Special Requirement in Traffic Signal

57.1 Overview 2

Traffic signals are designed to ensure safe and orderly

flow of traffic, Protect pedestrians and vehicles at busy
intersections and reduce the severity and frequency of ac- 3

cidents between vehicles entering intersections. Previous 4

chapters discussed some important design principles such

P1 P2
as: (i) Phase Design (ii) Cycle Time Determination (iii)
Green Splitting (iv) Performance Evaluation This chap-
ter we will discuss some special requirements in the signal 1
design such as: (i) Pedestrian crossing requirement (ii)
Interval design, (iii) Effect of tuning vehicles, and (iv) Pedestrian crossing

Lane utilization.

start-up lost time ts can be assumed as 4.7 seconds and

57.2 Pedestrian crossing the walking speed can be assumed to be 1.2 m/s.

Pedestrian crossing requirements can be taken care by

two ways; by suitable phase design or by providing an
exclusive pedestrian phase. It is possible in some cases
57.3 Interval design
to allocate time for the pedestrians without providing an
There are two intervals, namely the change interval and
exclusive phase for them. For example, consider an inter-
clearance interval, normally provided in a traffic signal.
section in which the traffic moves from north to south and
also from east to west. If we are providing a phase which
allows the traffic to flow only in north-south direction, 57.3.1 Change interval
then the pedestrians can cross in east-west direction and
vice-versa. However in some cases, it may be necessary The change interval or yellow time is provided after green
to provide an exclusive pedestrian phase. In such cases, time for movement. The purpose is to warn a driver ap-
the procedure involves computation of time duration of proaching the intersection during the end of a green time
allocation of pedestrian phase. Green time for pedestrian about the coming of a red signal. They normally have a
crossing Gp can be found out by, value of 3 to 6 seconds. The design consideration is that
a driver approaching the intersection with design speed
dx should be able to stop at the stop line of the intersec-
Gp = ts +
uP tion before the start of red time. Institute of transporta-
where Gp is the minimum safe time required for the tion engineers (ITE) has recommended a methodology
pedestrians to cross, often referred to as the pedestrian for computing the appropriate length of change interval
green time, ts is the start-up lost time, dx is the cross- which is as follows:
ing distance in meters, and up is the walking speed of v
pedestrians which is about 15th percentile speed. The Y =t+ (57.1)
2(g n + a)
57. Special Requirement in Traffic Signal Transportation System Engineering

