Result Origin

(Nurturing Potential Through Education)

Bihar Sharif (Nalanda).

Prepared By-Abhishek Kumar.

Social Science Faculty. (Result Origin)

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 Visualization of Frederic Sorrieu:-
 In 1848, Frederic Sorrieu, a French artist, prepared a series of four print
visualizing his dream of a world made up of ‘democratic and social republic,
as he called them.
 Artists of the time of the French Revolution personified Liberty as a female
figure.
 According to Sorrieu’s utopian vision, the peoples of the world are grouped as
distinct nations, identified through their flags and national costume.
 The result of these changes was the emergence of the nation-state in the
place of the multi-national dynastic empires of Europe.
 A modern state, in which a centralized power exercised sovereign control
over a clearly defined territory, had been developing over a long period of
time in Europe.

 The French Revolution and the idea of the Nation: -

 The first clear expression of nationalism came with the French Revolution in
1789.
 The political and constitutional changes that came in the wake of the French
Revolution led to the transfer of sovereignty from the monarchy to a body of
French citizens.
 The ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasized
the notion of a united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution.
 The Estates General was elected by the body of the active citizens and
renamed the National Assembly.
 Internal customs duties and dues were abolished and a uniform system of
weights and measures was adopted.
 Students and other members of educated middle classes began setting up
Jacobin club.
 Their activities and campaigns prepared the way for the French armies which
moved into Holland, Belgium, Switzerland and much of Italy in the 1790’s.
 The French armies began to carry the idea of nationalism abroad.

 The Civil Code of 1804: -

 The Civil Code of 1804 – usually known as the Napoleonic Code did away
with all privileges based on birth, established equality before the Law and
secured the right to property.
 Napoleon simplified administrative divisions, abolished the feudal system and
freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.
 Transport and communication systems were improved.
 Businessmen and small-scale producers of goods, in particular, began to
realize that uniform laws, standardised weights and measures, and a

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 common national currency would facilitate the movement and exchange of
goods and capital from one region to another.
 In many places such as Holland and Switzerland, Brussels, Mainz, Milan,
Warsaw, the French armies were welcomed as harbingers of Liberty.
 It became clear that the new administrative arrangements did not go hand in
hand with political freedom.
 Increased taxation, censorship, forced conscription into the French armies
required to conquer the rest of the Europe, all seemed to outweigh the
advantages of the administrative changes.

 Drawback of Civil Code 1804: -

 Increased Tax.
 Censorship were imposed.
 Forced to Join French Army.

 The Making of Nationalism in Europe

 Germany, Italy and Switzerland were divided into kingdoms, duchies and
cantons whose rulers had their autonomous territories.
 They did not see themselves as sharing a collective identity or common
culture.
 The Habsburg Empire ruled over Austria Hungary.
 In Hungary, half of the population spoke Magyar while the other half of the
spoke a variety of dialects.
 Besides these three dominant groups, there also lived within the boundaries
of the empire.
 The only tie binding these diverse groups together was a common allegiance
to the emperor.
 The Aristocracy and the new middle class

 Socially and politically, a landed aristocracy was the dominant class on the
continent.
 Their families were often connected by ties if marriages.
 This powerful aristocracy was, however, numerically a small group. The
growth of towns and the emergence of commercial classes whose existence
was based on production for the market.
 Industrialization began in England in the second half of the eighteenth
century, but in France and parts of the German states it occurred only during
the nineteenth century.
 In its wake, new social groups came into being: a working-class population,
and middle classes made up of industrialists, businessmen, professional.
 What did Liberal Nationalism Stand for?
 In early-nineteenth-century Europe were closely allied to the ideology of
liberalism.
 The term ‘liberalism’ derives from the Latin root liber, meaning free.
 Liberalism stood for freedom for the individual and equality of all before the
law.
 It emphasized the concept of government by consent.
 A constitution and representative government through parliament.
 The right to vote and to get elected was generated exclusively to property-
owning men.
 Men without property and all women were excluded from political rights.

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  Women and non-propertied men and women organised opposition
movements demanding equal political rights.
 The abolition of state-imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and
capital.
 Obstacles to economics exchanges and growth by the new commercial
classes, who argued for the creation of a unified economic territory allowing
the unhindered movement of goods, people and capital.
 The union abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from
over thirty to two.

 A New Conservation after 1815

 Following the defect of Napoleon in 1815, European governments were
driven by a spirit of conservatism
 Most conservatives, however, did not propose a return to the society of pre-
revolutionary days.
 That modernization could in fact strengthen traditional institutions like the
monarchy.
 In 1815, representatives of the European powers – Britain, Russia, Prussia
and Austria –who had collectively defeated Napoleon, met at Vienna to draw
up a settlement for Europe.
 The Bourbon dynasty, which had been deposed during the French
Revolution, was restored to power, and France lost the territories it had
annexed under Napoleon.
 German confederation of 39 states that has been set up by Napoleon was left
untouched.

