substance which exerts as equilibrium vapour pressure less than
of the pure liquid at the same temperature is refered to as bound moisture..

Moisture content of the solid which exters an equillibrium vapour pressure equal to
that of pure liquid at the given temperature is the unbound moisture.
The moisture content of solid in excess of the equilibrium moisture content is refered
as free moisture. During drying, only free moisture can be evporated. The free
moisture content of a solid depends upon the vapour concentration in the gas.

The moisture contents of solid when it is in equilibrium with given partial pressure of
vapour in gas phase is called as equilibrium moisture content. Similalry, the moisture
content at which the constant rate drying peroid ends and the falling rate drying period
starts is called critical moisture content. During the constant rate drying period, the
moisture evporated per unit time per unit area of drying surface remains constant and
in falling rate drying period the amount of moisture evporated per unit time per unit
area of drying surface continuously decreases.
CLASSIFICATION OF DRYERS
Drying equipment is classified in different ways, according to following design and
operating features.
It can be classified based on mode of operation such as batch or continuous, In case of
batch dryer the material is loaded in the drying equipment and drying proceeds for a
given period of time, whereas, in case of continuous mode the material is
continuously added to the dryer and dried material continuously removed. In some
cases vacuum may be used to reduce the drying temperature. Some dryers can handle
almost any kind of material, whereas others are severely limited in the style of feed
they can accept. Drying processes can also be categorized according to the physical
state of the feed such as wet solid, liquid, and slurry. Type of heating system i.e.
conduction, convection, radiation is another way of categorizing the drying process.
Heat may be supplied by direct contact with hot air at atmospheric pressure, and the
water vaporized is removed by the air flowing. Heat may also be supplied indirectly
through the wall of the dryer from a hot gas flowing outside the wall or by radiation.
Dryers exposing the solids to a hot surface with which the solid is in contact are called
adiabatic or direct dryers, while when heat is transferred from an external medium it
is known as non-adiabatic or indirect dryers. Dryers heated by dielectric, radiant or
microwave energy are also non adiabatic. Some units combine adiabatic and non
adiabatic drying; they are known as direct-indirect dryers.
To reduce heat losses most of the commercial dryers are insulated and hot air is
recirculated to save energy. Now many designs have energy-saving devices, which
recover heat from the exhaust air or automatically control the air humidity. Computer
control of dryers in sophisticated driers also results in important savings in energy.

DRYING EQUIPMENT
Batch Type Dryers
Tray Dryer
Schematic of a typical batch dryer is shown in figure 2.1. Tray dryers usually operate
in batch mode, use racks to hold product and circulate air over the material. It consists
of a rectangular chamber of sheet metal containing trucks that support racks. Each
rack carries a number of trays that are loaded with the material to be dried. Hot air
flows through the tunnel over the racks. Sometimes fans are used to on the tunnel wall
to blow hot air across the trays. Even baffles are used to distribute the air uniformly
over the stack of trays. Some moist air is continuously vented through exhaust duct;
makeup fresh air enters through the inlet. The racks with the dried product are taken
to a tray-dumping station.

Tray dryer
These types of dryers are useful when the production rate is small. They are used to
dry wide range of materials, but have high labor requirement for loading and
unloading the materials, and are expensive to operate. They find most frequent
application for drying valuable products. Drying operation in case of such dryers is
slow and requires several hours to complete drying of one batch. With indirect heating
often the dryers may be operated under vaccum. The trays may rest on hollow plates
supplied with steam or hot water or may themselves contain spaces for a heating fluid.
Vapour from the solid may be removed by an ejector or vacuum pump. Freeze-drying
involves the sublimation of water from ice under high vacuum at temperatures well
below 0oC. This is done in special vacuum dryers for drying heat-sensitive products.
Pan Dryer
The atmospheric pan drier has a jacketed round pan in which a stirrer or mill revolves
slowly, driven from below. The slow moving stirrer exposes fresh surfaces and
thereby raises the rate of evaporation and, hence, of drying. The pan drier is a batch
machine and is limited to small batches. Pan driers may be used first to evaporate a
solution to its crystallizing concentration and then can function as a crystallizer by
sending cold water instead of steam into the jacket. The effect of the stirrer during
crystallization prevents the growth of large crystals and promotes formation of small,
uniform crystals. The mother liquor is then drained off and the crystals dried in the
same apparatus.
Agitated Vacuum Dryer
The agitated vacuum dryer is one of the most versatile in the range and is similar in
principle to a pan dryer. The dryer essentially consists of a jacketed cylindrical vessel
arranged for hot water, steam or a suitable thermal fluid flow through the jacket for
heating. Doors are provided on the shell, at the top for loading the feed material and at
the bottom for discharging. The dryers are available in variety of sizes. The entire
drying chamber is well machined to insure small clearance with the agitator blade.
Thus ensures proper shuffling of the material and avoids localized over heating. Due
to the agitation of the product in the agitated vacuum dryer the drying time is
substantially reduced. A choice of the agitator design which can be arranged with or
without heating depends on the material characteristics and process requirements.
While designing the shell one has to consider the external pressure and the shaft
designing includes fatigue consideration. Designing the impeller needs consideration
of characteristics of the material before and after drying.
4.2Continuous Dryer
Rotary Dryer
The rotary drier is basically a cylinder, inclined slightly to the horizontal, which may
be rotated, or the shell may be stationary, and an agitator inside may revolve slowly.
In either case, the wet material is fed in at the upper end, and the rotation, or agitation,
advances the material progressively to the lower end, where it is discharged. Figure
(2.2) shows a direct heat rotary drier. Typical dimensions for a unit like this are 9 ft
diameter and 45 ft length. In direct-heat revolving rotary driers, hot air or a mixture of
flue gases and air travels through the cylinder. The feed rate, the speed of rotation or
agitation, the volume of heated air or gases, and their temperature are so regulated that
the solid is dried just before discharge.

Counter current direct heat rotary dryer

The shell fits loosely into a stationary housing at each end. The material is brought to
a chute that runs through the housing; the latter also carries the exhaust pipe. The
revolving shell runs on two circular tracks and is turned by a girth gear that meshes
with a driven pinion. The inclination is one in sixteen for high capacities and one in
thirty for low ones. As the shell revolves, the solid is carried upward one-fourth of the
circumference; it then rolls back to a lower level, exposing fresh surfaces to the action
of the heat as it does so. Simple rotary driers serve well enough when fuel is cheap.
The efficiency is greatly improved by placing longitudinal plates 3 or 4 in. wide on
the inside of the cylinder. These are called lifting flights. These carry part of the solid
half-way around the circumference and drop it through the whole of a diameter in the
central part of the cylinder where the air is hottest and least laden with moisture. By
bending the edge of the lifter slightly inward, some of the material is delivered only in
 the third quarter of the circle, producing a nearly uniform fall of the material
throughout the cross section of the cylinder. The heated air streams through a rain of
particles. This is the most common form of revolving rotary cylinder. It has high
capacity, is simple in operation, and is continuous.
Rotary dryers practical ranges of dimension and operating parameters

Shell i.d. : D = 1 to 10 ft Length, L = 4 D to 15 D

Radial flight height: D/12 to D/8; shell Pripheral shell speed: 50 – 100 ft/min
rpm: 4 to 5
The flight count per circle: 2.4D to 3 D
Inclination of the shell to the horizontal: Avg. solid retention time: 5 min to 2h
up to 8cm/m
Mass flow rate of the drying gas: 300 to Drying capacity: 0.4 to 2.5 lb moisture/(h) (ft3
5000 lb/h.ft2 dryer volume)
Number of heat transfer units in the Solid hold up m(i.e. fraction of the shell volume
dryer (NT): 1.5 to 2 occupied by the solid at any time): 5-15%
Courtesy: Principle of Mass Transfer and Separation Processes, B.K. Dutta, 2007.
Lecture 11: INTRODUCTION AND TYPES
OF DRIERS (CONT.)
Drum Dryer
In drum dryers (Fig 2.3a, b) a liquid containing dissolved solids or slurry carrying
suspended solids forms a thin layer on the outside surface of a large rotating drum.
For a single drum unit thickness of the film can be controlled by an adjustable
scraping blade. In case of a double drum unit thickness can be controlled by the gap
between the drums (figure 2.3a). A gas, normally air may be blown over the surface
for rapid removal of moisture. The rotation of the drum adjusted so that all of the
liquid is fully vaporized and a dried deposit can be scrapped off with the help of
flexible or adjustable knife. This type of dryer mainly handles the materials that are
too thick for a spray dryer and too thin for a rotary dryer. The solid collects on an
apron in front of the knife and rolls to a container or to a screw conveyor. The
operation of the drum drier is continuous. The drum is rotated continuously by a gear
driven by a pinion that receives its motion through a belt, a chain, or a reduction gear
from. The speed of the drum may be regulated by a variable-speed drive to adopt the
speed to any slight variation in the feed quality. The speed of the drum regulated
depending upon the nature of materials (i.e wet or dry), if the product material is
wet/dry quite a distance before the knife is reached, the speed should be
decreased/increased. The design of the components is similar to that of drum filter.
The knife may be held just against the surface. It may be brought closer by turning the
adjusting wheels. The knife supports may be turned through part of a circle so that the
angle of the blade of the knife relative to the drum surface may be selected for the
greatest shearing effect. In recent years, double drum dryers have replaced single
drum dryer in several applications (figure 2.3b), due to their more efficient operation,
wide range of products and high production rates.
Single drum dryer

Double drum dryer

Flash Dryer
The flash driers (figure 2.4), also called pneumatic dryers, are similar in their
operating principle to spray dryer. The materials that are to be dried (i.e. solid or
semisolid) are dispersed in finely divided form in an upward flowing stream of heated
air. These types of dryer are mainly used for drying of heat sensitive or easily
oxidizable materials. The wet materials that are to dried can be passed into a high-
temperature air stream that carries it to a hammer mill or high-speed agitator where
the exposed surface is increased. The drying rate is very high for these dryers (hence
the term flash dryers), but the solid temperature does not rise much because of the
short residence time. A flash dryer is not suitable for particles which are large in size
or heavy particles. The special advantage of this type of dryer is that no separate
arrangement is required for transporting the dried product. The fine particles leave the
mill through a small duct to maintain the carrying velocities (drying gas) and reach a
cyclone separator. A solid particle takes few seconds to pass from the point of entry
into the air stream to the collector. The inlet gas temperature is high and varies from
650oC to 315oC, for example, in 2 seconds, or from 650oC to 175oC in 4 seconds. The
thermal efficiency this type of dryer is generally low. A material having an initial
moisture content of 80 % may be reduced to 5 or 6 % in the dried product.

Flash dryer
Fluidised Bed Dryer
Fluidized bed dryer consist of a steel shell of cylindrical or rectangular cross section.
A grid is provided in the column over which the wet material is rests. In this type of
dryer, the drying gas is passed through the bed of solids at a velocity sufficient to
keep the bed in a fluidized state. Mixing and heat transfer are very rapid in this type of
dryers. The dryer can be operated in batch or continuous mode (figure 2.5). Fluidized
bed dryer are suitable for granular and crystalline materials. If fine particles are
present, either from the feed or from particle breakage in the fluidized bed, there may
be considerable solid carryover with the exit gas and bag filters are needed for fines
recovery. The main advantage of this type of dryer are: rapid and uniform heat
transfer, short drying time, good control of the drying conditions.

In case of rectangular fluid-bed dryers separate fluidized compartments are provided

through which the solids move in sequence from inlet to outlet. These are known as
plug flow dryers; residence time is almost the same for all particles in the
compartments. But the drying conditions can be changed from one compartment to
another, and often the last compartment is fluidized with cold gas to cool the solid
before discharge.

Continuous fluidized bed dryer

Screen Conveyor Dryers

Screen conveyor dryer is also called a direct heat continuous type dryer. The solid to
be dried are fed on to endless, perforated, conveyor belt through which hot air is
forced. The belt is housed in a long rectangular drying chamber or tunnel (figure 2.6).
The chamber is divided into series of separate sections, each with its own fan and air
heater. Air may be recirculated through, and vented from each section separately or
passed from one section to another counter current to the solid movement. The solid is
carried through the tunnel and discharged at the opposite end. In order to prevent the
higher flow rate of hot air through thinner regions of the bed a uniform feeding rate
and distribution of the material over the conveyor is necessary. Coarse granular,
flakey, or fibers materials can be dried by through circulation without any
pretreatment and without loss of material through the screen. High drying rate can be
achieved with good product quality control. Thermal efficiency of this type of dryer is
high and with steam heating, the steam consumption for heating the drying gas can be
as low as 1.5 kg per kg of water evaporated. Only disadvantage of this type of dryer
are high initial cost and high maintenance cost due to the mechanical belt.

Screen conveyor dryer

NOVEL DRYING TECHNOLOGIES
Newer technologies focus on saving in energy consumption that result in considerable
overall improvement in energy efficiency. In addition, the final quality of the product
is greatly influenced by the drying technique and strategy. A brief overview of some
novel drying techniques is given below:
Microwave Drying
Microwave heating is a direct drying method. High-frequency radio waves are utilized
in microwave drying. A high-frequency generates the waves and wave channel guides
them in to an oven that is designed to prevent the waves from leaving the chamber. In
microwave drying, heat is generated by directly transforming the electromagnetic
energy in to kinetic molecular energy, thus the heat is generated deep within the
material to be dried. Selection of proper wavelength is necessary to ensure thorough
penetration into the material. Apart from these, other parameters such as material type
and depth of material being exposed also affect the penetration. Therefore, selection
of proper wavelengths and dehydration condition for each product is selected
individually.
This type of heating is instantaneous, uniform and penetrating throughout the
material, which is a great advantage for the processing of pharmaceutical compounds.
In case of microwave drying the waves bounce from wall to wall, until the product
absorbs eventually all of the energy, generating heat within the material, resulting in
dehydration. Vapour from the liquid evaporating inside the product is emitted through
the pore structure of the solid material‟s macro-capillary system, resulting in a high
drying rate. This type of dryer is highly efficient and power utilization efficiencies are
generally greater than 70 %. Important commercial aspects of this dryer includes the
ability to maintain colour, moisture and quality of the natural food.
Supercritical Fluid Extraction and its application to Drying
The supercritical fluid (SCF) is a substance at a temperature and pressure above its
critical point. It can effuse through solids like a gas, and dissolve materials like a
liquid. Supercritical fluids possess unique properties that enable them to extract
components selectively from a mixture. This ability has been investigated as an
alternative to currently used separation processes such as distillation or liquid
extractions. In addition, close to the critical point, small changes in pressure or
temperature result in large changes in density, allowing many properties of a
supercritical fluid to be "fine-tuned". Above the critical point, this increased density
produces enhanced solvency, approaching that of a liquid. It is this solvency that
makes SCF extraction a feasible alternative. Mass transfer properties resembling that
of gases are also a significant factor in SCF extraction. An application of SCF
extraction that has seemingly gone unexplored is to the drying of food products. Since
moisture content influences texture, chemical reactions, and susceptibility to
microbial spoilage, drying is a way to retain quality and prolong shelf life. A
complication associated with drying of food products is that they may undergo
changes that alter the physical or chemical structure, thus changing the integrity of the
product. SCF extraction avoids this problem because it allows the food product to be
dehydrated without undergoing a phase change from liquid water to water vapour.
Also, if a solvent such as supercritical carbon dioxide is used, it will not be necessary
to heat the product above ambient temperatures.

SELECTION OF DRYING EQUIPMENT

In view of the enormous choice of dryer types one could possibly deploy for most
products, selection of the best type is a challenging task that should not be taken
lightly. The first consideration in selecting a dryer is its operability. Above all else,
the equipment must produce the desired product in the desired form at the desired
rate. The quality required in a finished product, and its necessary physical
characteristics, are determined by its end use. A wrong dryer for a given application is
still a poor dryer, regardless of how well it is designed. Although variety of
commercial dryers are available in the market, the different types mare largely
complementary, not competitive, and the nature of the drying problem dictates the
type of dryer that must be used, or at least limits the choice to perhaps two or three
possibilities. The final choice is then made on the basis of capital and operating costs.
Attention must be paid, however, to the costs of the entire drying system, not just the
drying unit alone.
There are some general guidelines which need to be followed to select a dryer, but it
should be recognized that the rules are far from rigid and exceptions not uncommon.
Often batch dryers are used when the production rate of dried product is less than 150
to 200 kg/h, while continuous dryers are suitable for production rates greater than 1 or
2 tons/h. To handle intermediate production rates other factors must be considered.
The dryer must also operate reliably, safely, and economically. Operation and
maintenance costs must not be excessive; pollution must be controlled; energy
consumption must be minimized. As with other equipment these requirements may be
conflict with one another and a compromise needs to be reached in finding the
optimum dryer for a given service. As far as the drying operation itself is concerned,
adiabatic dryers are generally less expensive than non-adiabatic dryers, in spite of the
lower thermal efficiency of adiabatic units. Unfortunately there is usually a lot of dust
carry over from adiabatic dryers, and these entrained particles must be removed from
the drying gas. Elaborate particle-removal equipment may be needed, equipment that
may cost as much as the dryer itself. This often makes adiabatic dryers less
commercially attractive than a “buttoned-up” non-adiabatic system in which little or
no gas is used.
Lecture 12: DESIGN CONSIDERATION OF DRIERS
DESIGN OF DRYER
Design of a rotary dryer only on the basis of fundamental principle is very difficult.
Few of correlations that are available for design may not prove to be satisfactory for
many systems. The design of a rotary dryer is better done by using pilot plant test data
and the full scale operating data of dryer of similar type if available, together with the
available design equations. A fairly large number of variables are involved such as
solid to be dried per hour, the inlet and exit moisture contents of the solid, the critical
and equilibrium moisture contents, temperature and humidity of the drying gas. The
design procedure based on the basic principles and available correlations is discussed
below. In this case we assume that the solid has only unbound moisture and as shown
in fig 2.7 in stage II the solid is at the wet bulb temperature of the gas.