where t is the reaction time (about 1.0 sec), v is the veloc- on the approach is at least 35 seconds during that
ity of the approaching vehicles, g is the acceleration due same peak hour.
to gravity (9.8 m/sec2), n is the grade of the approach in
3. Collision Experience: Separate right -turn phas-
decimals and a is the deceleration of Change interval can
ing may be considered if the critical number of re-
also be approximately computed as y = SSD/v, where
portable right -turn collisions has occurred. These
SSD is the stopping sight distance and v is the speed of
are: (i) For one approach to the intersection, the
the vehicle. The clearance interval is provided after yel-
critical number is five l right -turn collisions in one
low interval and as mentioned earlier, it is used to clear
year, or seven in two years. (ii) For both approaches
off the vehicles in the intersection. Clearance interval is
to an intersection, the critical number is seven right
optional in a signal design. It depends on the geometry of
-turn collisions in one year, or eleven in two years.
the intersection. If the intersection is small, then there
is no need of clearance interval whereas for very large So the right turning vehicles affected saturation flow
intersections, it may be provided. based on adjusted saturation headway. Finally actual
values of right turning are calculated from right turn ad-
57.3.2 Clearance interval justment factor. The adjustments factor is calculated by
following equations. Adjusted saturation headway,
The clearance interval or all-red will facilitate a vehicle
just crossed the stop line at the turn of red to clear the hadj = hideal × (PRT × eRT + (1 − PRT ) × 1)
intersection without being collided by a vehicle from the Adjusted saturation flow,
next phase. ITE recommends the following policy for the
3600
design of all read time, given as Sadj =
 w+L hadj
 v
if no pedestrians Multiplicative right turn adjustment factor,
RAR == max w+L v , P
v if pedestrian crossing (57.2)
 P +L
if protected 1
v fRT =
1 + PRT (eRT − 1)
where w is the width of the intersection from stop line
to the farthest conflicting traffic, L is the length of the Sadj = Sideal × fRT
vehicle (about 6 m), v is the speed of the vehicle, and P
is the width of the intersection from STOP line to the Numerical example
farthest conflicting pedestrian cross-walk.
If there is 15 percent right turning movement, eRT
(through-car equivalent for permitted left turns) is 3,
57.4 Effect of turning vehicles saturation headway is 2 sec; Find the value of Adjusted
Saturation flow.
57.4.1 Right turning vehicles
Solution: Given hideal = 2 sec, PRT = 15%(0.15),
Right-turn signal phases facilitate right-turning traffic Sideal = 1800, eRT = 3
and may improve the safety of the intersection for right- Case 1: Find adjusted saturation headway as:
turning vehicles. However, this is done at the expense
of the amount of green time available for through traffic hadj = hideal × (PRT × eRT + (1 − PRT ) × 1)
and will usually reduce the capacity of the intersection. = 2 × (0.15 × 3 + (1 − 0.15) × 1)
Right-turn arrows also result in longer cycle lengths,
= 2.6 sec/veh
which in turn have a detrimental effect by increasing
stops and delays. While phases for protected right- Now, find adjusted saturation flow as: Sadj = 3600 hadj =
turning vehicles are popular and commonly requested, 3600
= 1385. The adjusted saturation flow is 1385 vph.
2.6
other methods of handling right-turn conflicts also need Case 2 Find the adjustment factor to calculate adjusted
to be considered. Potential solutions may include pro- saturation flow based on ideal saturation flow (1800)
hibiting right-turns and geometric improvements. The
three criteria for right -turn phase is presented below: 1
fRT =
1 + PRT (eRT − 1)
1. Traffic Volumes 1
= = 0.77
2. Delay: Separate right -turn phasing may be consid- 1 + 0.15(3 − 1)
ered if the average delay for all right-turning vehicles sadj = Sideal × fRT = 1800 × 0.77 = 1386
 1453
The adjusted saturation flow is 1386 vph. The result is
same from both cases.

57.4.2 Left turning vehicles

1111111
0000000
Lft turn adjustment factor for saturation flow rate is as 2300

follows: For exclusive lane fLT is 0.85 and for shared lane 111111
000000 1985
fLT = 1.0 − 0.15 PLT , where pLT is the proportions of 111111
000000
left turns in lane group. Normally in left turn, separate
0110
signal phase are not provided at intersection as per Indian 10
1010
standard. 10

1245
57.4.3 Effect of Lane Distribution
Congestion and Delay at intersection particularly formed Figure 57.1: Numerical example: Flow details
by to too many vehicles are moving same lane. So reduce 11
00
00
11
that problem, we need to provide lane distribution. The 11111111
00000000 000000000
111111111 00
11
00000000
11111111 00
11
lane distribution at intersection normally followed two 00
11
00
11
000000000
111111111 00
11
categories. 000000000
111111111
First one is the total volume of given approach are Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 4