 The Revolutionaries

 During the years following 1815, the fear of repression drove many liberal-
nationalists underground.
 Revolutionary at this time meant a commitment to oppose monarchical forms
and to fight for liberty and freedom.
 Giuseppe Mazzini, born in Genoa in 1807, he became a member of the secret
society of the Carbonari.
 He was sent into exile in 1831 for attempting a revolution in Liguria.
 Mazzini believed that god had intended nations to be the natural units of
mankind.
 Secret societies were set up in Germany, France, Switzerland and Poland.
 Metternich described him as ‘The most dangerous enemy of our social order’.
 Treaty of Vienna
 Bourbon dynasty was restored to power in France.
 A series of states created on the French boundary for preventing French
expansion in future.
 German confederation was left untouched.
 Main intentions were to restore the monarchies that had been overthrown by
Napoleon.
 The Age of Revolution: 1830 – 1848
 As conservative regimes tried to consolidate their power, liberalism and
nationalism came to be increasingly associated with revolution in many
regions of Europe such as the Italian and German states, the provinces of the
Ottoman Empire, Ireland and Poland.

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  An event that mobilized nationalist feelings among the educated elite across
Europe was the Greek war of independence.
 Greece had been the part of the Ottoman Empire since the fifteenth century.
 Greeks living in exile and from many west Europeans who had sympathies for
ancient Greek culture.
 The Romantic Imagination and national Feeling
 The development of nationalism did not come about only through wars and
territorial expansions.
 Culture played an important role in creating the idea of the nation: art and
poetry, stories and music helped express and shape nationalist feeling.
 National feelings were kept alive through music and languages.
 Karol Kurpinski celebrated the national struggles through
 operas and music, turning folk dances like the polonaise and mazurka into
nationalist symbols.
 Language too played an important role in developing nationalist sentiments.
 Many members of the clergy in Poland began to use language as a weapon
of national resistance.
 As a result, a large number of priests and bishops were put in jail or sent to
Siberia by the Russian authorities as punishment for their refusal to preach in
Russians.
 Hunger, Hardship and Popular Revolt
 The 1830s were years of great economic hardship in Europe.
 The first half of the nineteenth century saw an enormous increase in
population.
 In most countries there were more seekers of jobs than employment.
 Population from rural areas migrated to the cities to live in overcrowded slum.
 Food shortage and widespread unemployment brought the population of
Paris out on the roads.
 National Assembly proclaimed a republic, granted suffrage to all adult males
above 21,and guaranteed the right to work.
 Earlier, in 1845, weavers in Silesia had lead a revolt against contractors who
supplied them raw material and gave them orders for finished textile.
 On 4 June at 2 p.m. a large crowd of weavers emerged from their homes and
marched in pairs up to the mansion of their contractors demanding higher
wages.
 The contractors fled with his family to a neighbouring village which, however,
refused to shelter such a person.
 He returned 24 hours later having requisitioned the army.
 In the exchange that followed, eleven weavers were shot.

 1848: The Revolution of the Liberals

 The poor, unemployment and starving peasants and workers in many
European countries in the years 1848, a revolution led by the educated
middle classes was under way.
 Men and women of the liberal middle classes combined their demands for
constitutionalism with national unification.
 They drafted a constitution for a German nation to be headed by a monarchy
subject to a parliament.
 Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia, rejected it and joined other monarchs to oppose
the elected assembly.
 While the opposition of the aristocracy and military became stronger, the
social basis of parliament eroded.