Temperature profile for solid and gas in a counter current rotary dryer

1. Heat losses from dryer surfaces are neglected.

2. Once the capacity of the dryer is known, the drying gas flow rate, its
temperature and humidity are decided considering a number of factors. And
the following moisture & enthalpy balances need to be satisfied.
Gs (Y1 - Y2) = Ms (X1 – X2)
Gs (Hg2 – Hg1) = Ms (HS2 – Hs1)
Here, Gs = flow rate of air (dry basis, kg/h), Ms = flow rate of solid (kg/h, dry
basis), Hs = humidity of air (kg/H2O/kg dry air)
 3. The gas and solid temperatures at the stage boundaries are obtained by
moisture and energy (enthalpy) balances. The number of heat transfer unit for
each zone is calculated. for the stage II. The number of heat transfer units is
given by
(NtG)h,II × ∆Tm = (TGB – TGA)
4. The total length of dryer is given by
L = (LT)1 (NtG)1 + (LT)II (NtG)II + (LT)III (NtG)III
5. The shell diameter is calculated from the dry gas flow rate (from step I) and
suitable gas flow velocity or gas mass flow rate
Some useful correlations for the design of a rotary dryer are given below.
Volumetric gas-solid heat transfer coefficient.
Ūa = (W/m3.K) = 237 (G‟)0.67/d
Here, G‟ = gas mass flow rate (kg/m2.h) and d, dryer diameter
Length of transfer unit LT = G‟CH / Ūa
LT = 0.0063 CH . d. GS0.84
Here, cH = average humid heat, and d = dryer diameter
Solid retention time:

0.23 L B L G'
θ=  1.97 (+ve sign is for counter flow; –ve sign is for parallel
S N0.9 d F
flow of the gas and solid)
Where,
θ = retention time (min); L = dryer length (m)
S = slope of the dryer (m/m); N = speed (rpm)
G‟ = gas mass flow rate (Kg/m2.h)
F = feed rate (Kg/m2. h) dry basis
B = 5 (dp)-0.5
dp = weight average particle diameter (micron)
d = dryer diameter (m)
Example 2.1: Size of the rotary dryer can be estimated for the following case. A
moist non hygroscopic granular solid at 260C is to be dried from 20% initial moisture
to 0.3% final moisture in a rotary dryer at a rate of 1500 kg/h. The hot air enters the
dryer at 1350C with a humidity of 0.015. With condition that the temperature of the
solid leaving the dryer must not exceed 1100C and the air velocity must not exceed
1.5 m/s in order to avoid dust carry over. Cps = 0.85 kJ/kg.K. Recommend the
diameter, length and other parameters of the dryer.
Solution:
Basis of calculation is 1 hr operation
Solid contains 20% initial moisture
Mass of dry solid = MS = 1500 (1-0.2) = 1200 kg/hr
Moisture in the wet solid = X1 = 20/80 = 0.25
Moisture in the dry solid = X2 = 0.3/99.7 = 0.00301
Water evaporated, mS, evaporated = MS (X1 – X2)
= 1200 (0.25 – 0.00301) = 296.4 Kg
Given data:
TS1 = 260C; TG2 = 1350C; Y2 = 0.015
Let us assume that the exit temperature of the gas is TG1 = 60oC and for solid TS2 =
100oC
Now enthalpy of different streams (suppose ref temp = 0oC)
HS1 = [CPS + (4.187) X1] [TS1 – 0]
= [0.85 + (4.187) 0.25] [26 – 0] = 49.31 KJ/kg dry air
HS2 = [CPS + (4.187) X1] [TS1 – 0]
= [0.85 + (4.187) 0.0.00301] [100 – 0] = 86.2 KJ/kg dry solid
Hg2 = [1.005 + (1.88) 0.015] [135 – 0] + (0.015) (2500) = 177 KJ/kg
Hg1 = [1.005 + (1.88) Y1] [60 – 0] + Y1 (2500) = 60.3 + 2613 Y1
Overall mass balance
GS (Y1 – Y2) = MS (X1 – X2) GS (Y1 – 0.015) = 296.4

GS = 296.4/(Y1 – 0.015)
MS [HS2 – HS1] = GS [Hg2 – Hg1]

1200 [86.2 – 49.31] = 296.4/(Y1 – 0.015 ) × (177 – 60.3 -2613Y1)

 Y1 = 0.04306 and Gs = 296.4/(Y1 – 0.015) = 10560 Kg/h
Shell Diameter
Volume of humid inlet gas (1350C and Y2 = 0.015)
VH2 = 1.183 m3/Kg dry air
Volume of humid exit gas (600C and Y1 = 0.04306)
VH1 = 1.008 m3/Kg dry air
The max. volumetric gas flow rate = Gs.VH2
= 10560 × 1.183 = 12490 m3/h
The working velocity i.e. superficial velocity = 1.5 – 0.2 × 1.5
= 1.2 m/s
  / 4 × d2 (1.2) = d = 1.98 m, say 2.0 m
Heat Transfer Unit
Dryer is divided into three zones and therefore, the stage wise calculation of
temperature and humidity of the stream can be obtained by material and energy
balance.
Stage III
Very less water left for vaporization in stage III. Consider solid is at TSB, the wet bulb
temperature of the air at location between III & II.
assume TSB = TSA = 410C
Enthalpy of solid at the inlet to stage III
HSB = [0.85 + (0.00301) (4.187)] (41-0)
= 35.37 KJ/kg dry solid
Humid heat of gas entering stage III
CHB = [1.005 + (1.88) (0.015)]
= 1.003 KJ/kg.K
Heat balance over stage III
MS [HS2 - HSB ] = GS (CHB)III (135 – TGB)
TGB = 1290C
Adiabatic saturation temperature of air entering stage II (1290C & humidity of 0.015)
is 41.30C.
At the boundary B, ∆TB = 129 -41 = 880C
At end 2, ∆T2 = 135 -100 = 350C
 LMTDIII = (∆T)m = 88-35/ln(88/35) = 57.50C
(NtG)III = T2 –TGB/(∆T)m = 135 -129/57.5 = 0.104
Stage II
 Use heat balance equation over stage II to calculate the value of TGA. The
calculated TGA value can be use to estimate the number of transfer units.
Since YB = 0.015
HGB = [1.005 + 1.88 YB] (129-0) + 2500 (YB) = 170.8 KJ/Kg
HAS = [0.85 + CPS X1] (TSA -0) = [0.85 + (4.187) (0.25)] (41)
= 77.77 KJ/(Kg dry solid)
Enthalpy balance:

MS (HSB – HSA) = GS (HGB – HGA)

1200 (35.37 – 77.77) = 10560 (170.8 - HGA)

 HGA = 175.6 KJ/Kg

Once HGA value is known then TGA can be calculated using the following equation

HGA = 175.6 = [1.005 + 0.04306 (1.88)] [TGA - 0] + 0.04306 (2500)

 TGA = 630C

At section A temp diff. ∆TA = 63 -41 = 220C and ∆TB = 880C

(∆T)M = (88-22)/ ln(88/22) = 47.60C

Number of transfer unit = (NtG)II = TGB – TGA/(∆T)M

= (129 – 63)/47.6 = 1.386

To validate the assumed value of exit gas temperature i.e. TG1 = 600C, first do an
energy balance over stage I.

GS (Hg2 – Hg1) = MS (HS2 – HS2)

10560 (175.6 – Hg1) = 1200 (77.77 – 49.31)

 Hg1 = TG1 = 59.60C

Stage I

(∆T)1 = 60-26 = 340C

(∆T)A = 220C

(∆T)M = 34-22/ln (34/22) = 27.5

Number of transfer unit, NtG = 0.104 + 1.386 + 0.109 = 1.53

Length of Transfer Unit:

Avg. mass flow rate = [10560 (1.015) + 10560 (1.04306)]/2

= 10867 Kg/h

The gas mass flow rate, G‟ = (10867/3600)/  / 4 × (2)2

= 0.961 Kg/m2.S

Volumetric heat transfer coeff. = U a = (237 (G‟)0.67)/d

 U a = (237 × (0.961)0.67)/2 = 115 W/m3.K

Humid heat at the ends

CH2 = 1.005 + 1.88 (0.015) = 1.033

CH1 = 1.005 + 1.88 (0.04306) = 1.083

Avg. humid heat,

CH = (1.033 + 1.083)/2 = 1.058 KJ/Kg. K

Length of transfer unit, LT = G‟. CH/ U a = (0.961 × 1058)/115 = 8.84 m

Length of dryer, L = NtG. LT

= 1.56 × 8.84 = 13.8 m

d = 2 m and L = 14 m
Lecture 13: SOLVED PROBLEMS
Example 2.2: (Process design)

A rotary drier using counter current flow is to be used to dry 25000 lb/hr of wet solid
(PTA) containing 5 weight percent water to a water content of 0.10 weight per cent.
The wet solid enters at 30oC (860F). Ambient air at 300C (860F) will be heated to
1560C (3130F). Specific heat of solid is 0.2871. Estimate the length and diameter of
the drier.

Feed to the drier: Condition of inlet air:

Water content in the feed = 25000 × 0.05 Ambient temp. of air (dry bulb) =
= 1250 lb/Hr 300C = 860F
Dry solid in feed = 25000 – 1250 = 23,750 Wet bulb temp. (wet bulb)= 220C =
lb/Hr 710F
Water content in Product = 24 lb/Hr Heated Inlet temp. of air = 1560C =
Water removed by the drier = 1226 lb/Hr 3130F
Steam pressure = 150 psig Humidity HmW = 0.002 lb water/lb
dry air.
φ = HmG - HmW =h G (TG -TW )/(mλ W Pk G )

HmG Humidity of air at temperature TG 0F

HmW Humidity of air at temperature TW 0F

TG Temperature of inlet air 0F; TW Wet bulb temperature 0F

M Molecular weight of air; λW Latent heat of vaporization at TW 0F

hG/(mPkG) = 0.26 for air at TW and here m = 29.

First Trial: assume wet bulb temperature is 900C = 194oF

Hence at TW = 194 o F, HmW = 0.046  HmW - HmG = 0.046- 0.002 = 0.044; λw =

547.3

φ = (0.26(313-194)/547.3) = 0.056 φ > HmW - HmG

Since Φ> HmW – HmG therefore the temperature assumed is high

Second Trial: Assume a wet bulb temperature of 1800 F

HmW = 0.065  HmW - HmG = 0.065 – 0.002 = 0.063 ; λw = 532

φ = (0.26 (313-180)/532) = 0.063

Therefore wet bulb temperature assumed is true i.e. TW = 1800 F

The temperature of the outlet air should be selected on the basis of an economic
balance between dryer and the fuel costs. Empirically it is found that drier operates
economically when total number of transfer units (NTU) is between 1.5 to 2. (Badger
and Banchero, Pg 508)

NTU = ln(TG1- TW)/(TG2- TW)

Take NTU = 1.5 = ln (313 -180)/( TG2- 180)  TG2 = 209 0F

Energy balance:

CP (PTA) = 0.2871Btu/lb0F; CP (Water) = 1 Btu/lb0F

Product discharge temperature = (313 + 209)/2 = 2610F

Temperature of feed = 1760F

Heat required to raise the product to discharged temp.

= 23705 x 0.2871(261-176) + 24 (261-176) = 5.8143 x 105Btu/Hr

Heat required to remove the water = 1226 [(180-176) + 0.45 (209-180) + 550]

= 6.952 x105 Btu/Hr

Total Heat = 1.27 x 106 Btu/Hr

Air Required:

SH-Humid Heat of inlet air = 0.24 + 0.45 x 0.002 = 0.2409

Use average humid heat = 0.242

GG‟.S x Humid heat of air x Temperature= Total Heat, here S = cross sectional area,
sq ft
GG‟. S × (0.242) × (313-209) = 1.27 × 106

GG‟. S = 50723.27 lb/Hr

1226
Humid heat of outlet air =  0.002  0.02617 lb water/lb dry air
50723.27

Humid heat = 0.24 + 0.45 × 0.02617 = 0.2517 and SHavg = (0.2409 + 0.2517)/2 =
0.2463

Therefore the average humidity taken above is valid

Mean temperature difference across the rotary drier can be calculated by using
following formulae

Let qp = heat required to preheat the feed from inlet to wet bulb temperature.

qs= heat required to heat product from wet bulb temperature to discharge temperature.

qv= heat required to evaporate water at wet bulb temperature.

Preheating period:

qp= 23705 x 0.2871(180-176) + 1250 (180-176) = 3.2274 × 104 Btu/hr

Change in air temp. is = [(3.2274 × 104)/(1.27 × 106)] × (313 - 176) = 2.67 0F

Air temperature at the end of preheat = 209 + 2.67 = 212 0F

(209  158)  (212  180)

T ) P  = 40.76o F
 209  158 
ln 
 212  180 

Heating period:

qs = 23705 × 0.2871 (261-180) + 24 (261-180) = 5.542 x 105 Btu/hr

5.542 x 105
Change in temperature = 6
x (313-209) = 45.38o F
1.27 x 10

Air temperature at the start of heating = 313 – 45.38 = 267 0F

 (267  180)  (313  261)
(T ) s  = 68o F
 267  180 
ln 
 313  261 

Evaporating period:

qp= 1.27 x 106 – 5.542 x 105 – 3.2274 x 104 = 6.83 x 105 Btu/hr

(267  180)  (212  180)

(T )v   55o F
 267  180 
ln 
 212  180 

The mean temperature difference given as

1 1  qp q q 
=  + s + v 
(T ) M qt  (T ) p (T )s (T ) v 

1 1  8.52 x 104 1.499 x 106 5.658 x 105 

2.49 x 106  45.29  = 0.0168
= + +
(T )M 54.54 54.7 

(ΔT)M = 600F

NTU Check:

(T1  T2 )  313-209 
NTU  = = 1.73
(T )m 60

According to the condition NTU should be between 1.5 to 2. Therefore the above
mean temperature value can be accepted.

TRIAL 1: To Calculate the Diameter of the Drier

Air entering the drier is 50723.27 lbs/h. But for designing purpose air is taken in
excess so that the loss of heat from the drier is compensated.

Air entering the drier can be taken as ~ 51000 lb/hr.

Assume that the maximum superficial air mass velocity to be = 1000 lb/ (hr ft2)

 50723.27 
G G S = 51000 1+0.0165 x = 51836.93 lb/Hr
 51000 
 51836.93
S= = 51.837 ft 2
1000

D = (4*51.837/π)0.5 = 8.07 ft = 2.46 m

Similarly length of the dryer can be calculated by using following equation

Q = Ua × S × Z × (ΔT)M

Where,

Q = Total heat, Btu/Hr

Z = Length of drier, ft

S = cross sectional area, ft2

Before that we need to calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient from:

15(G G )0.16
Ua =
D

GG = Maximum superficial air mass velocity, lb/ft2 Hr

Ua = Overall heat transfer coefficient (volumetric), Btu/Hr ft3 0F

D = Diameter of the drier in ft.

15(1000)0.16
Ua =  5.57 Btu/hr ft 3 o F
8.07

 Length of the drier

1.27 x 106
Z= = 73.30 ft = 22.34 m
5.57 x 51.837 x 60

Z/D ratio check:

22.34
Z/D = =9
2.46

Which checks the condition that the Z/D ratio is between 3- 10. Therefore the above
diameter and length can be accepted.
To calculate the speed of the rotation of the drier;

Assume the peripheral speed of rotation to be 30feet/min

Revolution per min = peripheral speed / diameter

RPM = 30/8.07 = 3.7

The revolution of the drier varies between 2 and 5. Therefore the above value can be
accepted

Flight design:

Number of flights in the drier = 3 x D

Where D is the diameter of the drier in feet

Number of flights = 3 x 8.07 = 24.21, say 24

Radial height of the flight:

The radial height of the flight taken as 1/8th of the diameter of the drier

The radial height of the flight = (1/8) x 8.07 = 12.18 inches, say 12.25”
DRIER DETAILS:

Drier Type: Counter Current Rotary Drier

Diameter of the drier = 8.07 ft = 2.46 m

Length of the Drier = 73.3 ft = 2.34 m

RPM of the drier = 3.7 rpm

Number of Flights = 24

Radial height of the flights = 12.25 inches

Temperature of the inlet air = 156oC = 3130F

Temperature of the inlet wet solid = 90oC = 1940F

Mean temperature Difference = 600F

Air mass flow rate = 51000 lb/hr

Moisture removed by the drier = 1226 lb/hr

The volumetric heat transfer coefficient of drier = 5.57 Btu/Hr ft3oF

Lecture 14: SOLVED PROBLEM
Example 2.3: (Mechanical Design) The drier has a uniform temperature of around
150 oC at any point of time (working pressure in the drier is 0.1013 N/mm2). So the
material used for the construction of the dryer should withstand the high (operating)
temperature. Since mild steel withstand high temperature of 200 0C. The material used
to construct the dryer is mild steel and permissible pressure of material used is 124
N/mm2.

Length of drier = 22.34 m; Inner diameter of the drier = 2.46 m

 Design pressure = 1.5 x W P = 1.5 x 0.1013  0.152

Thickness of the drier shell:

P  Design pressure,

D  Diameter of the drier,

F  Permissible stress,
J  0.85
0.152 × 2460
ts = = 1.77 mm
2 × 0.85 × 124 + 0.152

For the shell minimum thickness is given as 8 mm. Consider corrosion allowance of 2
mm therefore, including the C.A. the thickness can be taken as 10 mm.

Therefore the outer Diameter = 2460 + 2 × 10

D0 = 2480 mm = 2.480 m

The thickness of the insulation:

From the heat balance it is clear that there is some heat lost into the atmosphere. To
limit the heat loss to the same figure insulation is to be given to the drier. The
insulation material can be chosen as asbestos.

Density of asbestos

Thermal conductivity of asbestos

Thermal conductivity of mild steel =

Convective heat transfer coefficient =

From heat balance,

Heat loss from the drier = 97.006 KW

Inner diameter of the drier shell, D1 = 2.46 m

Outer diameter of the drier shell, D2 = 2.48 m and t1 = 10 mm

Let „y‟ be the thickness of insulation.

o o
C and C

We have from continuity equation,

(T1 - T2 )
Q
 t1   t 2   1 
   
 k1A1   k 2 A 2   h A3 

A1   (D1 + D2 )  L/2
=  (2.46 + 2.48)  22.34/2
= 174.24 m2

A2   (D 2 + D3 )  L/2
=  (2.48 + 2.48 + 2y)  22.34/2
= (174.42 + 70 .26y) m2

A3    D3  L
=  (2.48 + 2y)  22.34
= (174.04 + 140.36 y) m 2

122.0 - 76.0
97.006  103 =
10  10 -3
y 1
+ +
147.6  174.24 681.4  10 (174 + 70.24 y)
-3
56.78 (174.84 + 140.36 y)
46
97.006  103 =
10  10 -3
y 1
+ 
25717.82 (118.6 + 47.87y) (9927.4  7969.6 y)

After solving the final equation obtained as follows

y2 + 1.42 y - 0.0654 = 0  y = 0.04 m

Therefore the thickness of the insulation should be 40 mm

To find the power to drive the Driver; Use equation (20- 44) from Perry,

Where r  rpm of the drier d  shell diameter, ft

w  live load, Ib W  total rotating load, Ib

D  riding ring diameter, ft (d + 2)

To calculate the live load and the rotating load;

Density of mild steel

We have,

Outer diameter of the drier shell

Inner diameter of the drier shell

 L (D22 - D12 )
Volume of shell material =
4

  73.30  (8.132 - 8.072 )

=
4

= 56 ft3

Weight of the drier = Volume of shell material × density

= 56 × 480

= 26859.71 lbs

Assume Hold up = 0.1

 L D12
Volume of drier filled with material =  0.1
4

 (8.07)2
=  73.30  0.1
4

= 374.92 ft3
Weight of material in drier at any time, w = Volume x Density

= 628.41 × 94.07

= 35.268 × 103 lbs

 L (D32 - D22 )
Volume of the insulating materials =
4

  73.30  (8.262 - 8.132 )

=
4

= 122.21 ft3

Weight of the insulating material = Volume x Density

= 122.21 × 36

= 4399.62 lbs

Total weight,

= 26859.71 + 35.268 × 103 + 4399.62 = 6.652 × 104 lbs

W = weight of the material

w = 35.268 × 103 lbs

Riding ring diameter,

= 8.07 + 2 = 10.07 ft

The rpm of the drier, r

3  (4.75  8.07  35.268  103  0.1925  10.07  6.652  104 + 0.33  6.652  104 )
BHP =
100000
= 45.08 BHP
= 33.62 KW
To calculate the power required by the Blower:

Temperature of the inlet air = 30 oC

Humidity of inlet air

Total quantity of air handled = 23512.83 Kg/hr

23512.83  22.4  303

Volume of the inlet air =
29  298

= 18.466 × 103 m3/hr

Use equation (6-34a) from Perry,

Where

Q  Fan volume,

p  Fan operating pressure, cm water column

p = 20 cm water column

Power = 2.72 × 10-5 × 18.466 × 103 × 20 = 10 KW

To calculate the power required by the Exhaust fan:

Temperature of outlet air = 87 oC

Humidity of the outlet air

Total quantity of air handled =

24628.7  22.4  363

Volume of the inlet air = = 42.64  103 m3 / hr
29  298

Power = 2.72 × 10-5 × 42.64 × 103 × 20

= 23.19 KW
To find the diameter of the feed pipe:

Feed Rate = 25000 lb/hr

Volumetric feed rate

Assume the velocity of the feed to be 100

Cross sectional area of the feed pipe =

Diameter of the feed pipe

To find the diameter of the air inlet and outlet pipe:

INLET:

Temperature of air = 156 oC

Humidity of inlet air

Volumetric flow rate of air

Assume the velocity of the air entering to be 20

Cross sectional area of the inlet air pipe =

Diameter of the inlet pipe

With corrosion allowance diameter

OUTLET:

Temperature of air = 156 oC

Humidity of outlet air

Volumetric flow rate of air

Assume the velocity of the outlet air to be 20

Cross sectional area of the outlet air pipe =

Diameter of the outlet pipe

With corrosion allowance diameter

DRIER DETAILS

Length of the Drier = 22.34 m

Inner diameter of the drier = 2.46 m

Outer diameter of the drier = 2.48 m

The thickness of the shell = 10 mm

The thickness of the insulation = 40 mm

Power required to drive the Drier = 33.62 KW

Power of the Blower = 10 KW

Power of the Exhaust fan = 23.19 KW

Diameter of the feed pipe

Diameter of the inlet pipe

Diameter of the outlet pipe

Rotation of the Drier = 3 rpm

 Exercise problems:
Example 1: A double drum drier is to be designed for drying a paste with a capacity
of 100 kg/hr. The drier is heated with indirect stream available at atmospheric
pressure (100oC). The following data is available:
Temperature of the paste = 30oC.
Initial moisture content of paste = 60oC (wet basis).
Final moisture content of paste = 10oC (wet basis).
Heat transfer from the condensing steam to steam wall = 8500 W/m2k.
Heat capacity of the paste material = 3400 J/kgk.
Thermal conductivity of the paste material = 0.8 W/mk.
The thickness of layer of material = 1.5mm.
The thickness of iron drum wall = 8mm.
Thermal conductivity of iron drum = W/mk.
Air is blown over the surface of material at a velocity of 1.5 m/sec.
Temperature of the air is 40oC.
Relative humidity of air is 40%.
Latent heat of vaporization of water at atmospheric pressure = 2240 kJ/kg.
Maximum temperature of the outer surface of the material being dried is 70oC.
Vapour pressure of water at 70oC = 350 mmHg.
Partial pressure of water vapour in air at 40oC and relative humidity 40% id = 22
mmHg.
Rate of flow of moisture being evaporated can be estimated by the correlation.
G  1.14 10 5 u 0.8 ( P)

u – velocity of air flow over the surface, m/sec.