distributed by providing separate lane for left, right and

through movement. For that individual movement, we Figure 57.2: Numerical example: Phase plan details
need to fix some percentage of total flow at that partic-
ular approach. This type clearly defined in Figure 5 and
2. Right turn Traffic from total directional movement
following example.
= 20%
In second type, the given approach total volumes are
separated by individual lane for left, right and straight. 3. Through Traffic from total directional movement =
And straight moving vehicles also distributed into left 70%
and right turn lanes for unavoidable condition. If through
movement vehicles are high, we need to follow second 4. Left turning Vehicles = 2300 × 0.1 = 230 veh/hr
type distribution. Second type is explained in Figure 6
5. Right turning Vehicles = 2300 × 0.2 = 460 veh/hr
and example. Normally high straight cases we followed
second method. In that second type divided into two 6. Through Movement Vehicles = 2300 × 0.7 =
distribution methods. First one is, through movement 1610 veh/hr
distributed into left, right and straight lanes. Second
is, extra separate lane provide for through movement. Lane Distribution
So each cases some lane distribution factors are followed.
1. Left turn utilization factor = 0.2
That importance points are shown in following examples.
2. Right turn utilization factor = 0.3
Numerical example 3. Through traffic in Left turn Lane = (2300 × 0.7) ×
Find Critical Volume (Vi) for a Given 4 arm Intersection. 0.2 = 322 veh/hr
Traffic flow Proportion of Left and Right turn are 10% 4. Through traffic in Right turn Lane = (2300 × 0.7) ×
and 20% respectively (For all approach). Left and Right 0.3 = 483 veh/hr
turn Lane utilization factors are 0.2 and 0.3 respectively.
5. Through traffic in Median Lane = (2300×0.7)×0.5 =
805 veh/hr
Solution: From West to East, From East to west,
1. Left turn Traffic movement from total directional 1. Left turn Traffic movement from total directional
movement = 10% movement = 10%
 2. Right turn Traffic from total directional movement 6. Through Movement Vehicles =1245 × 0.7 =
= 20% 871 veh/hr
3. Through Traffic from total directional movement = Vi = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 = 804 + 695 + 871 + 1071 =
70% 3442 veh/hr
4. Left turning Vehicles = 1985 × 0.1 = 198 veh/hr
Numerical example
5. Right turning Vehicles = 1985 × 0.2 = 397 veh/hr
The traffic flow for a four-legged intersection is as shown
6. Through Movement Vehicles = 1985 × 0.7 = in figure 57.3. Given that the lost time per phase is
1390 veh/hr
Lane Distribution
1. Left turn utilization factor = 0.2 01
1010
10
2. Right turn utilization factor = 0.3 196 170
367
140
3. Through traffic in Left turn Lane = (1985 × 0.7) × 1111 400
0000 187
0.2 = 278 veh/hr 215
433 1111
0000
4. Through traffic in Right turn Lane = (1985 × 0.7) × 220
0.3 = 417 veh/hr 120 417
10 233
01
1010
5. Through traffic in Median Lane = (1985×0.7)×0.5 = 10
695 veh/hr
From North to south,
1. Left turn Traffic movement from total directional Figure 57.3: Traffic flow for a typical four-legged inter-
movement = 10% section

2. Right turn Traffic from total directional movement 2.4 seconds, saturation headway is 2.2 seconds, amber
= 20% time is 3 seconds per phase, find the cycle length, green
time and performance measure(delay per cycle). Assume
3. Through Traffic from total directional movement =
critical v/c ratio as 0.9.
70%
4. Left turning Vehicles = 1453 × 0.1 = 145 veh/hr Solution
5. Right turning Vehicles = 1453 × 0.2 = 291 veh/hr 1. The phase plan is as shown in figure 57.4. Sum of
6. Through Movement Vehicles =1453 × 0.7 = .

1017 veh/hr Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 4

417 187
400
From south to North, 233
433
1. Left turn Traffic movement from total directional 196
215
movement = 10% 367

2. Right turn Traffic from total directional movement Figure 57.4: Phase plan
= 20%
critical lane volumes is the sum of maximum lane
3. Through Traffic from total directional movement = volumes in each phase, ΣVCi = 433+417+233+215
70% = 1298 vph.
4. Left turning Vehicles =1245 × 0.1 = 124 veh/hr
2. Saturation flow rate, Si from equation= 3600
2.2 = 1637
Vc 433 417 233 1298
5. Right turning Vehicles =1245 × 0.2 = 250 veh/hr vph. Si = 1637 + 1637 + 1637 + 1637 = 0.793.
Transportation System Engineering 57. Special Requirement in Traffic Signal

3. Cycle length can be found out from the equa- 14. Delay at the intersection in the east-west direction
tion C= 4×2.4×0.9
0.9− 1298
= 80.68 seconds ≈ 80 seconds. can be found out from equationas
1637

104.5
4. The effective green time can be found out as Gi = 2 [1 − 23−2.4+3
104.5 ]
2

VCi dEW = 433 = 42.57 sec/cycle.