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  The issue of extending political rights to women was a controversial one
within the liberal movement.
 Women had formed their own political associations, founded newspaper and
taken part in political meeting and demonstrations.
 Women were admitted only as observers to stand in the visitors’ gallery.
 Monarchs were beginning to realize that the cycles if revolution and
repression could be ended by granting concessions to the liberal-nationalist
revolutionaries.
 The Making of German and Italy
 In 1848, middle-class Germans tried to unite the different regions of the
German confederation into a nation state under an elected parliament.
 In Prussia, nation building acts were repressed by the combined forces of the
monarchy and the military and were supported by the landowners (“Junkers”).
 Prussia took over the leadership of the movement for national unification.
 Otto Von Bismarck, chief minister of Prussia, was the architect of the leading
role of Prussia in the process of nation-building.
 Prussia emerged victorious after fighting three wars over seven years against
the combined forces of Austria, Denmark and France and the process of
unification of Germany was completed.
 18th January 1871: The new German empire headed by the German
Emperor Kaiser William I was declared in the Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of
Versailles.
 The unification of Germany established Prussian dominance in Europe.
 The New German Empire focused on modernizing the currency, banking,
legal and judicial systems.
 Unification of Italy
 A long history of political fragmentation was experienced in Italy.
 Italy during the middle of the nineteenth century
 Was divided into seven states.
o Only Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled by an Italian princely house.
o The North was under Austrian Habsburgs.
o The centre was under Pope.
o The South was under the Bourbon Kings of Spain.
 Italian language had varieties of dialects; therefore, it was not stable in its
form.
 During the 1830s
o Giuseppe Mazzini formed a coherent program for uniting the Italian
Republic.
o Also, formed a secret society called Young Italy.
o Failure of the 1831 and 1848 revolutionary uprisings prompted King
Victor Emmanuel II from Sardinia-Piedmont to unify the Italian states.
o Chief Minister of Sardinia-Piedmont, Count Cavour, led the movement
for the unification of Italy.

 1859: Sardinia-Piedmont with an alliance with France defeated the Austrian

forces.
 Large number of people under the leadership of Giuseppe Garibaldi joined
the movement.
 1860: Sardinia-Piedmont‟s forces marched into south Italy and the Kingdom
of the Two Scillies and drove out the Spanish rulers.
 1861: Victor Emanuel was declared as the king of united Italy and Rome was
declared the capital of Italy.

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 Britain As a Nation

 Britain was not a nation state prior to 18th century. The primary identities
were based on ethnicity such as English, Welsh, Scot or Irish.
 The steady growth of power made the English nation extend its influence over
the other nations and islands.
 1688: England established as a nation state. English parliament seized power
from the monarchy.
 1707: The United Kingdom of Great Britain formed with the Act of the Union
between England and Scotland.
 England dominated Scotland and Ireland in all spheres. British Parliament
was dominated by English members.
 1801: Ireland was forcibly taken by the British after the failed revolution led by
Wolfe and his United Irishmen (1798).
 A new „British Nation‟ was formed with her various symbols such as the
British flag (Union Jack), the national anthem (“God Save Our Noble King”)
and the English language

 Visualizing the Nation

 Nation was personified in the female form by the artists of the 19th century.
 Female allegories such as that of liberty, justice and republic were invented.
 In France, the idea of a people’s nation was the christened Marianne. She
was characterized by the ideas of liberty and republic.
 In Germany, Germania became the allegory of the nation.
 they represented a country as if it were a person.

 Nationalism and imperialism

 By the quarter of the nineteenth century nationalism no longer retained its
idealistic liberal-democratic sentiment of the first half of the century but
became a narrow creed with limited ends.
 The most serious source of nationalist’s tension in Europe after 1871 was the
area called the Balkans.
 The Balkans was a region of geographical and ethnic variation.
 One by one its European subjects’ nationalities broke away from its control
and declared independence.
 The Balkan states were jealous of each other and each hoped to gain more
territory at the expense of each other.
 There was intense rivalry among the European powers over trade, colonies,
naval might and military might. European powers such as Russia, Germany,
England and Austro-Hungary were keen on opposing the hold of other
powers over the Balkan for extending their own area of control.
 All these events ultimately triggered the First World War (1914).
 Nationalism stained with imperialism led Europe to disaster.
 Many colonized countries in the world started to oppose imperial domination.
 The anti-imperialist movements developed as nationalist movements.

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Q.1. Write a note on Giuseppe Mazzini.
Ans. Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian revolutionary, born in Genoa in 1807. He was a member of
the secret society of the Carbonari. At the age of 24, he was sent into exile in 1831 for
attempting a revolution in Liguria. He founded underground societies named ‘Young Italy’ in
Marseilles and ‘Young Europe’ in Berne, whose members were like-minded young men from
Poland, France, Italy and the German States.

Q.2.State any three measures and practices introduced by French revolutionaries to create a
sense of collective identity among French People.
Ans. The steps taken to create a sense of collective identity amongst French people by the French
revolutionaries included
 Ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasising the notion of
a united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution.
 A new French flag, a tricolour.
 A new National Assembly elected by active citizens.
 New hymns, oaths and martyrs commemorated in the name of the nation.
 Centralised administrative system.

Q.3. What was the reaction to the Napoleonic Code?

Ans. Initially many people welcomed French armies as harbingers of liberty. But the initial
enthusiasm soon turned to hostility, as it became clear that the new administrative
arrangements did not go hand in hand with political freedom. Increased taxation, censorship,
forced conscription into the French armies as required to conquer the rest of Europe, all
seemed to outweigh the advantages of the administrative changes.

