Illumination

Model

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• An illumination model, also called a
lighting model and sometimes referred to
as a shading model, is used to calculate
the intensity of light that we should see
at a given point on the surface of an
object.

• Surface rendering means a procedure for

applying a lighting model to obtain
pixel intensities for all the projected
surface positions in a scene.
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• A surface-rendering algorithm uses the
intensity calculations from an
illumination model to determine the light
intensity for all projected pixel positions
for the various surfaces in a scene.

• Surface rendering can be performed by

applying the illumination model to every
visible surface point

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 LIGHT SOURCES
• light sources are referred to as light-
emitting
sources; and reflecting surfaces, such as the
walls of a room, are termed light-
reflecting sources
• A luminous object, in general, can be both
a light source and a light reflector.
• The simplest model for a light emitter is a
point source.
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• When light is incident on an opaque
surface, part of it is reflected and part is
absorbed.
• The amount of incident light reflected by
a surface depends on the type of
material. Shiny materials reflect more
of the incident light, and dull surfaces
absorb more of the incident light.
• for an illuminated transparent surface,
some of the incident light will be
reflected and some will be transmitted
through the material 5
• Surfaces that are rough, or grainy, tend
to scatter the reflected light in all
directions.
This scattered light is called diffuse
reflection.

• In addition to diffuse reflection, light

sources create highlights, or bright spots,
called specular reflection.

• This highlighting effect is more

pronounced on shiny surfaces than on
6 dull
 Ambient Light
• In our basic illumination model, we can set a
general level of brightness for a scene. This is a
simple way to model the combination of light
reflections from various surfaces to produce a
uniform illumination called the ambient light,
or background light.
• Ambient light has no spatial or directional
characteristics. The amount of ambient light
incident on each object is a constant for all
surfaces and over all directions.

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 Diffuse Reflection
• Diffuse reflections are constant over each
surface in a scene

• The fractional amount of the incident light

that is diffusely reflected can be set for
each surface with parameter kd, the
diffuse-reflection coefficient, or diffuse
reflectivity.

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• Parameter kd is assigned a constant
value in the interval 0 to 1.

• we want a highly reflective surface, we

set the value of kd near 1. This produces
a bright surface with the intensity of the
reflected light near that of the incident
light.

• To simulate a surface that absorbs most

of the incident light, we set the
reflectivity to a value near 0. 9
• If a surface is exposed only to ambient
light, we can express the intensity of the
diffuse reflection at any point on the
surface as

I amb diff = k d I a

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• we assume that the diffuse reflections
from the surface are scattered with equal
intensity in all directions, independent of
the viewing directions.

• Such surfaces are sometimes referred to

as ideal diffuse reflectors. They are also
called Lambertian reflectors, since
radiated light energy from any point on
the surface is governed by Lambert’s
cosine law.
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• If we denote the angle of incidence
between the incoming light direction and
the surface normal as ϴ, then the
projected area of a
surface patch perpendicular to the light
direction is proportional to cos ϴ .

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Thus, the amount of illumination (or the
"number of incident light rays" cutting across
the projected surface patch) depends on cos ϴ.

• If the incoming light from the source is

perpendicular to the surface at a particular
point, that point is fully illuminated.

• As the angle of illumination moves away from

the surface normal, the brightness of the point
drops off.
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• If Il , is the intensity of the point light source,
then the diffuse reflection equation for a point
on the surface can be written as

I l ,diff = k d I l cos ϴ

• A surface is illuminated by a point source

only if the angle of incidence is in the
range 0° to 90 ° (cos 0 is in the interval
from 0 to 1).
• When cos ϴ is negative, the light source
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15
• If N is the unit normal vector to a surface
and L is the unit direction vector to the
point light source from a position on the
surface, then
cos ϴ = N . L
and the diffuse reflection equation for
single point-source illumination is

I l ,diff = k d I l N. L

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• We can combine the ambient and point
source intensity calculations to obtain an
expression for the total diffuse
reflection.

• In addition, many graphics packages

introduce an ambient-reflection
coefficient ka to modify the ambient
light intensity I, for each surface. This
simply provides us with an additional
parameter to adjust the light conditions
in a scene. 17
• Using parameter ka we can write the total
diffuse reflection equation as
I l ,diff = k a I a + k d I l ( N. L )

• where both k a and k d depend on surface

material properties and are assigned
values
in the range from 0 to 1

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 Specular Reflection and the Phong
Model
• we see a highlight, or bright spot, at
certain viewing directions. This
phenomenon, called specular reflection,
is the result of total, or near total
reflection of the incident light in a
concentrated region around the specular
reflection angle.