VC × (C − L) = 80-(4×2.4)= 70.4 seconds, where L 1 − 1637
is the lost time for that phase = 4× 2.4.
15. Delay at the intersection in the west-east direction
5. Green splitting for the phase 1 can be found out as can be found out from equation,as
483
g1 = 70.4 × [ 1298 ] = 22.88 seconds.
104.5
2 [1 − 23−2.4+3
104.5 ]
2
6. Similarly green splitting for the phase 2,g2 = 70.4 × dW E = 400 = 41.44 sec/cycle.
417 1 − 1637
[ 1298 ] = 22.02 seconds.
(57.3)
7. Similarly green splitting for the phase 3,g3 = 70.4 ×
233 16. Delay at the intersection in the north-south direction
[ 1298 ] = 12.04 seconds.
can be found out from equation,
8. Similarly green splitting for the phase 4,g4 = 70.4 × 104.5
215 2 [1− 23−2.4+3
104.5 ]
2
[ 1298 ] = 11.66 seconds. dN S = 367 = 40.36 sec/cycle.
1 − 1637
9. The actual green time for phase 1 from equationG1 = (57.4)
22.88-3+2.4 ≈ 23 seconds.
17. Delay at the intersection in the south-north direction
10. Similarly actual green time for phase 2, G2 = 22.02- can be found out from equation,
3+2.4 ≈ 23 seconds. 104.5
2 [1− 23−2.4+3
104.5 ]
2
dSN = 417 = 42.018 sec/cycle.
11. Similarly actual green time for phase 3, G3 = 12.04- 1 − 1637
3+2.4 ≈ 13 seconds. (57.5)

12. Similarly actual green time for phase 4, G4 = 11.66- 18. Delay at the intersection in the south-east direction
3+2.4 ≈ 12 seconds. can be found out from equation,
104.5
13. Pedestrian time can be found out from as Gp = 4 + 2 [1− 13−2.4+3
104.5 ]
2

6×3.5 dSE = 233 = 46.096 sec/cycle.

1.2 = 21.5 seconds. The phase diagram is shown 1 − 1637
in figure 57.5. The actual cycle time will be the sum (57.6)

Phase 1 19. Delay at the intersection in the north-west direction

23 3 78.5 can be found out from equation,
Phase 2 104.5
2 [1− 13−2.4+3
104.5 ]
2
26 23 3 52.5 dN W = 196 = 44.912 sec/cycle.
1 − 1637
Phase 3
(57.7)
52 13 3 36.5
Phase 4 20. Delay at the intersection in the west-south direction
can be found out from equation,
68 12 3 21.5
104.5
Pedestrian phase
2 [1− 12−2.4+3
104.5 ]
2

83 4 17.5
dW S = 215 = 46.52 sec/cycle.
1 − 1637
(57.8)
104.5
21. Delay at the intersection in the east-north direction
Figure 57.5: Timing diagram can be found out from equation,
104.5
of actual green time plus amber time plus actual red 2 [1− 12−2.4+3
104.5 ]
2
dEN = 187 = 45.62 sec/cycle.
time for any phase. Therefore, for phase 1, actual 1 − 1637
cycle time = 23+3+78.5 = 104.5 seconds. (57.9)
57.5 Summary
Green splitting is done by proportioning the green time
among various phases according to the critical volume of
the phase. Pedestrian phases are provided by considering
the walking speed and start-up lost time. Like other
facilities, signals are also assessed for performance, delay
being th e important parameter used.

References
1. L. R Kadiyali. Traffic Engineering and Transporta-
tion Planning. Khanna Publishers, New Delhi, 1987.
2. William R McShane, Roger P Roesss, and Elena S
Prassas. Traffic Engineering. Prentice-Hall, Inc,
Upper Saddle River, New Jesery, 1998.