(Ans: U = 210W/m2k; heating surface area A = 3.02 m2; Actual surface area =
4.368m2; Area of each drum =2.184m2; drum diameter = 562mm)
Example 2: Salicyclic acid crystals are to be dried in a pneumatic dryer at a rate of
200 kg/h of dry product. Initial moisture content of the crystals is 20% while the final
moisture content should be 1%. Temperature of the crystals supplied to the drier is
10oC while the temperature of the crystals discharged from the dryer is 50oC.
Temperature of the air entering the heater = 10oC
Temperature of the air leaving the heater and entering the drier.
Relative humidity of air entering the heater is 70%.
Temperature of the air leaving the dryer = 60oC.
Specific heat of dry crystals = 1160 J/kgk.
Equivalent diameter of crystals = 0.001 m.
Density of material = 1480 kg/m3.
Wet bulb temperature = 30oC.
Estimate the diameter, and length of the pneumatic dryer and the time needed to dry
salicyclicstals.
Moisture content of air initially = 0.0065 kg/kg dry air.
Moisture content of air finally = 0.020 kg/kg dry air.
Enthalpy of air at the inlet of air heater = 33.5 kJ/kg.
Enthalpy of air at the outlet of air heater h1 = 111 kJ/kg.
Thermal conductivity of air = 0.0285 w/mk.
Density of air = 1.03 kg/m3.
Kinematic viscosity of air = 2420 kj/kg.
(Ans: flow rate of dry air required, M= 2787 kg/hr; Heat transferred to air, Q
=59991Watts; number of particles passing through the dryer per second, n = 71691.4
/ sec; velocity of deposition of the particles, V= 3.814 m/sec; Diameter of the
pneumatic dryer, D = 0.45m)

Example 3: (Sizing of a rotary dryer) A fine granular solid to be dried at a rate of

600 kg/h from 22% to 0.2% moisture (all wet basis) in a countercurrent rotary dryer
using hot air at 110oC of humidity 0.012 kg/(kg dry air). The moist solid fed to the
dryer is at 25oC and the dried solid leaves at 80-oC. The moisture in the solid is
unbound. In order to avoid dusting, the gas velocity should not exceed 1.7 m/s. The
specific heat of the dry solid is 0.9 kJ/kg. oC, Suggest a dryer size.
(Ans: Diameter of dryer, D =1.8 m; Length of dryer = 25 m)
 PROCESS DESIGN OF HEAT EXCHANGER: TYPES OF HEAT EXCHANGER,
PROCESS DESIGN OF SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER, CONDENSER AND
REBOILERS
Lecture 15: Heat Exchangers Classifications
PROCESS DESIGN OF SHELL AND TUBE
EXCHANGER FOR SINGLE PHASE HEAT
TRANSFER
Classification of heat exchangers
Transfer of heat from one fluid to another is an important operation for most of the
chemical industries. The most common application of heat transfer is in designing of heat
transfer equipment for exchanging heat from one fluid to another fluid. Such devices for
efficient transfer of heat are generally called Heat Exchanger. Heat exchangers are
normally classified depending on the transfer process occurring in them. General
classification of heat exchangers is shown in the Figure .
Amongst of all type of exchangers, shell and tube exchangers are most commonly used
heat exchange equipment. The common types of shell and tube exchangers are:
Fixed tube-sheet exchanger (non-removable tube bundle): The simplest and cheapest
type of shell and tube exchanger is with fixed tube sheet design. In this type of
exchangers the tube sheet is welded to the shell and no relative movement between the
shell and tube bundle is possible .
Removable tube bundle: Tube bundle may be removed for ease of cleaning and
replacement. Removable tube bundle exchangers further can be categorized in floating-
head and U-tube exchanger.
 Floating-head exchanger: It consists of a stationery tube sheet which is
clamped with the shell flange. At the opposite end of the bundle, the tubes
may expand into a freely riding floating-head or floating tube sheet. A
floating head cover is bolted to the tube sheet and the entire bundle can be
removed for cleaning and inspection of the interior.

 U-tube exchanger: This type of exchangers consists of tubes which are bent
in the form of a „U‟ and rolled back into the tube sheet shown in the Figure.
This means that it will omit some tubes at the centre of the tube bundle
 depending on the tube arrangement. The tubes can expand freely towards
the „U‟ bend end.
The different operational and constructional advantages and limitations depending on
applications of shell and tube exchangers are summarized in Table 1.1. TEMA (USA)
and IS: 4503-1967 (India) standards provide the guidelines for the mechanical design of
unfired shell and tube heat exchangers. As shown in the Table 1.1, TEMA 3-digit codes
specify the types of front-end, shell, and rear-end of shell and tube exchangers.
 Heat exchanger may have singe
or two phase flow on each side
Fixed tubesheet
Flow
Shell & tube U-tube

Cross Parallel Counter Removable bundle

Tubular Spiral tube Floating head

Double pipe

Finned tube

Indirect Extended
contact-type surface

Finned plate

Recuperative Gasketed plate

Plate Spiral plate

Lamella
Direct
contact-type

Heat
Exchanger
Disk type

Rotary
regenerator

Regenerative
Drum type

Fixed-matrix
regenerator

. Classification of heat exchangers depending on their applications.

 . Features of shell and tube type exchangers.
Shell and Typical Advantages Limitations
Tube TEMA code
Exchangers
Fixed tube BEM, AEM, Provides maximum heat Shell side / out side of the tubes are
sheet NEN transfer area for a given inaccessible for mechanical cleaning.
shell and tube diameter.
No provision to allow for differential thermal
Provides for single and expansion developed between the tube and
multiple tube passes to the shell side. This can be taken care by
assure proper velocity. providing expansion joint on the shell side.

Less costly than

removable bundle designs.

Floating- AEW, BEW, Floating tube sheet allows To provide the floating-head cover it is
head BEP, AEP, for differential thermal necessary to bolt it to the tube sheet. The bolt
AES, BES expansion between the circle requires the use of space where it
shell and the tube bundle. would be possible to place a large number of
tubes.
Both the tube bundle and
the shell side can be Tubes cannot expand independently so that
inspected and cleaned huge thermal shock applications should be
mechanically. avoided.

Packing materials produce limits on design

pressure and temperature.

U-tube BEU, AEU U-tube design allows for Because of U-bend some tubes are omitted at
differential thermal the centre of the tube bundle.
expansion between the
shell and the tube bundle Because of U-bend, tubes can be cleaned only
as well as for individual by chemical methods.
tubes.
Due to U-tube nesting, individual tube is
Both the tube bundle difficult to replace.
and the shell side can be
inspected and cleaned No single tube pass or true countercurrent
mechanically. flow is possible.

Less costly than floating Tube wall thickness at the U-bend is thinner
head or packed floating than at straight portion of the tubes.
head designs.
Draining of tube circuit is difficult when
positioned with the vertical position with the
head side upward.
 Fixed-tube heat exchanger ([1]).

Floating-head heat exchanger (non-pull through type) [1].

 Removable U-tube heat exchanger [1].

1. Shell 16. Tubes (U-type)

2. Shell cover 17. Tie rods and spacers
3. Shell flange (channel end) 18. Transverse (or cross) baffles or support plates
4. Shell flange (cover end) 19. Longitudinal baffles
5. Shell nozzle or branch 20. Impingement baffles
6. Floating tube sheet 21. Floating head support
7. Floating head cover 22. Pass partition
8. Floating head flange 23. Vent connection
9. Floating head gland 24. Drain connection
10. Floating head backing ring 25. Instrument connection
11. Stationary tube sheet 26. Expansion bellows
12. Channel or stationary head 27. Support saddles
13. Channel cover 28. Lifting lugs
14. Channel nozzle or branch 29. Weir
15. Tube (straight) 30. Liquid level connection
Lecture 16: Thermal Design Considerations
The flow rates of both hot and cold streams, their terminal temperatures and fluid
properties are the primary inputs of thermal design of heat exchangers.
Thermal design considerations
Thermal design of a shell and tube heat exchanger typically includes the determination of
heat transfer area, number of tubes, tube length and diameter, tube layout, number of
shell and tube passes, type of heat exchanger (fixed tube sheet, removable tube bundle
etc), tube pitch, number of baffles, its type and size, shell and tube side pressure drop etc.
Shell
Shell is the container for the shell fluid and the tube bundle is placed inside the shell.
Shell diameter should be selected in such a way to give a close fit of the tube bundle.
The clearance between the tube bundle and inner shell wall depends on the type of
exchanger ([2]; page 647). Shells are usually fabricated from standard steel pipe with
satisfactory corrosion allowance. The shell thickness of 3/8 inch for the shell ID of 12-24
inch can be satisfactorily used up to 300 psi of operating pressure.
Tube
Tube OD of ¾ and 1‟‟ are very common to design a compact heat exchanger. The most
efficient condition for heat transfer is to have the maximum number of tubes in the shell
to increase turbulence. The tube thickness should be enough to withstand the internal
pressure along with the adequate corrosion allowance. The tube thickness is expressed in
terms of BWG (Birmingham Wire Gauge) and true outside diameter (OD). The tube
length of 6, 8, 12, 16, 20 and 24 ft are preferably used. Longer tube reduces shell
diameter at the expense of higher shell pressure drop. Finned tubes are also used when
fluid with low heat transfer coefficient flows in the shell side. Stainless steel, admiralty
brass, copper, bronze and alloys of copper-nickel are the commonly used tube materials:
Tube pitch, tube-layout and tube-count
Tube pitch is the shortest centre to centre distance between the adjacent tubes. The tubes
are generally placed in square or triangular patterns (pitch) as shown in the Figure 1.5.
The widely used tube layouts are illustrated in Table 1.2.
The number of tubes that can be accommodated in a given shell ID is called tube count.
The tube count depends on the factors like shell ID, OD of tube, tube pitch, tube layout,
number of tube passes, type of heat exchanger and design pressure.
Tube passes
The number of passes is chosen to get the required tube side fluid velocity to obtain
greater heat transfer co-efficient and also to reduce scale formation. The tube passes vary
from 1 to 16. The tube passes of 1, 2 and 4 are common in application. The partition built
into exchanger head known as partition plate (also called pass partition) is used to direct
the tube side flow.
Common tube layouts.

Tube OD, in Pitch type Tube pitch, in

34 Square 1
1 11
4
34 Triangular 15
16
34 1

+
+ + +
Flow Flow Flow + +

+ + + + +
Pitch

Pitch Pitch

a). Square b). Triangular c). Rotated square

Heat exchanger tube-layouts.

Tube sheet
The tubes are fixed with tube sheet that form the barrier between the tube and shell fluids.
The tubes can be fixed with the tube sheet using ferrule and a soft metal packing ring.
The tubes are attached to tube sheet with two or more grooves in the tube sheet wall by
„tube rolling‟. The tube metal is forced to move into the grooves forming an excellent
tight seal. This is the most common type of fixing arrangement in large industrial
exchangers. The tube sheet thickness should be greater than the tube outside diameter to
make a good seal. The recommended standards (IS:4503 or TEMA) should be followed
to select the minimum tube sheet thickness.
Baffles
Baffles are used to increase the fluid velocity by diverting the flow across the tube bundle
to obtain higher transfer co-efficient. The distance between adjacent baffles is called
baffle-spacing. The baffle spacing of 0.2 to 1 times of the inside shell diameter is
commonly used. Baffles are held in positioned by means of baffle spacers. Closer baffle
spacing gives greater transfer co-efficient by inducing higher turbulence. The pressure
drop is more with closer baffle spacing. The various types of baffles are shown in Figure
. In case of cut-segmental baffle, a segment (called baffle cut) is removed to form the
baffle expressed as a percentage of the baffle diameter. Baffle cuts from 15 to 45% are
normally used. A baffle cut of 20 to 25% provide a good heat-transfer with the reasonable
pressure drop. The % cut for segmental baffle refers to the cut away height from its
diameter.

Shell

a). Cut-segmental baffle

Shell Doughnut
Disc

b). Disc and doughnut baffle

Baffle
Orifice

c). Orifice baffle

Different type of heat exchanger baffles: a). Cut-segmental baffle, b). Disc and doughnut baffle, c). Orifice baffle
Fouling Considerations
The most of the process fluids in the exchanger foul the heat transfer surface. The
material deposited reduces the effective heat transfer rate due to relatively low thermal
conductivity. Therefore, net heat transfer with clean surface should be higher to
compensate the reduction in performance during operation. Fouling of exchanger
increases the cost of (i) construction due to oversizing, (ii) additional energy due to poor
exchanger performance and (iii) cleaning to remove deposited materials. A spare
exchanger may be considered in design for uninterrupted services to allow cleaning of
exchanger.
The effect of fouling is considered in heat exchanger design by including the tube side
and shell side fouling resistances. Typical values for the fouling coefficients and
resistances are summarized in Table The fouling resistance (fouling factor) for
petroleum fractions are available in the text book ([3]; page 845).
Typical values of fouling coefficients and resistances ([2]; page 640).

Fluid Coefficient (W.m .°C ) Resistance (m2.°C.W-1)

-2 -1

River water 3000-12,000 0.0003-0.0001

Sea water 1000-3000 0.001-0.0003
Cooling water (towers) 3000-6000 0.0003-0.00017
Towns water (soft) 3000-5000 0.0003-0.0002
Towns water (hard) 1000-2000 0.001-0.0005
Steam condensate 1500-5000 0.00067-0.0002
Steam (oil free) 4000- 10,000 0.0025-0.0001
Steam (oil traces) 2000-5000 0.0005-0.0002
Refrigerated brine 3000-5000 0.0003-0.0002
Air and industrial gases 5000-10,000 0.0002-0.000-1
Flue gases 2000-5000 0.0005-0.0002
Organic vapors 5000 0.0002
Organic liquids 5000 0.0002
Light hydrocarbons 5000 0.0002
Heavy hydrocarbons 2000 0.0005
Boiling organics 2500 0.0004
Condensing organics 5000 0.0002
Heat transfer fluids 5000 0.0002
Aqueous salt solutions 3000-5000 0.0003-0.0002
Selection of fluids for tube and the shell side
The routing of the shell side and tube side fluids has considerable effects on the heat
exchanger design. Some general guidelines for positioning the fluids are given in Table
. It should be understood that these guidelines are not ironclad rules and the optimal
fluid placement depends on many factors that are service specific.
Guidelines for placing the fluid in order of priority
Tube-side fluid Shell-side fluid
Corrosive fluid Condensing vapor (unless corrosive)
Cooling water Fluid with large temperature difference (>40°C)
Fouling fluid
Less viscous fluid
High-pressure steam
Hotter fluid
Lecture 17: Process (Thermal) Design Procedure
Process (thermal) design procedure
Shell and tube heat exchanger is designed by trial and error calculations. The main steps
of design following the Kern method are summarized as follows:
Step #1. Obtain the required thermophysical properties of hot and cold fluids at the
caloric temperature or arithmetic mean temperature. Calculate these properties at the
caloric temperature if the variation of viscosity with temperature is large. The detailed
calculation procedure of caloric temperature available is in reference [3] (page 93-99).
Step #2. Perform energy balance and find out the heat duty ( Q ) of the exchanger.
Step #3. Assume a reasonable value of overall heat transfer coefficient (Uo,assm). The
value of Uo,assm with respect to the process hot and cold fluids can be taken from the
books ([3] page 840 Table 8; [4] page 297 Table 8.2.)
Step #4. Decide tentative number of shell and tube passes ( n p ). Determine the LMTD

and the correction factor FT ([3] page 828-833 Figs. 18-23; [4] page 292 Figs. 8.10a &
8.10b). FT normally should be greater than 0.75 for the steady operation of the
exchangers. Otherwise it is required to increase the number of passes to obtain higher F T
values.

Step #5. Calculate heat transfer area (A) required: A  Uo ,assm .LMTD
Q
. FT

Step #6. Select tube material, decide the tube diameter (ID= d i , OD = d o ), its wall
thickness (in terms of BWG or SWG) and tube length ( L ). Calculate the number of tubes
A
( nt ) required to provide the heat transfer area (A): nt 
 d Lo
.
4m(n p / nt )
Calculate tube side fluid velocity, u  2
d i
.
4 m(n p / nt )
If u <1 m/s, fix n p so that, Re  10
4

 di 
.
Where, m,  and  are mass flow rate, density and viscosity of tube side fluid. However,
this is subject to allowable pressure drop in the tube side of the heat exchanger.
Step #7. Decide type of shell and tube exchanger (fixed tubesheet, U-tube etc.). Select
the tube pitch (PT), determine inside shell diameter ( Ds ) that can accommodate the

calculated number of tubes ( nt ). Use the standard tube counts table for this purpose. Tube
counts are available in standard text books ([3] page 841-842 Table 9; [4] page 308
Table 8.3).
Step #9. Assign fluid to shell side or tube side (a general guideline for placing the fluids
is summarized in Table 1.4). Select the type of baffle (segmental, doughnut etc.), its size
(i.e. percentage cut, 25% baffles are widely used), spacing ( B ) and number. The baffle
spacing is usually chosen to be within 0.2 Ds to Ds .

Step #10. Determine the tube side film heat transfer coefficient ( hi ) using the suitable
form of Sieder-Tate equation in laminar and turbulent flow regimes.
Estimate the shell-side film heat transfer coefficient ( ho ) from:
1 0.14

h D  c  3   
jH  o e    
k  k   w 


You may consider,  1.0
w
Select the outside tube (shell side) dirt factor ( Rdo ) and inside tube (tube side) dirt factor

( Rdi ) ([3] page 845 Table 12).

Calculate overall heat transfer coefficient ( U o,cal ) based on the outside tube area (you

may neglect the tube-wall resistance) including dirt factors:

1
1 A  d  di  A0  1  A0 
U o,cal    Rdo  0  0      Rdi 
ho Ai  2kw  Ai  hi  Ai 

U  U o,assm
Step #11. If 0  o,cal  30% , go the next step # 12. Otherwise go to step #5,
U o ,assm

calculate heat transfer area (A) required using U o,cal and repeat the calculations starting

from step #5.

If the calculated shell side heat transfer coefficient ( ho ) is too low, assume closer baffle

spacing ( B ) close to 0.2 Ds and recalculate shell side heat transfer coefficient. However,
this is subject to allowable pressure drop across the heat exchanger.
Step #12. Calculate % overdesign. Overdesign represents extra surface area provided
beyond that required to compensate for fouling. Typical value of 10% or less is
acceptable.
A - Areqd
% Overdesign = 100
Areqd

A = design area of heat transfer in the exchanger; Areqd = required heat transfer area.

Step #13. Calculate the tube-side pressure drop ( PT ): (i) pressure drop in the straight

section of the tube (frictional loss) ( Pt ) and (ii) return loss ( Prt ) due to change of
direction of fluid in a „multi-pass exchanger‟.
Total tube side pressure drop: PT = Pt + Prt

Step #14. Calculate shell side pressure drop ( PS ): (i) pressure drop for flow across the
tube bundle (frictional loss) ( Ps ) and (ii) return loss ( Prs ) due to change of direction of

fluid.
Total shell side pressure drop: PS = Ps + rs

If the tube-side pressure drop exceeds the allowable pressure drop for the process system,
decrease the number of tube passes or increase number of tubes per pass. Go back to step
#6 and repeat the calculations steps.
If the shell-side pressure drop exceeds the allowable pressure drop, go back to step #7
and repeat the calculations steps.
Step #15. Upon fulfillment of pressure drop criteria, go mechanical design.