• The specular-reflection angle equals the

angle of the incident light.
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20
• In this figure, we use R to represent the unit
vector in the direction of ideal specular
reflection; L to represent the unit vector
directed toward the point light source; and V as
the unit vector pointing to the viewer from the
surface position.
• Angle ϴ is the viewing angle relative to the
specular-reflection direction R.
• For an ideal reflector (perfect mirror), incident
light is reflected only in the specular-reflection
direction. In this case, we would only see
reflected light when vectors V and R coincide
(ϴ = 0).
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• Phong model, sets the intensity of specular
reflection proportional to cos ns ϴ.
• Angle ϴ can be assigned values in the range 0
to 90, so that cos ϴ varies from 0 to 1.
• The value assigned to specular-reflection
parameter ns is determined by the type of
surface that we want to display.
• A very shiny surface is modeled with a large
value for ns (say, 100 or more), and smaller
values (down to 1) are used for duller
surfaces.
• For a perfect reflector, ns is infinite.

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• We can approximately model
monochromatic
specular intensity variations using a
specular-reflection coefficient, W(ϴ) for
each surface.
• In general, W(ϴ) tends to increase as
the
angle of incidence increases.
• Using the spectral-reflection function
W(ϴ), we can write the Phong specular-
reflection model as
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• Since V and R are unit vectors in the
viewing and specular-reflection
directions,
we can calculate the value of cos ϴ with
V.R
• Assuming the specular-reflection
coefficient is a constant, we can
determine the intensity of
the specular reflection at a surface point
with the calculation
I spec = ks Il ( V. R ) ns
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• simplified Phong model is obtained by
using the halfway vector H between L and
V to calculate the range of specular
reflections.
• If we replace V.R in the Phong model with
the dot product N . H, this simply
replaces the empirical cos ϴ calculation
with the empirical cos α calculation

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26
Combined Diffuse and Specular
Reflections
with Multiple Light Sources

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• If we place more than one point source in
a scene, we obtain the light reflection
at any surface point by summing the
contributions from the individual sources:

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 Warn Model
• The Warn model provides a method for
simulating studio lighting effects by
controlling light intensity in different
directions.
• Light sources are modeled as points on a
reflecting surface, using the Phong model
for the surface points.
• Then the intensity in different directions
is controlled by selecting values for the
Phong exponent
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• In addition, light controls and
spotlighting, used by studio
photographers can be simulated in the
Warn model.
• Flaps are used to control the amount of
light emitted by a source In various
directions

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 Intensity Attenuation
• As radiant energy from a point light
source travels through space, its
amplitude is attenuated by the factor
l/d2, where d is the distance that the
light has travelled.
• This means that a surface close to the
light source (small d) receives a higher
incident
intensity from the source than a distant
surface (large d).
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• a general inverse quadratic attenuation
function can be set up as

A user can then fiddle with the coefficients ao, a1,

and a2 , to obtain a variety of lighting effects for
a scene. The value of the constant term ao can be
adjusted to
prevent f(d) from becoming too large when d is
very small.

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33
 Colour Considerations

• Most graphics displays of realistic scenes

are in colour. But the illumination model
discussed so far considers only
monochromatic lighting effects.

• To incorporate colour, we need to write

the intensity equation as a function of
the colour
properties of the light sources and object
surfaces. 34
• One way to set surface colors is by specifing
the reflectivity coefficients as three-element
vectors.
• The diffuse reflection coefficient vector, for
example, would then have RGB components
( kdR , kdG , kdB )
• If we want an object to have a blue surface,
we select a nonzero value in the range from
0 to 1 for the blue reflectivity component, kdB
, while the red and green reflectivity
components are set to zero ( kdR =0, kdG =0)

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• Any nonzero red or green components in
the incident light are absorbed, and only
the blue component is reflected. The
intensity calculation for this example
reduces to the single expression

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• Surfaces typically are illuminated with white light
sources, and in general we can set surface color so
that the reflected light has nonzero values for all
three RGB components.
• Calculated intensity levels for each color
component can be used to adjust the
corresponding electron gun in an RGB monitor.
• In his original specular-reflection model, Phong set
parameter ks to a constant value independent of
the surface color. This produces specular
reflections that are the same color as the incident
light (usually white),

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 Transparency

• A transparent surface, in general,

produces both reflected and transmitted
light.

• The relative contribution of the

transmitted light depends on the degree
of transparency of the surface and
whether any light sources or illuminated
surfaces are behind the transparent
surface 38
• We can combine the transmitted intensity
Itrans through a surface from a background
object with the reflected intensity Irefl
from the transparent surface using a
transparency coefficient kt.
• We assign parameter kt , a value between
0 and 1 to specify how much of the
background light is to be transmitted.
• Total surface intensity is then calculated
as

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40
 Shadows
• By applying a hidden-surface method with a
light source at the view position, we can
determine which surface sections cannot be
"seen" from the light source.
• These are the shadow areas.
• Once we have determined the shadow
areas for all light sources, the shadows
could be treated as surface patterns and
stored in pattern arrays

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• Surfaces that are visible from the view
position are shaded according to the
lighting
model, which can be combined with
texture patterns.

• We can display shadow areas with

ambient-light intensity only, or we can
combine the ambient light with specified
surface textures.

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