A Brief History of Sociology

Since ancient times, people have been fascinated by the relationship between individuals and the
societies to which they belong. Many topics studied in modern sociology were also studied by
ancient philosophers in their desire to describe an ideal society, including theories of social conflict,
economics, social cohesion, and power (Hannoum 2003).

In the thirteenth century, Ma Tuan-Lin, a Chinese historian, first recognized social dynamics as an
underlying component of historical development in his seminal encyclopaedia, General Study of
Literary Remains. The next century saw the emergence of the historian some consider to be the
world’s first sociologist: Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406) of Tunisia. He wrote about many topics of
interest today, setting a foundation for both modern sociology and economics, including a theory
of social conflict, a comparison of nomadic and sedentary life, a description of political economy,
and a study connecting a tribe’s social cohesion to its capacity for power (Hannoum 2003).

Although sociology has its roots in the works of philosophers like Plato, Aristotle, and Confucius,
it is a relatively new academic discipline. It emerged in the early nineteenth century in response to
the challenges of modernity. Increasing mobility and technological advances resulted in the
increasing exposure of people to cultures and societies different from their own. The impact of
this exposure was varied, but for some people, it included the breakdown of traditional norms and
customs and warranted a revised understanding of how the world works. Sociologists responded
to these changes by trying to understand what holds social groups together and also to explore
possible solutions to the breakdown of social solidarity.

Thinkers of the Enlightenment period in the eighteenth century also helped set the stage for the
sociologists that would follow. This period was the first time in history that thinkers tried to
provide general explanations of the social world. They were able to detach themselves, at least in
principle, from expounding some existing ideology and to attempt to lay down general principles
that explained social life.

The Birth of Sociology

The term sociology was coined by French philosopher Auguste Comte in 1838, who for this
reason is known as the “Father of Sociology.” Comte felt that science could be used to study the
social world. Just as there are testable facts regarding gravity and other natural laws, Comte thought
that scientific analyses could also discover the laws governing our social lives. It was in this context
that Comte introduced the concept of positivism to sociology—a way to understand the social
world based on scientific facts. He believed that, with this new understanding, people could build
a better future. He envisioned a process of social change in which sociologists played crucial roles
in guiding society.

Other events of that time period also influenced the development of sociology. The nineteenth
and twentieth centuries were times of many social upheavals and changes in the social order that
interested the early sociologists. The political revolutions sweeping Europe during the eighteenth
and nineteenth centuries led to a focus on social change and the establishment of social order that
still concerns sociologists today. Many early sociologists were also concerned with the Industrial
Revolution and rise of capitalism and socialism. Additionally, the growth of cities and religious
transformations were causing many changes in people’s lives.
Other classical theorists of sociology from the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries
include Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, Max Weber, W.E.B. DuBois, and Harriet Martineau. As
pioneers in sociology, most of the early sociological thinkers were trained in other academic
disciplines, including history, philosophy, and economics. The diversity of their trainings is
reflected in the topics they researched, including religion, education, economics, inequality,
psychology, ethics, philosophy, and theology.

These pioneers of sociology all had a vision of using sociology to call attention to social concerns
and bring about social change. In Europe, for example, Karl Marx teamed with wealthy
industrialist Friedrich Engelsto address class inequality. Writing during the Industrial Revolution,
when many factory owners were lavishly wealthy and many factory workers despairingly poor, they
attacked the rampant inequalities of the day and focused on the role of capitalist economic
structures in perpetuating these inequalities. In Germany, Max Weber was active in politics while
in France, Emile Durkheim advocated for educational reform. In Britain, Harriet Martineau
advocated for the rights of girls and women, and in the US, W.E.B. DuBois focused on the
problem of racism.

Sociology As A Discipline
The growth of sociology as an academic discipline in the United States coincided with the
establishment and upgrading of many universities that were including a new focus on graduate
departments and curricula on “modern subjects.” In 1876, Yale University’s William Graham
Sumner taught the first course identified as “sociology” in the United States. The University of
Chicago established the first graduate department of sociology in the United States in 1892 and by
1910, most colleges and universities were offering sociology courses. Thirty years later, most of
these schools had established sociology departments. Sociology was first taught in high schools in
1911.

Sociology was also growing in Germany and France during this period. However, in Europe, the
discipline suffered great setbacks as a result of World Wars I and II. Many sociologists were killed
or fled Germany and France between 1933 and the end of World War II. After World War II,
sociologists returned to Germany influenced by their studies in America. The result was that
American sociologists became the world leaders in theory and research for many years.

Sociology has grown into a diverse and dynamic discipline, experiencing a proliferation of specialty
areas. The American Sociological Association (ASA) was formed in 1905 with 115 members. By
the end of 2004, it had grown to almost 14,000 members and more than 40 “sections” covering
specific areas of interest. Many other countries also have large national sociology organizations.
The International Sociological Association (ISA) boasted more than 3,300 members in 2004 from
91 different countries. The ISA sponsored research committees covering more than 50 different
areas of interest, covering topics as diverse as children, aging, families, law, emotions, sexuality,
religion, mental health, peace and war, and work.