Design problem
The above design procedure is elaborated through the calculation of the following
example
Lecture 18: Design Problem
Problem Statement:
150000 lb per hour of kerosene will be heated from 75 to 120°F by cooling a gasoline
stream from 160 to 120°F. Inlet pressure will be 50 psia for each stream and the
maximum pressure drop of 7 psi for gasoline and 10 psi for kerosene are permissible.
Published fouling factors for oil refinery streams should be used for this application.
Design a shell and tube heat exchanger for this service.
PART 1: THERMAL DESIGN:
(PART 2: Mechanical design provided in module #2)
Given data:
Hot fluid inlet temperature (T1)= 160°F
Hot fluid outlet temperature (T2) = 120°F
Cold fluid inlet temperature (t1) = 75°F
Cold fluid outlet temperature (t2) = 120°F
Fouling factor of hot fluid (Rdg) = 0.0005 (for gasoline)
Fouling factor of cold fluid (Rdk) = 0.001 (for kerosene)
Pinlet (for hot fluid) = 50 psia
Pinlet (for cold fluid) = 50 psia
∆pmax (for hot fluid) = 7 psi
∆pmax (for cold fluid) = 10 psia
.
Mass flow rate of cold fluid ( m k ) = 150000 lb.h-1
(Subscripts „k’ for kerosene and „g‟ for gasoline)
I. Calculation of caloric temperature

For the calculation of caloric temperature please refer [3] (page 827).
t T t 120  70
r c  2 1  1.25
th T1  t2 160  120
°API of hot fluid=76°; Therefore Kc = 1; Fc = 0.455
(The caloric temperature factor, Fc with °API as a function Kc is available in reference
[3] (page 827).
Caloric temperature of the hot fluid, Thc  T2  FC (T1  T2 )
=120+0.455×(160-120)
=138.2°F
Caloric temperature of the cold fluid, Tcc  t1  FC (t2  t1 )
=75+0.455×(120-75)
=95.475°F
II. Fluid properties at caloric temperature
Viscosity:
76°API gasoline, μg=0.2cp (0.484 lb.ft-1.h-1)
46°API kerosene, μk =1.6 cp (3.872 lb.ft-1.h-1)
Density:
ρg=685 kg.m-3 (42.7 lb.ft-3)
ρk=800 kg.m-3 (49.8 lb.ft-3)
Thermal conductivity:
kg=0.075 Btu h-1ft-1 °F-1
kk=0.083 Btu h-1ft-1 °F-1
Specific heat capacity:
Cg = 0.57 Btu lb-1ft-1
Ck = 0.48 Btu lb-1ft-1
Specific gravity:
Sg = 0.685
Sk = 0.80
III. Energy balance
Assume no heat loss to the surrounding.
. .
Qg  Qk  mk Ck (t2  t1 )  mg Cg (T1  T2 ) =3240000 Btu/h
.
⇒150000×0.48×(120-75)= m g ×0.57×(160-120)
.
⇒ mg = 142105 lb h-1
IV. Calculation of heat transfer area and tube numbers
Iteration #1:
The first iteration is started assuming 1 shell pass and 2 tube pass shell and tube
exchanger with following dimensions and considerations.
 Fixed tube plate
 1´´ OD tubes (do) (14 BWG) on 1¼´´ square pitch (PT)
 Outer diameter of tube= 1´´
 Tube length (Lt) =16´
 Tube ID (di) = 0.834´´
 Fluid arrangement: Kerosene is placed in tube side because it has the higher
fouling tendency
The log mean temperature correction factor (FT) for 1-2 shell and tube exchanger:

= 0.802
T1  T2 160  120 t  t 120  75
where, R    0.889 ; S  2 1   0.529
t2  t1 120  75 T1  t1 160  75

LMTD
T2  T1    t2  t1 
 T  T1 
ln  2 
 t2  t1 


160  120   120  75 
 160  120 
ln  
 120  75 
= 42.75 °F
Determining the heat transfer area (‘A’):
The value of overall heat transfer coefficient (Uo,assm) of 45 Btu h-1ft-2 °F-1 is assumed to
initiate the design calculation for the kerosene and gasoline heat exchanger. The
approximate range of overall heat transfer coefficient depending on the hot and cold fluid
can be found out from text books ([3] page 845).
Q
A
U assm LMTD  FT

.
m g C g T1  T2 

U assm  LMTD  FT
142105  0.57  160  120 

45  42.75  0.802
= 2100 ft2
Calculating no. of tubes (nt):
A
nt 
 d Lo t

2100
nt  = 502
 1 
    16
 12 
n t = 518 is taken corresponding to the closest standard shell ID of 35΄΄ for fixed tube
sheet, 1-shell and 2-tube pass exchanger with 1΄΄ tube OD on 1¼΄΄ square pitch. You
may refer to standard heat transfer books ([3] page 841-842) for the selection of suitable
shell ID.
Check for fluid velocity:
.
4 mk (n p / nt )
Re 
 di 

4  (150000)  2
Re  518
  0.834 12
 3.872

= 2740.2<104
As Re<<104, the design parameters and considerations needs to be revised to meet
the Reynolds number criteria subject to allowable pressure drop in the tube side of
the heat exchanger.
Iteration #2:
Assumptions:
 Fixed tube plate type
 1΄΄ OD tubes (14 BWG) on 1¼΄΄ square pitch (PT)
 Tube length (Lt) = 24΄ (the tube length is increased from 16΄)
 1 shell pass-6 tube pass (tube passes is increased to 6 from 2)

Tube ID=0.834΄΄

Flow area per tube=0.546 inch2
No. of tubes:
A
nt 
 do Lt
2100
nt  =335
 1 
     24
 12 
n t = 368 is taken corresponding to the closest standard shell ID of 31΄΄ for fixed tube
sheet, 1-shell and 6-tube pass exchanger with 1΄΄ tube OD on 1¼΄΄ square pitch. The
tube-counts are available in heat transfer text book ([3] Table 9 & 10 page 841-843).
Fluid velocity:
.
4 mk (n p / nt )
Re 
  di

4  (150000)  6
Re  368
  0.83412  3.872

= 11571.4>104 corresponding to np=6.

Re k
u
di  k

11571.4  3.872

0.834  49.8
12
= 12945.15 ft/h (3.59 ft/s)
= 1.04 m/s (so the design velocity is within the acceptable range).
V. Determination of heat transfer co-efficient
Tube side heat transfer co-efficient (hi):
1 0.14
hd  C  3  
jH  i i  k k   
k  kk   w 

jH=42 for the tube side fluid at Re=11571.4 ([3] page 834)

(Let‟s consider t  = 1,  = viscosity of the tube side fluid;  w = viscosity of tube
w
side fluid at wall temperature)

42 

hi 0.834
12  1
 0.48  3.872  3
 
0.083  0.083 
hi= 141.3 Btu h-1ft-1 oF-1
Shell side heat transfer co-efficient (ho):
Assumptions:
 25% cut segmental baffles
 Baffles spacing, B= 0.5DS=15.5΄΄ (half of the shell ID is selected)
  
4  PT 2  do 2 
Equivalent diameter for the shell side: De    for square pitch
4
 do
=0.082 ft
 1 1  2 
 4  PT  0.86 PT  do  
 For triangular pitch, De  2 24 
 1
 do 
 2 

CBDS
Shell side cross flow area, as 
PT
C= Tube clearance
=PT - do
=1¼ -1=0.25″
  0.25  15.5  31 
   
as   12  12  12 
=0.675 ft2
 1.25 
 
 12 
.
mg 142105
Mass velocity, GS  
as 0.675
=210526 lb. h-1.ft-2
DeGS
Re 
g

0.082   210526 

0.484
=35668
1/ 3 0.14
h D  C    
Now for the shell side, jH  o e  g g   
kg  kg   w 

jH=110 for the shell side fluid at Re=35668 with 25% cut segmental baffles ([3] page

838)
1/ 3
h (0.082)  0.57  0.484 
110  0  
(0.075)  0.075 

( s  = 1 is considered for the shell side fluid)
w

ho=155.3 Btu h-1 ft-2 °F-1

Overall heat transfer co-efficient ( U o,cal ):

Fouling factor, Rdk=0.001 h ft2 °F Btu-1 for kerosene and Rdg= 0.0005 h ft2 °F Btu-1 for
gasoline is taken for this service.
1
1 A  d  di  A0  1  A0 
U o,cal    Rdg  0  0      Rdk 
ho Ai  2kw  Ai  hi  Ai 


Let select, Admirality brass as tube material with thermal conductivity, kw=70 Btu h-1 ft-1
°F-1.
1
  1 0.834  
 1  (1)2  12  12   (1)2  1   (1) 2 
U o,cal   0.0005  2   2    0.001
155.3  (0.834)  2  70   (0.834)  141.3   (0.834) 2

   

U o,cal  53.5 Btu h-1 ft-2 °F-1

U o ,cal  U o ,assm 53.5  45

 100
Now, U o ,assm 45
 18.9%  30%
Therefore, the calculated overall heat transfer co-efficient is well within the design
criteria.
VI. Pressure drop calculation
VI.1. Tube side pressure drop:
Friction factor f  0.00028 144  0.04032 ft2/ft2 for Re=11571.4 ([3] page 836]

at = (no. of tubes)×(flow area per tube)/(no. of passes)

368  0.546 2
 ft
6 144
=0.232 ft2
m k 150000
Tube side mass velocity: Gt  
at 0.232
=646552 lb. h-1.ft-2
 fGt 2 Lt n p
Frictional pressure drop: Pt 
7.5 1012  di Skt

0.04032  6465522  24  6

0.834
7.5 1012   0.8 1
12
=5.81 psi
Return loss Prt : (due to change in flow direction of the tube side fluid)

Gt 2
ptr  1.334 1013  2n p  1.5
Sk

 646552 
2

 1.334 10 13

 2  6  1.5
 0.8
=0.73 psi
Total tube side drop neglecting nozzle loss:
PT  Pt  Ptr
=5.81+0.73
=6.54 psi<10 psi
Therefore the tube side pressure drop is within the maximum allowable pressure
drop of 10 psi.
VI.2. Shell side pressure drop calculation
Tube clearance, C=0.25″
Spacing, B=15.5″
as  0.675 ft2

Mass velocity, GS  210526 lb. h-1.ft-2

Re=35668
tube length 24
No of baffles, nb  =  18.6  19
baffle spacing 15.5/12
Friction factor, f  0.0017 144  0.2448 ft2/ft2 with 25% cut segmental baffles ([3]
page 839)
Shell side frictional pressure drop Ps :

fGs 2 DS  nb  1
Ps 
7.5 1012  De Skk

31
0.2376  2105262  19  1 
 12
7.5 1012  0.082  0.685 1
=1.4 psi <7 psi

Prs  0 (in case of single shell pass flow)

Total shell side drop neglecting nozzle loss:
PS  Ps  Psr =1.4 psi
Therefore the shell side pressure drop is within the maximum allowable pressure
drop of 7 psi.
VII. Over surface and over design
U C  U o ,cal
Over surface =
UC
ho  hio
The clean overall heat fransfer co-efficient: U C 
ho  hio
di
hio  hi  =141.3×0.834=117.8 Btu h -1 ft-2 °F-1
do

U C =66.98 Btu h -1 ft-2 °F-1

66.98  53.5
% Over surface = 100
66.98
=20% (acceptable)
Over design:
A - Areqd
% Overdesign = 100
Areqd

The design area of heat transfer in the exchanger ( nt =318):

1
A   do Lt nt =π× ×24×368=2312 ft2
12
The required heat transfer area (where, nt =335):

1
Areqd   do Lt nt = π× ×24×335=2105 ft2
12
% Overdesign =9.8% which is within the acceptable limit.

PROCESS DESIGN OF SHELL AND TUBE EXCHANGER

FOR TWO PHASE HEAT TRANSFER
Condenser
The change from liquid phase to vapor phase is called vaporization and the reverse phase
transfer is condensation. The change from liquid to vapor or vapor to liquid occurs at one
temperature (called saturation or equilibrium temperature) for a pure fluid compound at a
given pressure. The industrial practice of vaporization and condensation occurs at almost
constant pressure; therefore the phase change occurs isothermally.
Condensation occurs by two different physical mechanisms i.e. drop-wise condensation
and film condensation.
The nature of the condensation depends upon whether the condensate (liquid formed
from vapor) wets or does not wet the solid surface. If the condensate wets the surface and
flows on the surface in the form of a film, it is called film condensation. When the
condensate does not wet the solid surface and the condensate is accumulated in the form
of droplets, is drop-wise condensation. Heat transfer coefficient is about 4 to 8 times
higher for drop wise condensation. The condensate forms a liquid film on the bare-
surface in case of film condensation. The heat transfer coefficient is lower for film
condensation due to the resistance of this liquid film.
Dropwise condensation occurs usually on new, clean and polished surfaces. The heat
exchanger used for condensation is called condenser. In industrial condensers, film
condensation normally occurs.
Types of condensers
There two general types of condensers:
i. Vertical condenser
Downflow vertical condenser: The vapor enters at the top of condenser and flows
down inside tubes. The condensate drains from the tubes by gravity and vapor
induced shear
Upflow vertical condenser: In case of upflow condenser, the vapor enters at the
bottom and flows upwards inside the tubes. The condensate drains down the tubes
by gravity only.
ii. Horizontal condenser: The condensation may occur inside or outside the
horizontal tubes Condensation in the tube-side is common in air-cooled
condensers. The main disadvantage of this type of condenser is that the liquid
tends to build up in the tubes. Therefore the effective heat transfer co-
efficient is reduced significantly.
Downflow vertical condenser with condensation inside tube [5].
 Horizontal condenser with condensation outside horizontal tubes [5].

Condenser design
The design of condenser is similar to a typical shell and tube exchangers. A condenser
must have a vent for removal of non-condensable gas. The non-condensable gas
decreases the heat transfer rate. Condenser usually use a wider baffle spacing of
B  D s (ID of shell) as the allowable pressure drop in shell side vapor is usually less.
Vertical cut-segmental baffles are generally used in condensers for side-to-side vapor
flow and not for top to bottom. An opening at the bottom of the baffles is provided to
allow draining of condensate.
Mean temperature difference
The condensation occurs almost at a fixed temperature (isothermally) at constant pressure
for a pure saturated vapor compound. The logarithmic mean temperature difference can
be used for condenser design. No correction factor for multiple pass condensers is
required. The logarithmic mean temperature difference:
(Tsat  t1 )  (Tsat  t2 ) (t2  t1 )
LMTD  
(T  t ) (T  t )
ln sat 1 ln sat 1
(Tsat  t2 ) (Tsat  t2 )

Where, Tsat= Saturation vapor temperature

t1 = Coolant inlet temperature
t2 = Coolant outlet temperature
 Calculation of heat transfer co-efficient during condensation
Calculation of tube side heat transfer co-efficient (hi): The calculation of heat transfer
co-efficient for the cold fluid (coolant) can be performed similarly as discussed in design
of shell and tube heat exchanger (heat transfer without phase change). Here it is assumed
that the coolant flows the in tube side and the condensing saturated vapor flows in the
shell side. If the condensation occurs in the tube side, follow the procedure discussed in
next section for shell side calculation.
Calculation of shell-side heat transfer coefficient (condensing film heat transfer
coefficient) (ho): The Kern method is discussed here to calculate the individual heat
transfer co-efficient of the condensing fluid by trial and error calculation.
i. Assume, ho ( assm ) in the range from 100 to 300 BTU.h-1.ft-2.°F-1. The film

coefficient of condensing hydrocarbons generally varies in this range. Air-free

condensing steam has a coefficient of 1500 BTU.h-1.ft-2.°F-1.
ii. Calculate the tube wall temperature ( Tw ):

ho (Tv  TC ( avg ) )
Tw  TC ( avg ) 
(hio  ho )

or
ho (Tv  Tcc )
Tw  Tcc 
(hio  ho )

di
Where, hio  hi  ( d i tube ID and d o tube OD)
dio

TC ( avg ) = Average temperature of the cold fluid

Tcc =Caloric temperature of the cold fluid

(Tw  Tv )
iii. Calculate condensate film temperature, T f 
2
Tv =Condensation temperature (For pure fluid compound Tv is the saturation temperature.
Average of condensation over a temperature range also can be used for non-isothermal
condensation).
iv. Calculate all thermophysical property of the condensing fluid at film temperature
( T f ).

v. Recalculate, ho ( cal ) from jH factor.

Now again set, ho ( assm)  ho (cal ) and continue the calculation till ho ( assm)  ho (cal ) .

vi. Calculate the overall heat transfer-coefficient ( U d ) including the dirt factors.
Lecture 19: Condenser and Reboiler Design
Pressure drop calculation
i. Tube side pressure drop
In case of tube side condensation:
For condensation in the tube side by taking one-half of the conventional pressure drop
relation can be used.

1 fGt 2 Lt n p 
Pt  , psi 
2  7.5 1012  di Stt  
Where,
f = friction factor
Gt =mass velocity [lb. h-1.ft-2]
Lt =Tube length [ft]
n p =Number of tube passes
d i =Tube ID [ft]
St =Specific gravity of the tube side fluid
t =Viscosity correction factor

( t  = 1,  = viscosity of the tube side fluid;  w = viscosity of water)
w
ii. Shell side pressure drop
In case of shell side condensation: Similarly for condensation in the shell side:

1  fG D  n  1 
2

Ps  , psi s 12S b 

2 7.5 10  De S ss  
Subscript „s‟ indicates shell side fluid.
nb = number of baffles

De = Equivalent diameter for the shell [ft]

Calculate all fluid property at film temperature T f . No return loss calculation is

required for the condensing fluid.

In case of non-condensing fluid (single phase flow), use the conventional pressure
drop relation.
De-superheating and sub-cooling
De-superheating is different from condensation of a saturated vapor. The sensible heat
should be removed first to de-superheat the vapor to obtain the saturated vapor. Similarly,
the saturated liquid is to be further cooled down (sub-cooled) by extracting sensible heat
below the boiling point. The temperature profile is shown for the
condensation of superheated vapor to obtain the sub-cooled liquid from the same
exchanger. The mean temperature difference and heat transfer coefficient should be
calculated individually for each section if the degree of superheat/ sub-cool is large. The
weighted mean temperature difference and overall transfer co-efficient can be used to
design the condensers if heat load due to sensible heat transfer in each unit about 25% of
latent heat transfer. Otherwise, it is convenient to design separate de-superheater and sub-
cooling exchangers. The calculations for detail study can be found out in reference [3]
(page 283-285).

Tsuperheat

Tsat
Temperature

Tsub-cool

Desuper


Condensation Sub-
-heating cooling

LMTDdesuperh LMTDcondensatio LMTDsubcooli

eat n ng
Heat transfer 

Condensation with de-superheating and sub-cooling [2].

Practice problem:
Design a horizontal condenser for the condensation of 45,000 lb/h of almost pure normal
propyl alcohol available at 15 psig. At this pressure, the boiling point of n-propyl alcohol
is 244°F. Water available in the temperature range of 95 to 120°F can be as the coolant.
The maximum pressure drop of 2 psi and 10 psi is permissible for the vapor phase and
water respectively.
Reboilers
Classification of reboilers
There are three major types of reboilers:
i. Thermosyphon natural circulation reboiler: The boiling occurs inside the tubes
in vertical thermosyphon reboiler and inside shell in horizontal thermosyphon
reboiler (Figure 1.10). In vertical thermosyphon reboiler, the liquid circulation
occurs due to density difference between vapor-liquid mixture (two phase) in the
exchanger from the reboiler and the liquid through the downcomer to the reboiler.
Advantages: most economical because no pump is required.
Limitations: not suitable for heavily viscous fluid; high construction cost for the
installation of the column base at suitable elevation to get thermosyphon effect;
not suitable for low temperature difference processes due to boiling point
elevation imposed by static head.

Thermosyphon reboiler [5]. (a) Horizontal thermosyphon reboiler. (b) Vertical thermosyphon reboiler
ii. Forced circulation reboiler: The liquid is fed by means of a pump. Forced
circulation reboilers with vertical or horizontal tubes boiling may be designed.
Forced circulation reboilers are similar to vertical thermosiphon reboilers, except
the pump is used for the circulation of the liquid and the hot liquid flows inside
column. To calculate the heat transfer coefficient it is generally assumed that, heat
is transferred only by forced convection. The usual method of shell and tube
exchanger design can be used.
Advantage: suitable for viscous and highly fouling fluids.
Disadvantage: high pumping and maintenance cost; pump is required to circulate
the boiling liquid through the tubes and back into the column.
iii. Kettle reboiler: The tube bundle is immerged in a pool of liquid at the base of the
column in an oversize shell . Kettle reboiler is also called a “submerged
bundle reboiler”. The height of the tube bundle is usually 40-60% of the shell ID.
The submergence of the tube bundle is assured by an overflow weir at height of
typically 5-15 cm from the upper surface of topmost tubes. Advantage: suitable
for vacuum operation and high vaporization rate up to about 80% of the feed.
Limitations: low heat transfer rate than other types as there is no liquid circulation
(low velocity); not appropriate for fouling fluids; kettle reboiler is not suitable for
heat sensitive materials as it has higher residence time.
The bundle diameter Db, can be obtained from the empirical equation ([2] page
647-649 ):

1/ n1
n 
Db  do  t 
 K1 
where, Db = bundle diameter [mm], nt = number of tubes, d o = tube outside

diameter [mm]. The values of the constants K1 and n1 are in Table .

 . Constants used to calculate the tube bundle diameter.

Pitch type Constants Number of tube passes ( nt )

1 2 4 6 8
Triangular K1 0.319 0.249 0.175 0.0743 0.0365
( PT  1.25do ) n1 2.142 2.207 2.285 2.499 2.675
Square K1 0.215 0.156 0.158 0.0402 0.0331
( PT  1.25do ) n1 2.207 2.291 2.263 2.617 2.643

Kettle type reboiler [1].