Q.4. What was understood by the term ‘liberalism’?

Ans. The term ‘liberalism’ derives from the Latin root liber meaning free. For the new middle
classes liberalism stood for freedom for the individual and equality of all before the law.
Politically, it emphasised the concept of government by consent. Since the French Revolution,
liberalism had stood for the end of autocracy and clerical privileges a constitution and
representative government through parliament. Nineteenth century liberals also stressed the
inviolability of private property.

Q.5. When and why was the Zollverein formed?

Ans. In 1834, a customs union or Zollverein was formed at the initiative of Prussia and joined by
most of the German States. The union abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of
currencies from over thirty to two. The creation of a network of railways further stimulated
mobility, harnessing economic interests to national unification. A wave of economic
nationalism strengthened the wider nationalist sentiments growing at the time.

Q.6. How did the Treaty of Vienna (1815) come into being?
Ans. In 1815, representatives of the European powers — Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria —
who had collectively defeated Napoleon, met at Vienna to draw up a settlement for Europe.
The Congress was hosted by the Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich. The delegates drew up
the Treaty of Vienna of 1815 with the object of undoing most of the changes that had come
about in Europe during the Napoleonic wars.

Q.7. “Culture played an important role in creating the idea of the nation in Europe.” Support
the statement with examples.
Ans. Romanticism criticised glorification of reason and science and focussed instead on emotions,
intuitions and mystical feelings. The poets and romantic artists tried to create a sense of shared

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collective heritage, a common cultural past, as the basis of nationalism.
Some Romantics, like the German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder, tried through folk
songs, folk poetry and folk dances to popularise the true spirit of the nation. The Polish artist,
Karol Kurpinski encouraged National Struggle through his operas and music, turning folk
dances like the ‘polonaise’ and ‘mazurka’ into national symbols. Language also played an
important role in developing nationalist feelings. The Grimm Brothers promoted German
language to oppose French domination through their collection of folk tales. The Polish used
language as a weapon against Russian domination.

Q.8. In which year was the unification of Italy completed? Mention two features of the
unification movement. [2011(T-2)]
Ans. Unification of Italy took place in 1860. Despite formidable hurdles which beset the path of
unification of Italy, the feeling of liberty, equality and patriotism could not remain suppressed
among Italians for a long time. Some patriots, supporters of democracy, writers, philosophers
and many secret institutions resolved to launch a combined struggle to achieve liberty and
liberalism for Italy.

Q.9. “Italy had a long history of political fragmentation”. Support the statement by giving any
three points. [2011 (T-2)]
Ans. Italians were scattered over several dynastic states as well as the multinational Habsburg
Empire. During the middle of the 19th century, Italy was divided into seven states, of which
only one state – Sardinia – Piedmont – was ruled by an Italian princely house. The north was
under Austrian Habsburgs, the centre was ruled by the Pope and the southern regions were
under the domination of the Bourbon kings of Spain. Even the Italian language had many
regional and local variations.

Q.10. How did French territory undergo changes due to the Treaty of Vienna in 1815?
Ans. Representatives of European powers, i.e. Austria, Britain, Russia and Prussia, met at Vienna
in 1815 after having defeated Napoleon. The Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich was the
head of the Congress. Here the Treaty of Vienna of 1815 was drawn up to undo the changes
after the Napoleonic wars. Thus the Bourbon dynasty, deposed during the French Revolution,
was put back in power even as France lost the territories it had annexed under Napoleon.
To prevent every future expansion of France, many states were set up on France’s boundaries.
So the kingdom of Netherlands including Belgium came up in the north, while Genoa came
together with Piedmont in the south. Prussia received some important new territories on its
western frontiers. Austria gained control of northern Italy. The 39 states in the German
Confederation as set up by Napoleon underwent no changes. In the east, Russia received a part
of Poland and Prussia received a part of Saxony.
The objective was to restore the monarchies overthrown by Napoleon and create a new
conservative order in Europe.

Q.11. Explain any four provisions of Napoleon’s Civil Code of 1804.

Ans.Napoleon incorporated revolutionary principles in the administrative field to make the whole
system more rational and effective. His civil code of 1804 was known as Napoleonic Code.
(i) First, he did away with all the privileges based on birth. Everyone became equal before the
law. He abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial duties.
(ii) He secured the right to property.
(iii) Peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen found a new-found freedom as guild
restrictions were removed in towns also.
(iv) Uniform laws, standardised weights and measures, a common national currency
facilitated the movement and exchange of goods and capital from one region to another.

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