Design of kettle reboiler

The Kern method for designing of Kettle reboiler for isothermal boiling is summarized
below. It is assumed that the degree of sub-cooling and super-heating of the cold fluid is
negligible i.e. vaporization of close boiling compounds with negligible super-heating of
vapors formed.
i. Make energy balance and determine the heat duty.
ii. Calculate of fluid property at the caloric temperature (or at arithmetic mean
temperature) as already shown.
iii. Follow the same guideline and design requirements for shell containing the
vaporing liquid.
iv. Calculation of heat transfer co-efficient
Calculation of individual heat transfer co-efficient hot fluid: The calculation
of heat transfer co-efficient of the hot fluid can be performed similarly as in case
of design of shell and tube heat exchanger for single phase.
Calculation of individual heat transfer coefficient of the boiling liquid: The
Kern method is discussed here to calculate the individual heat transfer co-efficient
of the boiling liquid by trial and error procedure.
Kern [2] recommends that the maximum allowable vaporizing film coefficients:
- 300 Btu/h.ft2 °F for natural or forced circulation vaporizing organics.
- 1000 Btu/h.ft2 °F for natural or forced circulation vaporizing aqueous solution
of low concentration.
The maximum allowable heat flux:
- 20000 Btu/(h)ft2) for forced circulation reboilers and 12000 Btu/(h)ft2) for
natural circulation reboilers vaporizing organics.

- 30000 Btu/(h)ft2) for both forced or natural circulation reboilers vaporizing

aqueous solution.
Assume that h(assm) = 300 Btu/h.ft2 °F for organics or 1000 Btu/h.ft2 °F for water.
With this assumed value, calculate the tube wall temperature ( Tw ):

hio (Thc  Th ( avg ) )

Tw  Th ( avg ) 
(hio  ho )

di
Where, hio  hi  ( d i tube ID and d o tube OD)
dio

Th ( avg ) = Average temperature of the hot fluid

Thc =Caloric temperature of the hot fluid

Now, re-determine hcal (latent heat transfer) from the Figure corresponding
to (Tw  t ) . ( t is the cold fluid boiling temperature).

Continue the calculation till, hcal  h( assm ) .

If the calculated hcal is greater than the maximum heat transfer co-efficient of 300

Btu/h.ft2 °F for organics and 1000 Btu/h.ft2 °F for water, take hcal = 300 Btu/h.ft2

°F for organics and hcal =1000 Btu/h.ft2 °F for water.

Calculate the overall heat transfer-coefficient ( U d ) including the dirt factors.

 1000
Heat transfer co-efficient (h), Btu/(hr)(ft )( F)
Maximum for water
o

500
2

Maximum for organics

r
s fe
an
t tr

100
ea
th

c t io n
te n

e
e d conv
c
La

fo r
n s f er by
a t tr a
ib le h e
Sens

20
4 10 50 100 200
o
(Tw-t), F
Temperature difference between tube wall and boiling liquid
. Natural circulation boiling and sensible heat transfer [3].

v. Decide type of exchanger i.e. fixed tube sheet or U- shell (use U-tube reboiler for
large temperature difference), tube size (diameter, length, tube pitch), layout,
effective tube length. A tube pitch of between 1.5 to 2 times the tubes OD should
be used to avoid vapor blanketing.
Q A
vi. Calculate exchanger area ( A  ) and number of tubes ( nt  ).
U d ( LMTD)  do Lt
The number of tubes should be calculated based on the effective tube length for
U-tube reboilers. The effective tube length is less than physical tube length due to
U-bend.
Q
vii. Calculate the heat flux= [Btu/(h.ft2)]. This value should be less than the
A
maximum heat flux of 20000 Btu/(h)ft2) for forced circulation reboilers
vaporizing organics and 30000 Btu/(h)ft2) for both forced or natural circulation
 reboilers vaporizing aqueous solution. Otherwise, go to step # v, repeat the
calculation until within the allowable limits.
viii. Check for allowable vapor velocity ( uv ) ([3] page 749):

The maximum vapor velocity uv (m/s) at the liquid surface should be less than
that given by the expression below to avoid too much entrainment.
1/ 2
   v 
uv  0.2  l 
 v 

where, l = liquid density and, l = vapor density

If this criterion is not satisfied, go to step # v and revise the calculation.
ix. Pressure drop calculation
Tube side pressure drop (hot fluid): The pressure drop calculation of the hot fluid
can be carried out as already presented.
Shell side pressure drop (vaporizing liquid): There will be negligible hydrostatic
head for the flow of liquid from the column to reboilers (low circulation velocity) if
the liquid level above the tube bundle is not too high. Therefore, shell side pressure
drop may be considered negligible.
x. Calculate over surface and over design
xi. Go for mechanical design
Design problem:
Gasoline (65°API gravity) flow rate of 60,000 lb/h with a small boiling range at 400°F is
to be vaporized to form 37,050 lb/h vapor at an operating pressure of 200 psig. Use gas
oil (30°API gravity) in the temperature range from 600 to 500°F at 120 psig operating
pressure as the heating medium. A tube side pressure drop of 10 psi is allowable. Design
a suitable Kettle reboiler to serve the purpose.
DESIGN OF EVAPORATOR: INTRODUCTION, TYPES OF EVAPORATORS, METHODS OF
FEEDING OF EVAPORATORS, GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATION OF EVAPORATOR
Lecture 20: Introduction and Evaporator
Classifications
INTRODUCTION
Evaporation is the removal of solvent as vapor from a solution, slurry or suspension
of solid in a liquid. The aim is to concentrate a non-volatile solute, such as organic
compounds, inorganic salts, acids or bases from a solvent. Common solutes are
caustic soda, caustic potash, sodium sulfate, sodium chloride, phosphoric acid, and
urea. The most common solvent in most of the evaporation systems is water.
Evaporation differs from the other mass transfer operations such as distillation and
drying. In distillation, the components of a solution are separated depending upon
their distribution between vapor and liquid phases based on the difference of relative
volatility of the substances. Removal of moisture from a substance in presence of a
hot gas stream to carry away the moisture leaving a solid residue as the product is
generally called drying. Evaporation is normally stopped before the solute starts to
precipitate in the operation of an evaporator.
Invention of evaporators: Norbert Rillieux is famous for his invention of the
multiple effect pan evaporator for sugar refining process in 1881. Rillieux was born in
New Orleans, Louisiana in 1806. He used the steam generated from one pan to heat
the sugar juice in the next pan for energy efficient means of water evaporation.

TYPE OF EVAPORATORS
Evaporator consists of a heat exchanger for boiling the solution with special
provisions for separation of liquid and vapor phases. Most of the industrial
evaporators have tubular heating surfaces. The tubes may be horizontal or vertical,
long or short; the liquid may be inside or outside the tubes.
Short-Tube Vertical Evaporators
Short-tube vertical evaporators are the oldest but still widely used in sugar industry
in evaporation of cane-sugar juice. These are also known as calandria or Robert
evaporators. This evaporator was first built by Robert. It became so common in
process industry that this evaporator is sometimes known as standard evaporator.
Short-tube vertical evaporators consist of a short tube bundle (about 4 to 10 ft in
length) enclosed in a cylindrical shell. This is called calandria. A evaporator of this
type is shown in Figure . The feed is introduced above the upper tube sheet and
steam is introduced to the shell or steam chest of the calandria. The solution is heated
and partly vaporized in the tubes.
The central tube in a calandria is of longer diameter. Typically it’s downcomer area is
taken as 40 to 70% of the total cross sectional area of tubes. The circulation rate
through the downcomer/downtake is many times the feed rate. The flow area of the
downtake is normally approximately equal to the total tubular flow area.

Calandria type evaporator.

Basket-type Vertical Evaporators

The construction and operational features of basket-type evaporators are very similar
to those of the standard evaporator except that the downtake is annular. The tube
bundle with fixed tube sheets forms a basket hung in the centre of the evaporator from
internal brackets. The diameter of the tube bundle is smaller than the diameter of
evaporator vessel, thus forming an annular space for circulation of liquid. The tube
bundle can be removed for the purpose of cleaning and maintenance and thus basket
evaporators are more suitable than standard evaporators for scale forming solutions.
The vapor generated strikes a deflector plate fixed close to the steam pipe that reduces
entrained liquid droplets from the vapor.
 Long-Tube Vertical Evaporators
This is another most widely employed natural circulation evaporator because it is
often the cheapest per unit of capacity. The long vertical tube bundle is fixed with a
shell that extends into a larger diameter vapor chamber at the top . The long-tube
vertical (LTV) evaporator consists of one pass shell and tube heat
exchanger. In this type of evaporator, the liquid flows as a thin film on the walls of
long (from 12 to 30 feet in length) and vertical heated tube. Both rising film and
falling types are used. Tube length usually varies from 20 to 65 ft. The main
advantage of this type of evaporators is higher heat transfer rate. The feed enters at the
bottom and the liquid starts boiling at lower part of the tube. The LTV evaporators are
commonly used in concentrating black liquors in the paper and pulp industries.

Long-Tube Vertical Evaporators.

 Falling Film Evaporators
In a falling film evaporator, the liquid is fed at the top of the tubes in a vertical tube
bundle. The liquid is allowed to flow down through the inner wall of the tubes as a
film. As the liquid travels down the tubes the solvent vaporizes and the concentration
gradually increases. Vapor and liquid are usually separated at the bottom of the tubes
and the thick liquor is taken out. Evaporator liquid is recirculated through the tubes by
a pump below the vapor-liquid separator. This type of evaporator is illustrated in
Figure . The distribution of liquid in the inner wall of the tubes greatly affects the
performance of this type of evaporator.
The falling film evaporator is largely used for concentration of fruit juices and heat
sensitive materials because of the low holdup time. The device is suitable for scale-
forming solutions as boiling occur on the surface of the film.

Falling-film evaporator.
 Rising or Climbing Film Evaporators
The LTV evaporator is frequently called a rising or climbing film evaporator. The
liquid starts boiling at the lower part of the tube and the liquid and vapor flow upward
through the tube. If the heat transfer rate is significantly higher, the ascending flows
generated due to higher specific volume of the vapor-liquid mixture, causes liquid and
vapor to flow upwards in parallel flow. The liquid flows as a thin film along the tube
wall. This co-current upward movement against gravity has the advantageous effect
of creating a high degree of turbulence in the liquid. This is useful during evaporation
of highly viscous and fouling solutions.
Forced Circulation Evaporators
Forced circulation evaporators are usually more costly than natural circulation
evaporators. However the natural circulation evaporators are not suitable under some
situations such as:
- highly viscous solutions due to low heat transfer coefficient
- solution containing suspended particles
- for heat sensitive materials
All these problems may be overcome when the liquid is circulated at high velocity
through the heat exchanger tubes to enhance the heat transfer rate and inhibit particle
deposition. Any evaporator that uses pump to ensure higher circulation velocity is
called a forced circulation evaporator. The main components of a forced circulation
evaporator are a tubular shell and tube heat exchanger (either horizontal or vertical), a
flash chamber (separator) mounted above the heat exchanger and a circulating pump
. The solution is heated in the heat exchanger without boiling and the superheated
solution flashes off (partially evaporated) at a lower pressure are reduced in the flash
chamber. The pump pumps feed and liquor from the flash chamber and forces it
through the heat exchanger tubes back to the flash chamber.
Forced circulation evaporator is commonly used for concentration of caustic and brine
solutions and also in evaporation of corrosive solution.

Vertical tube forced-circulation evaporator.

 Agitated Thin Film Evaporator
Agitated thin film evaporator consists of a vertical steam-jacketed cylinder and the
feed solution flows down as a film along the inner surface of large diameter jacket
(Figure 3.5). Liquid is distributed on the tube wall by a rotating assembly of blades
mounted on shaft placed coaxially with the inner tube. The blades maintain a close
clearance of around 1.5 mm or less from the inner tube wall.
The main advantage is that rotating blades permits handling of extremely viscous
solutions. The device is suitable to concentrate solutions having viscosity as high as
up to 100 P.

Agitated thin-film evaporator.

 Gasketed Plate Evaporator
The gasketed-plate evaporator is also called the plate evaporator because the design is
similar to that of a plate heat exchanger. A number of embossed plates with four
corner openings are mounted by an upper and a bottom carrying bar. The gasket is
placed at the periphery of the plates. The interfering gaskets of two adjacent plates
prevent the mixing of the fluids and lead the fluid to the respective flow path through
the corner opening . The fluids may either flow in series or parallel depending
on the gasket arrangement.
The heat transfer coefficient is greatly enhanced due to high turbulent flow through
narrow passages. This evaporator is suitable for high viscous, fouling, foaming and
heat sensitive solutions.
This type of evaporators is mainly used for concentration of food products,
pharmaceuticals, emulsions, glue, etc.
Plate-evaporator.
Lecture 21: Methods of Feeding of Evaporators
METHODS OF FEEDING OF EVAPORATORS
Evaporators are classified by the number of effects. In case of a single-effect
evaporator, the vapor from the boiling liquor is condensed and the concentrated
product is withdrawn from the bottom of the evaporator. Although the operation is
simple, the device does not use steam efficiently. Typically 1.1 to 1.3 kg of steam is
required to evaporate 1 kg of water.
The steam consumption per unit mass of water evaporated can be increased by putting
more than one evaporator in series such that the vapor from one evaporator is used in
the second evaporator for heating. The vapor from the second evaporator is condensed
and the arrangement is called double-effect evaporators. The heat from the vapor
generated in the first evaporator is used in the second evaporator. Evaporation of
water is nearly doubled in double effect evaporation system compared to single effect
per unit mass of steam used. Additional effects can be added in series in the same way
to get a triple-effect evaporator, quadruple-effect evaporator and so on. There are
several configurations based on feeding arrangement.
Forward feed
The typical feeding method of multi-effect evaporators is forward. Both feed and
steam are introduced in the first effect and the feed passed from effect to effect
parallel to the vapor from the earlier effect. Concentration increases from the first
effect to the last. Forward feeding operation is helpful when the concentrated product
may degenerate if exposed to high temperature. The product is withdrawn from the
last effect. It requires a pump for feeding of dilute solution to the first effect. A pump
removes thick liquor from the last effect. The liquid from one effect to the next effect
also can be transferred without a pump as the flow occurs in the direction of
decreasing pressure. The arrangement of forward feeding is shown
Backward feed
In backward feed configuration, the feed enters at the last effect (coldest effect) and is
pumped through the successive effects. The product is withdrawn from the first effect
(hottest) where the steam is introduced . This method of feeding requires a
pump between each pair of effects to transfer liquid from lower pressure effects to
higher pressure effects. It is advantageous when cold feed entering needs to
be heated to a lower temperature than in forward feed operation. Backward feed is
commonly used when products are viscous and exposure to higher temperature
increases the rate of heat transfer due to reduction in viscosity of the liquid.
Mixed feed
In the mixed feed operation, the dilute feed liquid enters at an intermediate effect and
flows in the next higher effect till it reaches the last effect of the series. In this section,
liquid flows in the forward feed mode. Partly concentrated liquor is then pumped back
to the effect before the one to which the fresh feed was introduced for further
concentration as shown . Mixed feed arrangement eliminates some of the pumps
needed in backward configuration as flow occurs due to pressure
difference whenever applicable.
Parallel feed
The fresh feed is introduced to each effect and in this configuration the product is
withdrawn of from the same effect in parallel feed operation (Figure 3.7d). In parallel
feeding, there is no transfer of liquid from one effect to another effect. It is used
primarily when the feed is saturated and the product is solid containing slurry. This is
most common in crystallizing evaporators.

Vapor to

I II III Condenser
IV
Steam

Condensate
Thick
Feed
 Vapor to
I II III Condenser
IV
Steam

Condensate

Feed
Thick
Liquor

Vapor to
I II III Condenser
IV
Steam

Condensate

Thick Feed
Liquor
 Vapor to
I II III Condenser
IV
Steam

Condensate

Feed Feed Feed Feed

Thick Thick Thick Thick
Liquor Liquor Liquor

. Methods of feeding of evaporator: a: forward feed; b: backward feed; c: mixed feed; d: parallel feed.

PERFORMANCE OF EVAPORATORS (CAPACITY

AND ECONOMY)
The performance of a steam-heated evaporator is measured in terms of its capacity
and economy. Capacity is defined as the number of kilogram of water vaporized per
hour. Economy (or steam economy) is the number kilogram of water vaporized from
all the effects per kilogram of steam used. For single effect evaporator, the steam
economy is about 0.8 (<1). The capacity is about n-times that of a single effect
evaporator and the economy is about 0.8n for a n-effect evaporators. However,
pumps, interconnecting pipes and valves are required for transfer of liquid from one
effect to another effect that increases both equipment and operating costs.

THERMAL/ POCESS DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Many factors must be carefully considered when designing evaporators. The type of
evaporator or heat exchangers, forced or natural circulation, feeding arrangement,
boiling point elevation, heat transfer coefficient, fouling, tube size and arrangement
are all very important.
Types of evaporators have already been discussed and the guidelines for selection of
most suitable evaporator are addressed in the next section.
 Tube size, arrangement and materials
The selection of suitable tube diameter, tube length and tube –layout is determined by
trial and error calculations. The details are discussed in design of shell and tube heat
exchangers . If the pressure drop is more than the allowable pressure drop further
adjustments in tube diameter, tube length and tube-layout is required.
A variety of materials including low carbon steel, stainless steel, brass, copper,
cupronickel etc. are used. However the selection of tube materials depends on the
corrosiveness of the solution and working conditions.
Heat transfer coefficients
The heat transfer coefficient of condensing steam in shell side is normally very high
compared to the liquid side. Therefore tube side (liquid side) heat transfer coefficient
practically controls the rate of heat transfer.
The overall heat transfer coefficient should be either known/ calculated from the
performance data of an operating evaporator of the same type and processing the
same solution. Typical values of overall heat transfer coefficient are given in Table

Typical overall heat transfer coefficients in evaporators ([2] page 388).

Overall heat transfer coefficient

Type of evaporator
W.m-2°C-1 Btu.ft-2h-1°F-1
Long-tube vertical evaporator
Natural circulation 1000-2700 200-550
Forced circulation 2000-7500 400-1500
Short-tube vertical or calandria evaporators 750-2500 150-500
Agitated-film evaporators
Low to medium viscosity (<1 P) 1800-2700 300-500
High viscosity (> 1P) 1500 300
Falling film evaporators (viscosity <0.1 P) 500-2500 100-500
Rising film evaporators 2000-5000 100-1000
 Boiling point elevation (BPE)
Most evaporators produce concentrated liquor having a boiling point considerably
higher than that of pure solvent (or water). This phenomenon is called boiling point
elevation (BPE). BPE occurs as the vapor pressure of a solution (usually aqueous
solution) is less than that of pure solvent at the same temperature. Boiling point of a
solution is a colligative property. It depends on the concentration of solute in the
solution for a pair of solute and solvent.
BPE of the concentrated liquor reduces the effective temperature driving force
compared to the boiling of pure solvent. Equilibrium vapor generated from a solution
exhibiting boiling point elevation is superheated with respect to vapor generated
during boiling of pure solvent. The vapor is generated at the solution boiling point,
which is higher than the pure component boiling point. The vapor, however, is solute
free, so it won’t condense until the extra heat corresponding to the elevation is
removed, thus it is superheated. Therefore the BPE of the concentrated solution must
be known for evaporator design.
Determination of BPE: For strong solutions, the BPE data is estimated from an
empirical rule known as Dühring rule. This states that the boiling point of a given
solution is a linear function of the boiling point of pure water at the same pressure.
Thus if the boiling point of the solution is plotted against the corresponding boiling
point of pure water at the same pressure, a straight line is generated. Different lines
are obtained if such plots made for solution of different concentrations. The main
advantage is that a Dühring lines can be drawn if boiling points of a solution and
water (read from steam table) at two different pressures are known. This line can be
used to predict boiling point of a solution at any pressure. A Dühring plot for the
NaOH-water system can be found in heat transfer text books ([1] (page 472) and [2]
(page 386).
 Selection of suitable evaporator
The selection of the most suitable evaporator type depends on a number of factors.
Mainly these are: (i) throughput, (ii) viscosity of the solution (and its increase during
evaporation), (iii) nature of the product and solvent (such as heat sensitivity and
corrosiveness), (iv) fouling characteristics and, (v) foaming characteristics. A
selection guidelines based on these factors is given in Figure
Feed condition
Suitable
Viscosity, cP
for
Evaporator Medium Scaling Solids
High Low Crystals heat
type viscosity Foaming or in
viscosity viscosity producing sensitive
100 to fouling suspension
>1000 <100 material
1000
Calandria
No
(short tube
vertical)
Forced
yes
circulation
Falling
no
film
Natural
no
circulation
Agitated
film
yes
(Single
pass)
Long tube
yes
falling film
Long tube
yes
raising film
. Selection guide of evaporators [3].
 MECHANICAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Temperature and pressure are the two important factors that affect the mechanical
design of evaporator systems. Many other factors like startup, shutdown, upset,
dryout, external loading from supports, pulsating pressure, wind loading, earthquake
load etc. also significantly affect the evaporator operation. Various factors are
considered that affect the mechanical design of equipment and their affect is detailed
in heat exchanger design . Here the temperature and pressure factors are outlined
below in brief.
Operating temperature and pressure: The operating temperature is the temperature
that is maintained for the specified operation of the metal vessel suitably selected
during design. The operating pressure is the pressure at the top of a pressure vessel.
However if it’s a tall vessel static hydraulic head even during mal-operation needs to
be consider.
Design temperature and pressure: It is important to determine both minimum and
maximum anticipated operating temperature and pressure in order to obtain the design
temperature and pressure. The design pressure is generally is the sum of the maximum
allowable pressure and the static head of the fluid in the pressure vessel. The
combination of temperature and pressure affect the mechanical design of the
equipment. Much of design considerations are also related pressure design too.
Maximum allowable working pressure: The maximum allowable working pressure
is the maximum pressure to which the equipment can be safely operated. Generally, it
should not be less than the maximum anticipated operating pressure divided by a
factor of 0.90 [4].
Thermal expansion: Differential thermal expansion between various parts of
equipment has a significant effect on the mechanical design. There may be a
significant difference of expansion between the shell and the tube side because of
temperature difference of two fluids. Thermal expansion may also determine the way
in which tubes are fixed to the tube sheet. Usually a suitable expansion joint is
centrally placed between two segments of the shell when the differential expansion
may be large.
Lecture 22: Thermal Design Calculation
THERMAL DESIGN CALCULATION
Single effect calculations
Single effect evaporator calculations are pretty straight forward. The latent heat of
condensation of the steam is transferred through the heating surface to vaporize water
from a boiling solution. Therefore two enthalpy balance equations are required to in
order to calculate the rate of solvent vaporization and the rate of required input heat.
Generally it is possible to solve the energy and the material balance equations
analytically by a sequential approach. The following assumptions are made to
develop the mass and energy balance equations:-
o there is no leakage or entrainment
o the flow of non-condensable is negligible
o heat loss from the evaporator system is negligible
From the enthalpy data of the solutions, steam and condensate, the rate of heat input
or the rate of steam flow can be calculated. The overall heat transfer coefficient
U D (including dirt factor) is should be either known from the performance data of an
operating evaporator of the same type and processing the same solution or a
reasonable value can be selected from the standard text books ([1] Table 16.1 page
475; [2] Table 9.2 page 388). With this information the required area of heat transfer
can be estimated.
Calculate the tube-side and shell-side pressure drop using the method discussed
during design of shell & tube exchanger from specified values of the tube length,
diameter and the tube layout (refer module #1 for detail calculations). If the pressure
drop value is more than the corresponding allowable pressure drop, further
adjustments in the heat exchanger configuration will be required.
Multiple effect calculations
Typically, multiple effect evaporator calculations require a trial-and-error approach as
many of the necessary properties depend on unknown intermediate temperatures.
Often the heat transfer areas in all effects are considered to be equal. Use of equal size
evaporator in all effects, reduces the cost of equipment significantly. In a typical
evaporator problem, you are provided with the supply pressure and temperature of
steam, the operating pressure of the final effect, the feed and concentrations. The
designer is often required to have trial estimates of overall heat transfer coefficients.
The overall strategy is to estimate intermediate temperatures. The energy and material
balance equations are solved sequentially to determine the heat transferred in each
effect and the heat transfer area. If the areas are not equal, the calculation is repeated
to revise the intermediate temperatures and the procedure is repeated till the heat
transfer area in all effects are equal.
The arrangement of a forward feed triple effect evaporator is shown in Figure .
The energy balance equations in all effects are given below:

(ms1, Tb1, P1) (ms2, Tb2, P2) (ms3, Tb3, P3)

Vapor to
I II III
Tb1, P1, H1 Tb2, P2, H2 Tb3, P3, H3
Condenser
Steam
(ms, Ts, Ps)

Condensate Thick
Feed Liquor
(mf, Tf)
. Flow rates and pressure in a triple effect evaporator ([2] page 399).

Effect I: m f H f  ms H s  (m f  ms1 ) H1  ms1H s1  ms H l1

If the sensible heat of the steam is neglected this equation can be rewritten as-
m f H f  ms s  (m f  ms1 ) H1  ms1H s1

Effect II: (m f  ms1 )H1  ms1s1  (m f  ms1  ms2 )H 2  ms2 H s2

Effect III: (m f  ms1  ms2 )H 2  ms2s2  (m f  ms1  ms2  ms3 )H3  ms3 H s3
where,
msk is the rate of vapor generated in the kth effect

m f and ms are the feed and steam flow rate

H k is the enthalpy of the solution leaving the kth effect at Ts and Ps

H sk is the enthalpy of vapor (steam) generated in the kth effect

H lk is the enthalpy of liquid in the kth effect

s is latent heat of steam introduced in the 1st effect at Ps .

s1 and s 2 are the latent heats of steam condensation at pressure P1 and P2
respectively.
If UD1, UD2 and UD3 are the corresponding overall heat transfer coefficients and A1, A2
and A3 are the heat transfer area required, then it may be written as -
Effect I: Q1  ms s  U D1 A1 (Ts  Tb1 )  U D1 A1T1

Effect II: Q2  ms1s1  U D 2 A2 (Tw1  Tb 2 )  U D 2 A2 T2

Effect III: Q3  ms 2s 2  U D3 A3 (Tw2  Tb3 )  U D3 A3T3

where,
Qk is the quantity of heat transferred in kth effect

Tbk is the boiling point of the solution in kth effect at the prevailing pressure

Ts is the steam temperature condensing in the 1st effect

(Tbk  Twk ) is the boiling point elevation in the kth effect, where Twk is the boiling
point of pure solvent (water) in kth effect at the prevailing pressure
Eqs. 3.2 to 3.7 are solved to calculate the heat transfer area by trial-and-error
calculations.
The calculation steps can be summarized as follows
1. Initially temperature in each effect is estimated. To make this estimation, it is
assumed that the heat transfer area in all effects is equal. This leads to:
U D1 A1T1  U D2 A2 T2  U D3 A3T3
Determine the overall temperature drop between the steam in the 1st effect and the
saturation temperature of the last effect (considering the BPE in all effects).
Ttot  T1  T2  T3  (Ts  Tw3 )   BPE

where,  BPE  (T b1  Tw1 )  (Tb 2  Tw2 )  (Tb3  Tw3 )

2. Calculate the total amount of solvent vaporized from the feed and product
concentration and feed flow rate. It is assumed that heat transfer rate in each effect
is roughly equal. This signifies that the rates of vaporization in each effect are also
roughly equal. Calculate the approximate vaporization rate in each effect (it is
one-third of total amount of solvent vaporized in one effect in case triple effect
system). Calculate the concentration in each effect and find out the BPE in each
effect. Then calculate the overall temperature drop ( Ttot ).

3. Redistribute the overall temperature drop ( Ttot ) among all the effects. Since the

areas are the same ( A1  A2  A3 ), the temperature difference in each effect is

roughly proportional to the overall heat transfer coefficients.
U D1T1  U D 2 T2  U D 3T3
U  U 
T2  T1  D1  , T3  T1  D1 
 U D2   U D3 
 U U 
Ttot  T1  T2  T3  T1 1  D1  D1 
 U D 2 U D3 
Thus, calculate T1 , T2 and T3 .

4. Use the calculated value of T1 , T2 and T3 ; and the composition estimated to
calculate the enthalpy values. The same reference temperatures for enthalpy must
be used for all streams, including those taken from steam tables, etc. Solve the
enthalpy balance equation sequentially to find out ms , ms1 and ms 2 .
5. Use heat transfer equations to calculate the heat transfer area for each effect.
ms s m  m 
A1  , A2  s1 s1 , A1  s 2 s 2
U D1T1 U D 2 T2 U D3T3
6. Compare the areas calculated. If they are not equal, repeat the calculation. Using
the areas obtained to revise the temperature estimates. The recommended
approach is to use the ratio of the calculated heat transfer area for an effect to the
arithmetic mean of the calculated areas as shown:
 A 
T1,new  T1  1 
 Amean 
Repeat the calculations until the area of each effect is equal.
The procedure above discussed is applicable for forward feed evaporators. The energy
balance equation can developed accordingly for backward feed system. Here also the
area for each effect is considered to be equal.
The heat transfer area required to obtain the product purity from a specified feed is
illustrated in the next example for forward feed evaporator system.
Lecture 23: Solved Example
Design problem
A 5% aqueous solution of a high molecular weight solute has to be concentrated to
40% in a forward-feed double effect evaporator at the rate of 8000 kg.h-1. The feed
temperature is 40°C. Saturated steam at 3.5 kg.cm-2 is available for heating. A
vacuum of 600 mm Hg is maintained in the second effect. Calculate the area
requirements, if calandria of equal area are used. The overall heat transfer coefficients
are 550 and 370 kcal.h-1m-2 °C-1 in the first and the last effect respectively. The
specific heat of the concentrated liquor is 0.87 kcal.kg-1°C-1.

SOLUTION
Part 1. Thermal design

Pressure in effect I to be decided.

Pressure in effect II = 760 - 600 = 160 mm Hg
Boiling point at this pressure = 60 °C (from steam table)
(high molecular wt. solute, BPE is neglected)
Latent heat vapor generated in effect II at 160 mm Hg (0.2133bar) = 563 kcal.kg-1
( s 2 )

Heating steam is at 3.5 kg.cm-2 gauge; temp ( Ts )=148 °C; Latent heat ( s )= 506
kcal.kg-1
Feed rate = 8000 kg.h-1, Solute content = 5%
Final concentration = 40%
Solid in = 8000 × 0. 05 = 400 kg.h-1, water in = 8000-400= 7600 kg.h-1
Product out (40% solid) = 400/0.40 kg.h-1
= 1000 kg.h-1
Water out with the product = 1000 (1-0.40) kg.h-1
= 600 kg.h-1
Total evaporation rate in two effects ( ms1  ms 2 ) = 7600- 600 = 7000 kg.h-1
(3.A)
Allow equal areas to two effects, i.e., U D1T1  U D 2 T2

Ttot  T1  T2 = 148-60 = 88 °C

UD1= 550, UD2= 370 kcal.h-1m-2 °C-1  T1 = 35.4 °C & T2 = 52.6 °C

Temperature of the vapor leaving effect I (Tb1) =148 – 35.4 = 112.6 °C

Latent heat vapor generated in effect I at 112.6 °C = 531 kcal.kg-1 ( s1 )

Energy balance for effect I: m f H f  ms s  (m f  ms1 ) H1  ms1H s1

(3.2)
Enthalpy values: reference temperature = 112.6 °C (temp of solution leaving effect I)
H f = (40 - 112.6)(1 kcal/ kg °C) = -72.6 kcal/ kg

H1 = 0 kcal/ kg (w.r.t. the reference temperature of 112.6 °C)

s = 506 kcal/ kg; s1 = 531 kcal/ kg

 (8000)(-72.6) + ms(506) = (8000-ms1)(0) + ms1(531)
 ms = 1.05ms1 + 1148
Energy balance for effect II:
(m f ms1) H1  ms1s1  (m f  ms1  ms 2 ) H 2  ms 2 H s 2 .

Enthalpy values: reference temperature = 60 °C (temp of solution leaving effect II)

H1 = (112.6 - 60)(0.94 kcal/ kg °C)= 49.4 kcal/ kg
(Specific heat of the solution leaving the 1st effect is taken as the mean value of the sp.
1  0.87
heat of feed and the concentrated liquor, i.e.,  0.94)
2
H 2 = 0 kcal/ kg (w.r.t. the reference temperature of 60 °C)

s1 = 531 kcal/ kg; s 2 = 563 kcal/ kg

 (8000 - ms1)(49.4) + ms1(531) = (8000-ms1- ms2)(0) + ms2(563)
 ms2 = 0.855ms1 + 702.6
(3.C)
Solving Eqs. 3.A, 3.B and 3.C for ms, ms1 and ms2:
ms= 4713; ms1= 3395 and ms2 = 3605 kg/ h
ms s (4713)(506)
Areas: A1    122.5 m2 ;
U D1T1 (550)(35.4)
ms1s1 (3395)(531)
A2    92.6 m2
U D 2 T2 (370)(52.6)
The areas in the two effects are not equal. Revised calculation is required.
The revised temperature difference in 1st effect, T1  40 o C and T2  48 o C taken for
the calculation (you may also continue the calculation with this revised
value T1,new 38.84
 oC

Temperature of the saturated vapor from the first effect = 148 -60= 108 °C
Corresponding evaporator drum pressure = 1.2116 bar
Latent heat of the vapor leaving the 1st effect at 108 °C= 530 kcal/ kg ( s1 )
Corresponding pressure in the vapor drum = 1.3317 bar
Revised calculation: Energy balance for effect I (reference temperature 108 °C)

 (8000)(-72.6) + ms(506) = (8000-ms1)(0) + ms1(530)

(3.2)
 ms = 1.047ms1 + 1075
(3.D)
Revised calculation: Energy balance for effect II (reference temperature 60 °C)
 (8000 - ms1)(0.94)(108-60) + ms1(530) = (8000-ms1- ms2)(0) + ms2(563)
(3.3)
 ms2 = 0.8612ms1 +641
(3.E)
Solving 3.A, 3.D and 3.E, ms= 4652; ms1= 3417 and ms2 = 3583 kg/ h
ms s (4652)(506) m  (3417)(530)
Areas: A1    107 m2 ; A2  s1 s1   102 m2
U D1T1 (550)(40) U D 2 T2 (370)(48)
These areas are fairly close, use A1 = A2 = 104 m2 plus overdesign. About 10% excess
area will provide a reasonable overdesign.
Tube details:
Let us select 1¼ inch nominal diameter, 80 schedule, brass tubes of 12 ft in length
Outer tube diameter (do) = 42.16 mm
Inner tube diameter (di) = 32.46 mm
Tube length (L) = 12 ft = 3.6576 m
Surface area of each tube (a) = π × do × L = π × 42.164×10-3× 3.6576 = 0.4845 m2
Number of tubes required providing 10% overdesign (Nt) = A /a = (115/0.4845)  238
Tube pitch (triangular), PT = 1.25 × do = 1.25 × 42.164 = 52.71  53 mm
Total area occupied by tubes = Nt × (1/2) ×PT × PT × sinθ (where θ = 60°)
= 238 × 0.5 ×(53×10-3)2 × 0.866
 = 0.2894 m2
This area is generally divided by a factor which varies from 0.8 to 1 to find out the
actual area. This allows for position adjustment of peripheral tubes as those can’t be
too close to tube sheet edge.
Actual area required = 0.2894/ 0.9 (0.9 is selected)
= 0.3216 m2
The central downcomer area is generally taken as 40 to 70% of the total cross
sectional area of tubes. Consider 50% of the total tube cross sectional area.
Therefore, downcomer area = 0.5 × [Nt × (π/4) × do2]
= 0.5 × [238 × (π/4) × (0.04216)2]
= 0.1661 m2
Downcomer diameter = √[(4 ×0.1661)/π]
= 0.460 m
Total area of tube sheet in evaporator = downcomer area + area occupied by tubes
= 0.1661+ 0.3216 m2
= 0.4877 m2
Tube sheet diameter = √[(4 ×0.4877)/ π]
= 0.788 m
Lecture 24: Mechanical Design
Part 2. Mechanical design
A few basic parts of mechanical design of evaporator are shown below. The
systematic approach of mechanical design of shell and tube heat exchanger is
discussed in module #1.
Process design parameters and materials of construction:
Consider a standard vertical short tube evaporator (calandria type) for this service
Evaporator drum operated at 1.3317 bar pressure
Amount of water to be evaporated = 7000 kg/hr
Heating surface required A =115 m2
Steam is available to first effect at 3.433 bar pressure
Density of 5% feed liquid (  l )= 1050 kg/m3 (assumed)

PM
Density of water vapor (  v )= at saturated vapor temperature in the first effect
RT
(108°C).
= (1.3317×18) / (8.314 ×10-5×381)
= 0.757 kg/m3
Design pressure (P) = 5% more than the maximum working pressure
= 1.05×3.433
= 3.605 bar
= 3.6749 kgf/cm2
Volumetric flow rate of water vapor ( V ): 7000/(0.757×3500)= 2.57 m3/s
Evaporator shell: low carbon steel (IS-2062)
Tube material: brass
Permissible stress for low carbon steel = 980 kg/cm2
Modulus of elasticity for low carbon steel = 19×105 kg/cm2
Modulus of elasticity for brass = 9.5×105 kg/cm2
Conical head at bottom: cone angle =120°
Conical head at top: cone angle= 120°
1. Check for tube thickness
Pdi
The tube thickness is given by tt 
2 fJ  P
The permissible stress of brass ( f ) = 538 kg/cm2; Welding or joint efficiency, J = 1 is
used for seamless tube
Therefore, tt = (3.6749 ×32.46) / [(2 ×538 ×1) – 3.6749]
= 0.111 mm
The specified thickness is 4.85 mm. Therefore, the selected tube is suitable for this
service.
2. Calandria sheet thickness calculation
PDo
Thickness is given by: ts 
2 fJ  P
= (3.6749 ×785) /[(2×980×0.85) +3.6749]
= 1.73 mm
Normally, the corrosion allowance of 3 mm is used for carbon steel.
It may be taken as ts = 10 mm
3. Tube sheet thickness
Please refer module #2 (section 2.3.5) for the calculation of tube sheet thickness
according to the TEMA code and the minimum tube sheet thickness as per IS:4503
specification also needs to be checked.
4. Evaporator drum diameter determination
The following equation helps to estimate the drum diameter. The diameter of the
drum may be same as that of the calandria. However, it is necessary to check the size
from the point of satisfactory entrainment separation ([5] page 253].
V 

Rd    / 0.0172  ( l  v ) / v
 A

where, V=volumetric flow rate of vapor [m3/s]
A=cross sectional area of drum
For drums having wire mesh as entrainment separator device, Rd may be taken as 1.3.
 
V
A 
 d 
 R  0.0172  (    ) / 
l v v  

= (2.57) / [1.3×0.0172 ×√{(1050 – 0.757)/0.757}]
= 3.087 m2
The drum diameter= √{(4 × 3.087)/3.14}
= 1.98 m
Drum height is usually taken as 2 to 5 times of tube sheet diameter
Thus, the drum height = 4×0.788 = 3.152 m
The tube length is in between the border line of short tube (4 to 10΄) and long tube
(  12΄). Therefore higher head space is required to arrest entrainment by mis-tallying
deflector plates.
5. Drum thickness
Drum is operating at 1.3317 bar pressure
Design pressure = 1.398 bar
= 1.4253 kgf/cm2
PDo
Drum thickness: td 
2 fJ  P
= (1.4253 ×785) /[(2×980×0.85) +1.4253]
= 0.671 mm
Therefore the same thickness of 10 mm for both the drum and calandria sheet may be
used including the tolerance for corrosion.

Note: The drum thickness is to be calculated based on the external pressure if the
drum is under vacuum.
Practice problem:
A triple-effect forward feed evaporator of the long-tube vertical type is to be used to
concentrate 4,000 kg/h of a 9.5% solution of caustic soda available at 40°C to 50%
solution. Saturated steam at 3.5 kg.cm-2 is available. A vacuum of 700 mm Hg is
maintained in the last effect. The overall heat transfer coefficients are 5800, 3300 and
2400 Wm-2 °C-1, corrected for BPEs may be used for the 1st, 2nd and 3rd effects
respectively. Calculate the heat transfer area required (assume equal areas in all three
effects), steam economy and rate of steam consumption.
PROCESS DESIGN OF MASS TRANSFER COLUMN: DESIGN OF
DISTILLATION AND ABSORPTION COLUMN
Lecture 25: Introduction
Introduction
The typical gas-liquid contacting operations include distillation, absorption, stripping,
leaching and humidification. Distillation and absorption are two most widely used mass
transfer processes in chemical industries. Design of plate column for absorption and
distillation involves many common steps of calculation such as determination of number
of theoretical plates, column diameter, plate hydraulic design, etc.In absorption process, a
soluble component is absorbed in a liquid (called solvent) from a gaseous mixture. The
gas and liquid streams leaving the tray are in equilibrium under the ideal condition. The
separation in distillation is based on the relative volatility of the components. Additional
vapor phase is generated by the vaporization of more volatile components (called
stripping) and by condensation of relatively less volatile components(called absorption)
adds to the liquid phase.
Selection of column type: Plate or Packed: Packed towers (columns) are also used as
the contacting devices for gas absorption, liquid-liquid extraction and distillation. The
gaseous mixture is allowed to contact continuously with the liquid counter-currently in a
packed column. The liquid flows downward over the packing surface, and the gaseous
mixture flows upward through the space in the packing. The performance of the column
strongly depends on the arrangement of the packings to provide good liquid and gas
contact throughout the packed bed. The solute gas is absorbed by the fresh solvent
(liquid) entering at the top of the tower where the lean gas leaves system. The liquid
enriched with absorbed solute gas, leaves the column bottom through the exit port.
In a plate tower, the liquid and gas are contacted in stage-wise manner on the trays; while
gas-liquid contact is continuous in a packed column. There are always some uncertainly
to maintain good liquid distribution in a packed tower. For this reason, it is difficult to
accurately estimate the packed tower efficiency. The course content is limited to design
of plate column only and some typical criterions for the selection of column type are
discussed below.
 Plate towers exhibit larger pressure drops and liquid holdup at higher gas flow
rate. While, packed towers are not appropriate for very low liquid flow rates.
Packed column is the preferred choice than a plate column to handle toxic and
flammable liquids due to lower liquid holdup to keep the unit as small as possible
for the sake of safety.
Plate columns are normally suitable for fouling liquids or laden with solids. They
are easier to clean and could handle substantial temperature variation during
operation.
Packed towers are more suitable for foaming and corrosive services.
It is easier to make the provision for the installation of internal cooling coils or
withdrawal of side streams from a plate column.

Plate contractors
Plate contractors/ towers are vertical cylindrical columns in which a vertical stack of
trays or plates are installed across the column height as shown in Figure 7.1. The liquid
enters at the top of the column and flows across the tray and then through a downcomer
(cross-flow mode) to the next tray below. The gas/vapor from the lower tray flows in the
upward direction through the opening/holes in the tray to form a gas-liquid dispersion. In
this way, the mass transfer between the phases (gas/vapor-liquid) takes place across the
tray and through the column in a stage-wise manner.
Schematic diagram of a plate contractor ([1] page 159).
 Definition of tray areas
The definition of tray areas and its nomenclature illustrated in Figures are followed
throughout the design procedure.
Total tower cross-section area (𝑨𝑻 ): The empty tower inside cross-sectional area
without trays or downspouts.
Net area (𝑨𝑵 ) (also called free area):The total tower crosssectional area (𝐴 𝑇 )minus the
area at the top of the downcomer (𝐴𝐷𝑇 ). The net area symbolizes the smallest area
available for vapor flow in the inter-tray spacing.
Bubbling area or active area (𝑨𝑨 ): The total tower cross-sectional area minus sum of
the downcomer top area(𝐴𝐷𝑇 ) and downcomer seal area (𝐴𝐷𝐵 )and any other
nonperforated areas on the tray. The bubbling area represents the area available for vapor
flow just above the tray floor.
Hole area (𝑨𝒉 ): The total area of the perforations on the tray. The hole area is the
smallest area available for vapor/gas passage.

.Schematic of a tray operating in the froth regime ([2] page 14-28).

 Typical cross-flow plate (sieve) ([3] page 557).
Plate types
Gas and liquid flow across the tray can either be by cross-flow or counter-flow manner
(Figure 7.4). The cross-flow plates are most widely practiced and the three main types of
cross flow plates are: bubble cap, valve and sieve trays with downcomer.

Classification of plate types based on flow mode- side view shown: (a) Cross-flow plate, (b): Counterflow plate.
Bubble cap plates
An enhanced gas-liquid contact can be achieved having bubble caps on the tray at very
low liquid flow rates. A bubble cap consists of a riser (also called chimney) fixed to the
tray through a hole and a cap is mounted over the riser (Figure 7.5). The gas flows up
through the riser, directed downward by the cap through the annular space between riser
and cap. Finally, the gas is dispersed into the liquid. A number of slots in the lower part
of the cap help in gas bubble dispersion. Un-slotted types of cap designs are also common
in application. Bubble caps are especially suitable for higher turndown ratio. Turndown
ratio is the ratio of maximum operating vapor rate to the minimum allowable vapor rate,
below which weeping starts.

Bubble caps ([1] page 166).

Valve plates
Valve trays (or floating cap plate) are the modified design of sieve trays where relatively
large plate perforations are covered by movable caps/valves (Figure 7.6). Valves cover
may be round or rectangular. The very common hole diameter is 40 mm but upto 150 mm
are also used. The valve lifts up as the vapor flow rate increases and the valve sits over
the perforation at lower flow rate, thus stops the liquid from weeping. Valve trays provide
good vapor-liquid contact at low flow rates (high turndown ratio).

Valve tray ([4] page 14-25).

Sieve plate
The sieve tray (also known as perforated plate) is a flat perforated metal sheet . The
hole diameter from 1.5 to 25 mm are very commonly used. The sieve tray layout is
a typical square or equilateral triangular pitch holes. The gas/vapor flows upward
through the perforation and disperses into the flowing liquid over the plate. There is no
liquid seal in case of trays without downcomer and the liquid weeps (called
weeping) through the holes at low flow rates, reducing the efficiency of plate. For this
reason, sieve tray has the lowest turndown ratio. Sieve tray construction is simple and
relatively cheap.

. Sieve tray ([4] page 14-25).

Selection of tray type
The comparative performances of three common types of trays are summarized in Table

The capacity, efficiency, pressure drop and entrainment of sieve and valve trays are
almost same.
Bubble cap trays have lower capacity and efficiency and but higher pressure drop and
entrainment compared to valve and sieve trays. The turndown ratio comes in the order of:
bubble cap>valve>sieve. However, valve trays have the best turndown ratio in case of
refinery applications. Sieve trays are the least expensive and suitable for almost all
applications. Valve trays can be considered where higher turndown ratio is needed.
Bubble cap trays should be used at very low liquid flow rate which is not achievable
using sieve trays.
Comparison of three types of cross-flow trays ([5] page 266).
Tray Capacity Efficiency Pressure Entrainment Turndown Cost
type drop ratio
Bubble Medium Medium High ~3 times than Excellent 100-200 %
cap high high sieve tray more than sieve
tray
Valve High to High Medium to Medium 4 to 10.1 20-50% more
very high high than sieve tray
Sieve High High Medium Medium 2.1 Cheapest of all
types
Lecture 26: Effect of Vapor Flow Conditions on
Tray Design
Effect of vapor flow conditions on tray design
Flooding consideration
Excessive liquid buildup inside the column leads to column flooding condition. The
nature of flooding depends on the column operating pressure and the liquid to vapor flow
ratio. It may be downcomer backup, spray entrainment or froth entrainment type
floodings.Higher tray pressure drop due to excessive vapor flow rates holds up the liquid
in the downcomer, increases the liquid level on the plate and leads to downcomer
flooding situation. The column flooding conditions sets the upper limit of vapor velocity
for steady operation.
Gas velocity through the net area at flooding conditioncan be estimated using Fair’s
correlation ([4], page 14-26):
𝜍 0.2 𝜌 𝑙 −𝜌 𝑣 0.5
𝑈𝑛𝑓 = 𝐶𝑠𝑏𝑓 [m/s]
20 𝜌𝑣

(7.1)
𝜌𝑣 = vapor density, kg/m3
𝜌𝑙 = liquid density, kg/m3
𝜍 = liquid surface tension, mN/m (dyn/cm)
𝐶𝑠𝑏𝑓 = capacity parameter (m/s) can be calculated([4] page 14-27) in terms of plate
𝐿 𝜌 𝑣 0.5
spacing and flow parameter 𝐹𝐿𝐺 = 𝑉 𝜌𝑙

(7.2)
𝐿 =liquid flow rate, kg/s
𝑉 =vpor flow rate, kg/s
The design gas velocities (𝑈𝑛 ) is generally 80-85% of 𝑈𝑛𝑓 for non-foaming liquids and
75% or less for foaming liquids subject to acceptable entrainment and plate pressure
drop.
Sieve tray weeping
Weeping occurs at low vapor/gas flow rates. The upward vapor flow through the plate
perforationsprevents the liquid from leaking through the tray perforation. At low vapor
flow rates, liquid start to leak/rain through the perforation (called weeping). When none
of the liquid reaches the downcomer at extreme weeping condition at very low vapor
flow rate, it is called dumping. The weeping tendency increases with increasing fractional
hole area and liquid flow rates.
The vapor velocity at the weep point (where liquid leakage through holes starts) is the
minimum value for stable operation. For a chosen hole area,the minimum operating
vapor flow velocity (𝑈𝑚𝑖𝑛 ,𝑜𝑝 ) at minimum flow rate for stable operation should be above
weep point vapor velocity.
The minimum vapor velocity (𝑈min ) at the weep point ([3] page 569):
𝐾2 −0.9(25.4−𝑑 ℎ )
𝑈min = 𝜌 𝑣 1/2

Where, 𝑑ℎ = hole diameter, mm,

𝜌𝑣 = vapor density, kg/m3 (maximum value of vapor density)
𝐾𝟐 = constant (𝐾2 ) of weep-point correlation depends on the depth of clear liquid
(weir crest + weir height) on the plate ([3] page 571).
Weir crest (ℎ𝑤𝑐 ) can be determined using the Francis’ weir correlation ([3] page 571):
2
𝐿𝑤𝑐 3
ℎ𝑤𝑐 = 750 [mm]
𝐿𝑊 𝜌 𝑙
(7.4)
𝐿𝑊𝐶 =weir length, m
𝐿𝑊 =liquid flow rate over the crest, kg/s
𝜌𝑙 = liquid density, kg/m3
minimum vapor flow rate
Actual operating minimum vapor velocity: 𝑈𝑚𝑖𝑛 ,𝑜𝑝 = [m/s]
hole area
To avoid weeping: 𝑈𝑚𝑖𝑛 ,𝑜𝑝 > 𝑈min .
Liquid entrainment
Entrainment is the phenomena in which liquid droplets are carried by vapor/gas to the
tray above. Therefore, the less volatile liquid components from bottom tray are mixed
with liquid having relatively more volatile materials on the overhead tray. It counteracts
the desired mass transfer operation and the plate efficiency decreases. Entrainment
kg
increases with vapor velocity.The fractional entrainment (𝛹 = kg gross ) can
liquid flow

𝐿 𝜌 𝑣 0.5
predicted using Fair’s correlation in terms of the flow parameter [𝐹𝐿𝐺 = 𝑉 ] and
𝜌𝑙

actual flooding velocity ([4] page 14-28).

Effect of 𝛹 on Murphree plate efficiency can be estimated using Colburn equation ([4]
page 14-29):
𝐸𝑚𝑣
𝐸𝑎 = Ψ𝐸 𝑚𝑣
1+
1−Ψ

(7.6)
𝐸𝑚𝑣 =Murphree vapor efficiency
E𝑎 =Corrected Murphree vapor efficiency for liquid entrainment
Tray hydraulic parameters
Total plate pressure drop
All gas pressure drops (ℎ𝑡 ) are expressed as heads of the clear liquid and ℎ𝑡 is given by:
ℎ𝑡 = ℎ𝑑 + ℎ𝑤𝑐 + ℎ𝑤 + ℎ𝑟
(7.7)
Where, ℎ𝑑 =dry plate pressure drop, mm
ℎ𝑤𝑐 =height of liquid over weir (weir crest), mm
ℎ𝑤 =weir height, mm
ℎ𝑟 =residual head, mm
Dry plate pressure drop (𝒉𝒅 ):
Dry plate pressure drop occurs due to friction within dry short holes.ℎ𝑑 can be calculated
using following expression derivedfor flow through orifices ([3] page 575).
𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 2𝜌
𝑣
ℎ𝑑 = 51 [mm]
𝐶0 𝜌𝑙
(7.8)
 Maximum volumetric vapor flow rate
Maximum vapor velocity: 𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐴𝐻
(7.9)
𝐴𝐻 plate thickness
The orifice coefficient, 𝐶0 can be determined in terms of and ([3] page
𝐴𝑃 hole diameter
576).
Residual gas pressure head (𝒉𝒓 ):
The residual pressure drop results mainly from the surface tension as the gas releases
from a perforation. The following simple equation can be used to estimate ℎ𝑟 with
reasonable accuracy ([3] page 575).
12.5×10 3
ℎ𝑟 = 𝜌𝑙

(9.10)
Downcomer backup (𝒉𝒃 ) and downcomer residence time:
The liquid level and froth in the downcomer should be well below the top of the outlet
weir on the tray above to avoid flooding ([3] page 576).
ℎ𝑏 = ℎ𝑤𝑐 + ℎ𝑤 + ℎ𝑡 + ℎ𝑑𝑐
(7.11)
𝐿𝑤𝑑 2
Head loss in downcomer: ℎ𝑑𝑐 = 166 𝜌 𝑙 𝐴𝑚

(7.12)
𝐿𝑤𝑑 = Downcomer liquid flow rate, kg/s
𝐴𝑚 =Smaller of clearance area under the downcomer apron (𝐴𝑎𝑝 ) and downcomer
area(𝐴𝐷 )
1
The average density of aerated liquid in the dowmncomer can be assumed as of the
2

clear liquid density.Therefore, half of the sum of the plate spacing and weir height should
be greater than thedowncomer backup.
𝟏
𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐞 𝐬𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐢𝐧𝐠 + 𝐰𝐞𝐢𝐫 𝐡𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 > 𝒉𝒅 (
𝟐
Downcomer residence time (𝑡𝑑𝑟𝑡 ) should be sufficient for the disengagement of liquid
and vapor in the downcomer to minimize entrained vapor. The value of 𝑡𝑑𝑟𝑡 >3 s is
suggested. Downcomer residence timeis given by ([3] page 578):

𝐴𝐷 ℎ 𝑏𝑐 𝜌 𝑙
𝑡𝑑𝑟𝑡 = [s]
𝐿𝑤𝑑

(7.14)
ℎ𝑏𝑐 = clear liquid back up, mm
Lecture 27: Plate Design
Column sizing approximation
The column sizing is a trial anderror calculationprocedure,starting with a tentative tray
layout. The calculation is then revised until anacceptable design is obtained subject to
satisfyingthetray pressure drop, weeping, flooding and liquid entrainment limits. The
column sizing is carried at the tray where the anticipated column loading is the highest
and lowest for each section. However, the vapor flow rates have the highest impact on
tower diameter. For an example, the sizing calculation is performed on the top tray for
the above feed section and on the bottom tray for below feed section, for a single feed
distillation column with one top and one bottom product. The tray spacing determines the
column height. Lower tray spacing is desirable to minimize construction cost by
checking against the column performance criteria. The suggested tray spacing (𝑇𝑡 ) with
column diameter is appended below ([1] page 162). The detailed column sizing
calculations are discussed in the solved example.
Tower diameter, m Tray spacing, mm
1 or less 500 (150 mm is minimum)
1-3 600
3-4 750
4-8 900
Provisional plate design
Column diameter
The column diameter is determined from the flooding correlation for a chosen plate
spacing. The superficial vapor/gas velocity (𝑈𝑛𝑓 ) at flooding through the net area relates
to liquid and vapor densities according to Fair’s correlation (refer to section7.3.1).𝐶𝑠𝑏𝑓 is
an empirical constant, depends on tray spacing and can be estimated against the flow
parameter (𝐹𝐿𝐺 ) based on mass flow rate of liquid (𝐿) and vapor (𝑉) ([3] page 567, [4]
page 14-27).
Typically, the design velocity (𝑈𝑛 ) through the net area is about 80 to 85% of 𝑈𝑛𝑓 for
non-foaming liquids and 75% or less for foaming liquid depending on allowable plate
pressure drop and entrainment. It is a common practice to have uniform tower diameter in
all sections of the column even though the vapor/gas and liquid loadings are expected to
be different to minimize the cost of construction. The uniformity in tower diametermay
require selecting different plate spacing in different sections of the tower.
Hole diameter,hole pitchand plate thickness
The plate hole diameters (𝑑ℎ ) from 3 to 12 mm are commonly used. The bigger sizes are
susceptible to weeping. The holes may be drilled or punched and the plate is fabricated
from stainless steel and other alloys than carbon steel. The centre to centre distance
between two adjacent holes is called hole pitch (𝐼𝑃 ). Perforations can be arranged in
square or equilateral triangular arrays with respect to the vapor/gas flow direction. The
normal range of 𝐼𝑃 is from 2.5 to 5 times of 𝑑ℎ ([1] page 168).
𝐴𝐻 𝑑ℎ 2
For triangular pitch: = 0.907
𝐴𝑃 𝐼𝑃

(7.15)
Plate thickness (𝑡𝑡 ) typically varies from 0.2 to 1.2 times of the hole diameter and should
be verified by checking the allowable plate pressure drop ([3] page 576).
Weir heightand weir length
The depth of liquid on the tray is maintained by installing a vertical flat plate, called weir.
Higher weir height (ℎ𝑤 ) increases the plate efficiency. But it increases plate pressure
drop, entrainment rate and weeping tendency. Weir heights from 40 to 90 mm are
common in applications for the columns operating above the atmospheric pressure. For
vacuum operation, ℎ𝑤 =6 to 12 mm are recommended. The weir length (𝐿𝑤 ) determines
the downcomer area. A weir length of 60 to 80% of tower diameter is normally used
with segmental downcomers. The dependency of 𝐿𝑤 on downcomer area is calculated
𝐴𝐷
against the percentage value of ([3] page 572).
𝐴𝐴

Calming zones
Two blank areas called calming zone, are provided between the inlet downcomer or inlet
weir and the perforation area, and also between the outlet weir and perforation area. Inlet
calming zone helps in reducing excessive weeping in this area because of high vertical
velocity of the entering liquid in the downward direction. Outlet calming zone allows
disengagement of vapor before the liquid enters the downcomer area. A calming zone
between 50 to 100mm is suggested.
Stepwise design tray procedure
Iterative tray design approach ([3] page 566) is listed below. The design is performed
separately both above feed plate (top section) and below feed plate (bottom section) for
single feed two product distillation column.
Step #1: Determine the number of theoretical plate and vapor and liquid flow-rates
separately both in top and bottom sections.
Step #2: Obtain the physical properties of the system
Step #3: Select a trial plate spacing
Step #4: Estimate the column diameter based on flooding considerations
Step #5: Decide the liquid flow arrangement (reverse, single-pass, or multiple-pass). A
guideline is provided in Figure 11.28 ([3] page 568).
Step #6: Make a provisional tray layout including downcomer area, active area,
perforated area, hole area and size, weir height, weir length
Step #7: Check the weeping rate, if not satisfactory go back to step #6 and reselect tray
layout
Step #8: Check the plate pressure drop, if too high return to step #6
Step #9: Check downcomer back-up, if too high go back to step #6 or #3
Step #10: Decide plate layout including calming zones and unperforated areas and check
hole pitch, if unsatisfactory return to step #6
Step #11: Recalculate the percentage of flooding based upon selected tower diameter
Step #12: Check for entrainment, if too high then return to step #4
Step #13: Optimize design: repeat steps #3 to #9 to find smallest diameter and plate
spacing acceptable to get the lowest cost for the specified application
Step #14: Finalize design: draw up the plate specification and sketch the layout
 Lecture 28: Hand on Design
Design problem
Design a continuous distillation column (plate) to recover acetone from a 50-50 mole %
acetone-water mixture available at 30°C. The feed stream flow rate is 25,000 kg/h. The
top product should contain at least 95 mole% acetone and the bottom product should
contain <1 % acetone by mole. Consider reboiler as equivalent to one stage. This column
is operated at atmospheric pressure (top tray). Column efficiency of 60% and pressure
drop per plate of 1.25 kPa may be assumed. You can take the minimum liquid flow as
70% of the maximum rate both above and below the feed plate. The vapor liquid
equilibrium (VLE) data for the acetone-water system at atmospheric pressure is provided
in Table .
Data given:
Latent heat of water= 41,360 J/mol; latent heat of acetone= 28,410 J/mol
Specific heat of water=75.3 J/mol°C (mean); Specific heat of acetone 128 J/mol°C
(mean)
: VLE data for the acetone-water system at 1 atm.
𝒙 0.0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95
𝒚 0.0 0.6381 0.7301 0.77160.7916 0.8034 0.81240.82010.82690.83760.8387 0.84550.8532 0.86150.87120.8817 0.8950.9118 0.9335 0.9627
BP, 10074.8 68.53 65.26 0.63.5962.6 61.87 61.26 60.75 60.35 59.95 59.54 59.12 58.71 58.29 57.9 57.4957.08 56.68 56.3
°C
𝑥= Mole fraction of acetone in liquid; 𝑦= Mole fraction of acetone in vapor; BP: Bubble
point

Step #1: Mass balance and determination of number of theoretical stage

Feed and products compositions:
Component Feed mole Top product mole Bottom product mole
fraction fraction fraction
Acetone 0.50 0.95 0.01
Water 0.50 0.05 0.99

Bubble point of feed (from the data shown in table) = 59.95°C

Latent heat of the feed = 28,410×0.5 + 41,360×(1 - 0.5) = 34,885 J/mol
Specific heat of the feed = (128×0.5) + 75.3× (1 - 0.5)= 101.75 J/mol °C
Heat required to vaporize 1 mole of the given feed = (59.95 - 30) ×101.75 +
34,885=37933 J
Heat required to vaporize 1 mole of the given feed 37933
𝑞= = = 1.09
Latent heat of the feed 34885
𝑞 1.09
Slope of the q-line= 𝑞−1 = 1.09−1 = 12.44

Here, the top operating line just touches the equilibrium curve at the point of tangency of
the rectifying section operating line at which the minimum reflux takes place.
xD
From the Figure 7.8:  0.57 ; Rmin= 0.67 for xD=0.95
Rmin  1
Here, reflux ratio, R=2.5×Rmin =2.5×0.67= 1.675 is taken for this design.
Average molecular wt. of feed= 0.5×58 + 0.5×18=38
Molar feed flow (𝐹) rate=25,000/38=657.9 kmol/h
Acetone balance: 𝐷 × 0.95 = 657.9 × 0.5⇒𝐷 = 346.2 kmol/h
Vapor flow (𝑉) rate above feed plate, 𝑉 = 𝐷 1 + 𝑅 = 346.2 1 + 1.675 = 926.2
kmol/h
(Assuming constant molar overflow)
Top section liquid flow rate, 𝐿 = 𝑉 − 𝐷 = 580 kmol/h
Bottom product: 𝐵 = 𝐹 − 𝐷 = 657.9 − 346.2 = 311.7 kmol/h
Mass balance below feed plate: 𝐿′ = 𝑉 ′ + 𝐵
𝐿′
Slope of the bottom section operating line (Figure 7.8): 𝑉 ′ = 1.32

𝐿′ = Liquid flow rate below feed plate = 1285.7 kmol/h

𝑉 ′ = Vapor flow rate below feed plate = 974 kmol/h
The construction of operating lines and number of theoretical stages are shown in this
Figure 7.8.
Total number of tray= 6 (above feed) +3 (below feed) =9
9−1
Total number of real stages= ≈ 14 (60% column efficiency; reboiler was
0.6

considered as equivalent to one theoretical tray)

 1.0
Equilibrium curve 6th stage
Top operating line for Rmin
0.9

0.8

y, mole fraction of Acetone

6
0.7
q-line
0.6

0.5

9th stage Top operating line for R=2.5Rmin

0.4

0.3

0.2
xD/(Rmin+1)
Bottom operating line
0.1

0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
x, mole fraction of Acetone

McCabe-Thiele construction.

Step #2: Estimation of physical properties

Column top pressure= 101325 Pa (1 atm)
Column pressure drop=1.25×103×14=16800 kPa
Pressure drop of 1.25kPa per tray is specified
Top section: Bottom section:
Column top pressure= 101325 Pa (1.0147 Column bottom pressure=101325 +16800
bar) and temperature= 56.3 °C = 118825 Pa (=1.19 bar)

𝑃𝑀 101325 ×56.5 Boiling point of water at 118825 Pa (1.19

𝜌𝑣 = = 329 .3×8.314 ×10 3 = 2.08 kg/m3
𝑅𝑇
bar)= 105 °C (bottom contains 99 mole %
water)
𝜌𝑙 =744 kg/m3 (density of the mixture)

From the steam table at 118825 Pa and 105

(water density= 985 and acetone density=
3 °C: 𝜌𝑣 = 0.693; 𝜌𝑙 = 955 kg/m3
735 kg/m at 56.3 °C)

Average molecular weight of vapor:

Average molecular weight of vapor:
M=40.58
M=56.5
Average molecular weight of liquid:
Average molecular weight of liquid: M=56
M=18.4
Surface tension, 𝜍 =20×10-3 N/m
𝜍 =58×10-3 N/m
Lecture 29: Provisional Plate Design
Step #3: Plate spacing
Plate spacingof 600 mm is considered for the first trial to calculate capacity parameter
(𝐶𝑠𝑏𝑓 ) for the estimation of maximum allowable vapor velocity through the net plate area
([3] page 567, [4] page 14-27). The suggested plate spacing is 600 mm for column
diameter>1.5 m.
Step #4: Column diameter (refer to sections 7.3.1 &7.6.1; Eqs. 7.1 & 7.2)
1st trial is started with the following considerations:
Design is performed for 80% flooding at maximum gas flow rate.
Total downcomer top and bottom seal area is 10% of the net area.
Top section: Bottom section:
Flow parameter (𝐹𝐿𝐺 ) based on mass flow rate, 𝐿′ 𝜌 𝑣 0.5
𝐹𝐿𝐺 =𝑉 ′ 𝜌𝑙
𝐿 𝜌 𝑣 0.5 580 ×56 2.08 0.5
= 926.2×56.5 =0.033 1285 .7×18.4 0.693 0.5
𝑉 𝜌𝑙 744
= =0.016
974 ×40.58 955

Capacity parameter (𝐶𝑠𝑏𝑓 ) = 0.12 m/s

𝐶𝑠𝑏𝑓 = 0.11 m/s

Gas velocity through the net area at flooding:

𝜍 0.2 𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 0.5
𝜍 0.2 𝜌 𝑙 −𝜌 𝑣 0.5 𝑈𝑛𝑓 = 𝐶𝑠𝑏𝑓
𝑈𝑛𝑓 = 𝐶𝑠𝑏𝑓 = 0.12 × 20 𝜌𝑣
20 𝜌𝑣
0.2 0.5
20 0.2 744 −2.08 0.5 58 955 − 0.693
= 2.26 m/s = 0.11 ×
20 2.08 20 0.693
[𝜍 = liquid surface tension, mN/m] = 5.05 m/s

The linear design gas velocity (𝑈𝑛 ) based on net

area (80% flooding): 𝑈𝑛 = 0.8 × 5.05 = 4.04 m/s
𝑈𝑛 = 0.8 × 2.26 = 1.8 m/s

The maximum volumetric vapor flow rate

(𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 ): 𝑉 × 𝑀 974 × 40.58
𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 = =
𝑉 × 𝑀 926.2 × 56.5 𝜌𝑣 0.693
𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 = =
𝜌𝑣 2.08 = 57034.5 m3/h=15.84 m3/s
=25158.8 m3/h=6.98 m3/s
Net area required: 𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 15.84
= =3.92 m2
𝑈𝑛 4.04
𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 6.98
= =3.88 m2
𝑈𝑛 1.8

Totals tower cross-section area:

3.88 3.92
=4.31 m2 = =4.36 m2
0.9 0.9

(Total downcomer top and bottom seal area is

10% of the net area)

Colum (tower) diameter: Colum (tower) diameter:

4.31 4.36
=2.34 m =2.36 m
0.785 0.785

Use the highervalue of the tower diameter for the uniformity between sections, if the
difference is not greater than 20%. In this case, the bottom diameter is used both in
top and bottomsections. Higher area than the design area (here top section) can be
taken care by reducing the perforated area.

The nearest recommended shell (nominal diameter 2400 mm) fabricated from
carbon steel or stainless steel sheet in IS 2844-1964: ID 2403 mm with minimum
wall thickness: 8 mm for carbon steel) and 6 mm for stainless steel.
Step #5: Selection of liquid-flow arrangement
580 ×56
Liquid volumetric flow rate in the top section = 3600 ×744 ≈ 0.012m3/s
1285 .7×18.4
Liquid volumetric flow rate in the top section = ≈ 0.007m3/s
3600 ×955

Therefore, single pass cross-flow sieve plate is chosen for this service ([3] page 568).
Step #6: Provisional plate design (refer to sections 7.6.2 & 7.6.3)
Column (tower) diameter (ID): 𝐷𝑇 ≈2.4 m
Column cross-section area: 𝐴 𝑇 =0.785×𝐷𝑇 2 =4.52 m2
Downcomer area: 𝐴𝐷 = 0.1𝐴 𝑇 = 0.452 m2
Net area: 𝐴𝑁 = 𝐴 𝑇 − 𝐴𝐷 = 4.068 m2
 Weir Length (𝑙𝑊 ) = 0.73×𝐷𝑇 = 1.752 m ([3] page 573)
Weir height, ℎ𝑤 = 40 mm is considered.
Active area:𝐴𝐴 = 𝐴 𝑇 − 2 × 𝐴𝐷 =3.616 m2
1
For the first trial, consider hole diameter: 𝑑ℎ =12 mm (2inch). The plate thickness=hole
diameter is selected for the first trial.
Step #7: Checking for weepage
Top section Bottom section
580 ×56 1285 .7×18.4
Maximum liquid flow rate (𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑥 )= =9.02 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 3600 =6.571 kg/s
3600
kg/s
𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑛 =0.7×6.571=4.6 kg/s
Minimum liquid flow rate (𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑛 ) (70% of
𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑥 )=0.7×9.02=6.32 kg/s
2
6.571 3
2 ℎ𝑤𝑐 = 750 =18.7
𝐿𝑤𝑐 3 1.752 ×955
Maximum weir crest, ℎ𝑤𝑐 = 750 = mm liquid height
𝐿𝑊 𝜌 𝑙
2
9.02 3
750 =27.2 mm liquid height
1.752 ×744
2
4.6 3
2 ℎ𝑤𝑐 = 750 =14.7
𝐿𝑤𝑐 3 1.752 ×955
Minimum weir crest, ℎ𝑤𝑐 = 750 = mm liquid height
𝐿𝑊 𝜌 𝑙
2
6.32 3
750 =21.5 mm liquid height
1.752 ×744
𝐾2 = 30.2at ℎ𝑤𝑐 + ℎ𝑤 =54.7
The constant (𝐾2 ) of weep-point correlation= 30.3 at
ℎ𝑤𝑐 + ℎ𝑤 =40+21.5=61.5 mm using minimum liquid
flow rate ([3] page 571).

The minimum vapor velocity (𝑈min ) at the weep 𝑈 min at the weep point:
point: 𝑈 =
30.2−0.9(25.4−12)
=21.8 m/s
min (0.693)1/2
𝐾2 −0.9(25.4−𝑑 ℎ ) 30.3−0.9(25.4−12)
𝑈min = 1/2 = =12.6 m/s
𝜌𝑣 (2.08)1/2

Actual minimum vapor velocity at minimum vapor

flow rate: 0.7×15.84
= 0.489 =22.7 m/s
Actual vapor flow rate 70 % of 𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 0.7×6.98
= = = 0.489 =10
𝐴
𝐻 𝐴 𝐻
m/s
Therefore, the minimum operating velocity both in top and bottom sections is of above
the weep point velocity.

Step #8: Plate pressure drop

Top section Bottom section
𝑄 𝑚𝑎𝑥 6.98 𝑄 15.84
Maximum vapor velocity: 𝑈 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐴 = 0.489=14.3 𝑈 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.489=32.4 m/s
𝐻 𝐻
m/s
32.4 2 0.693
ℎ 𝑑 = 51 = 50.2 mm
Maximum dry plate pressure drop: ℎ𝑑 = 0.88) 955

𝑈 𝑚𝑎𝑥 2𝜌
𝑣 14.3 2 2.08 liquid
51 = 51 = 37.5 mm liquid
𝐶0 𝜌𝑙 0.88) 744
[The orifice coefficient, 𝐶 0 =0.88 at 𝐴 𝐻 /𝐴 𝑃 = 15%
plate thickness
and =1 ([3] page 576).
hole diameter 12.5×103 12.5×103
ℎ𝑟 = 𝜌𝑙
= 955
=13 mm
3 3
12.5×10 12.5×10
Residual head: ℎ 𝑟 = = =16.8 mm liquid
𝜌𝑙 744
liquid
ℎ 𝑡 = 50.2 + (40+18.7)+13≈122
mm liquid
Total plate pressure drop: ℎ 𝑡 = ℎ 𝑑 + ℎ 𝑤𝑐 +
ℎ 𝑤 + ℎ 𝑟 = 37.5 + (40+27.2)+16.8≈122 mm liquid
The plate pressure drop of 1.25 kPa (=127 mm of water and 161 mm of acetone
pressure) was assumed. The estimated value in the first trial is therefore acceptable.

Step # 9: Downcomer backup liquid and downcomer residence time:

Downcomer back: ℎ 𝑏 = ℎ 𝑤𝑐 + ℎ 𝑤 + ℎ 𝑡 + ℎ 𝑑𝑐
𝐿 𝑤𝑑 2
Head loss in downcomer: ℎ 𝑑𝑐 = 166
𝜌 𝑙 𝐴𝑚
Downcomer liquid flow rate (𝐿 𝑤𝑑 ) =maximum liquid flow rate is taken
𝐴 𝑚 is smaller of 𝐴 𝑎𝑝 and 𝐴 𝐷 .
𝐴 𝑎𝑝 = ℎ 𝑎𝑝 𝑙 𝑤 = 30 × 10−3 × 1.752 =0.0525 m2 (typically ℎ 𝑎𝑝 = ℎ 𝑤 − 10)
Here, 𝐴 𝑎𝑝 < 𝐴 𝐷 = 0.452 m2
Top section Bottom section
9.02 2 6.571 2
ℎ 𝑑𝑐 = 166 744×0.0525
=8.8 mm ℎ 𝑑𝑐 = 166 955×0.0525
=2.9 mm

ℎ 𝑏 = 27.2 + 40 + 122 + 8.8 ≈198 mm ℎ 𝑏 = 18.7 + 40 + 122 + 2.9 ≈184 mm

Downcomer residence time: 0.452×(184×10−3 )×955
𝑡 𝑑𝑟𝑡 = 6.571
≈ 12 s >3 s.
𝐴 𝐷 ℎ 𝑏𝑐 𝜌 𝑙 0.452× 184×10−3 ×955
𝑡 𝑑𝑟𝑡 =
𝐿 𝑤𝑑
=
6.571
≈ 12 s

>3 s.
ℎ 𝑏𝑐 = clear liquid back up
(ℎ 𝑏𝑐 ≈ ℎ 𝑏 can be approximated)

1 1
plate spacing + weir height = 2 600 + 40 = 320 mm
2
1
plate spacing + weir height > ℎ 𝑑
2
Therefore, the plate spacing and downcomer residence time in both the sections meet
the design required design criteria.
Lecture 30: Provisional Plate Design
Step #10: Calming zones and hole pitch (refer to sections7.6.2 &7.6.4; Eq. 7.15)

Perforated area (𝐴 𝑃 ): AP  AA  ACZ  AES

Where, 𝐴 𝐶𝑍 = calming zone area (Figure 7.3).

𝐴 𝐸𝑆 = area occupied by edge strip (Figure 7.9)
𝑙 𝑊
=0.73; now, 𝜃 𝑐 = 95° ([3] page 573)
𝐷𝑇

Angle subtended by the chord (edge plate), 𝛼 = 180°-95° = 85°

The unperforated edge strip (edge plate) mean length from the geometry:
𝛼 ×𝜋 85×𝜋
𝑙 𝐸𝑆 =(𝐷 𝑇 -50×10-3)× 180 =(2.4-50×10-3)× 180
=3.49 m

𝐴 𝐸𝑆 = 50×10-3×𝑙 𝑀𝑆 =0.175 m2
Use 50 mm wide calming zones. The approximate mean length of zones:
𝑙 𝐶𝑍 =Weir length (𝑙 𝑊) + Width of unperfortaed edge strip
=1.752+50×10-3=1.802 m
𝐴 𝐶𝑍 = 2(50×10-3×𝑙 𝐶𝑍 )= 0.18 m2
Therefore, perforation area per tray (𝐴 𝑃 ) = 𝐴 𝐴 − 𝐴 𝐶𝑍 − 𝐴 𝐸𝑆 =3.616- 0.18-0.175=
3.26 m2
Take total hole area 𝐴 𝐻 = 0.15𝐴 𝐴 = 0.489 m2
𝐴 𝐻 = 0.785 × 𝑑 ℎ 2 × 𝑛 ℎ = 0.489 m2 [hole diameter 12 mm]
Number of holes (𝑛 ℎ )= 4326
𝐴 𝑑ℎ 2
𝐴 𝐻 /𝐴 𝑃 = 0.15. For equilateral triangular pitch: 𝐴 𝐻 = 0.907 𝐼𝑃
𝑃

This corresponds to hole-pitch to hole diameter ratio of (𝐼 𝑃 /𝑑 ℎ ) = 2.46. This is very

close to the normal range of 2.5 to 4.0 times of hole diameter.
The estimated hole pitch (𝐼 𝑃 )=is 29.5 mm.
 Angle subtended by the chord ([3] page 583).
Steps # 11 and 12: Entrainment checking
Top section Bottom section
Actual vapor velocity (𝑈 𝑣 ) based on net area (𝐴 𝑁 ) 𝑈 𝑣 = 𝑄 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 15.84 =3.9 m/s
𝐴𝑁 4.068
selected provisionally: 𝑈 3.9
𝑄 𝑚𝑎𝑥 6.98
% flooding=𝑈 𝑣 × 100 = 5.05 ×
𝑈 𝑣 = 𝐴 = 4.068 =1.7 m/s 𝑛𝑓
𝑁
100 =77%
𝑈𝑣 1.7
% flooding=𝑈 × 100 = 2.26 × 100 =76 %
𝑛𝑓

Ψ=0.18 at 𝐹 𝐿𝐺 = 0.016 and actual

The fractional entrainment, Ψ=0.09 at 𝐹 𝐿𝐺 = flooding velocity of 77 % ([4] page
𝐿 𝜌 𝑣 0.5 14-28).
= 0.033 and actual flooding velocity of
𝑉 𝜌𝑙

76 % ([4] page 14-28).

Effect of Ψ on Murphree plate efficiency can be

estimated from ([4] page 14-29):
𝐸 𝑎 = 0.53
𝐸 𝑚𝑣
𝐸𝑎 = Ψ𝐸 𝑚𝑣 = 0.57
1+ 1−Ψ

𝐸 𝑚𝑣 = 0.6 (Murphree vapor efficiency 60%)

E𝑎 =Murphree vapor efficiency, corrected for
liquid entrainment

The actual flooding is below the design flooding value of 80%. Usually, Ψ<0.1 is
desirable. However, the optimum design value may be above this.
Design problem: Absorption column
An industrial gas stream is available @ 2 kg/sfrom a cracking operation of
NH3containing 72% H2, 24% N2 and 4% NH3by mole, at 202.65 kPa and 35°C.You have
been asked to design a multistage countercurrent bubble cap absorber to remove NH3
from the above stream with water as the scrubbing liquid. The liquid mass flow rate is
limited to be 2 to 3.5 times of gas mass rate.NH3concentration should not be greater than
0.003 mg per m3 of the exit gas.
Assumptions/ design considerations:
 Lean water-NH3 system follows Henry’s law and the corresponding equilibrium
relation: 𝑦 ∗ = 0.85𝑥 @30°C
 Isothermal gas absorption at room temperature (~30°C)
 Optimum adsorption factor (𝐴 )= 1.2 to 2
 Overall column efficiency=70%
 Pressure drop per plate= 1 kPa
 Minimum liquid loading=70% of expected maximum loading
Hints:The flow rates of liquid and gas entering and leaving the absorber is almost
constant thought out the column if a small amount of the solute gas is absorbed. This is a
typical case, also common in practice when the solute gas concentration in the feed
stream is low (dilute gas absorption). For such operations, the variation of temperature
between column top and bottom trays is insignificant (~isothermal operation). The
pressure drop, if the column is not too tall, has minor effect on the physical properties of
process fluids that could influence the column design. The section-wise determination of
number trays and design are performed if the gas stream and/ or the solvent liquid
(usually makeup solvent) are introduced at any intermediate point of the column. The
number of theoretical trays can be estimated using either Kremser equation or graphical
technique for multistage counter current lean gas absorption ([1] page 290). The vapor
loading is the highest at the bottom tray even though its variation is not appreciable. For
the safe side, the design is usually performed at the bottom tray.
The mole fractions (𝑥 ,𝑦 ) between the phases are plotted in McCabe Thiele method of
𝑥 𝑦
distillation calculation. In case of absorption, the mole ratios ( 𝑋 = 1−𝑥 , 𝑌 = 1−𝑦 ) are

used for the determination of number of trays in graphical method instead of mole
fractions.

Reference books

[1]. McCabe W.L., Smith J.C. and Harriott P. ‘Unit Operations of Chemical
Engineering’, McGraw-Hill, 5th Ed., (1993), pp. 463-494.
[2]. Dutta B.K. ‘Heat Transfer-Principles and Applications’, PHI Pvt. Ltd., New
Delhi, 1st Ed. (2006), pp. 361-420.
[3]. Parker N.H. ‘How to specify evaporators’, Chem. Eng., May 27, 1963, pp.
135-140.
[4]. Minton P.E. ‘Hand Book of Evaporation Technology’, Noyes Publications,
New Jersey, 1986.
[5]. Joshi M.V. and Mahajani V.V. Process Equipment Design, McMillan
Publishers India Ltd., 3rd ed., 1996, New Delhi.