Hydrological Sciences Journal

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Delineation of groundwater potential zones

and zones of groundwater quality suitable for
domestic purposes using remote sensing and GIS

Y. SRINIVASA RAO & D. K. JUGRAN

To cite this article: Y. SRINIVASA RAO & D. K. JUGRAN (2003) Delineation of groundwater
potential zones and zones of groundwater quality suitable for domestic purposes using remote
sensing and GIS, Hydrological Sciences Journal, 48:5, 821-833, DOI: 10.1623/hysj.48.5.821.51452

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 Hydrological Sciences–Journal–des Sciences Hydrologiques, 48(5) October 2003 821

Delineation of groundwater potential zones and

zones of groundwater quality suitable for domestic
purposes using remote sensing and GIS

Y. SRINIVASA RAO
Department of Geology, Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati 517 502, Andhra Pradesh, India
[email protected]

D. K. JUGRAN
Geoscience Division, Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, 4 Kalidas Road, Dehradun 248 001,
Uttaranchal State, India

Abstract The exploration for groundwater in hard rock terrains is a complex task. To
overcome this complexity, the integrated approach based on advanced applications of
remote sensing and geographical information systems (GIS) lends itself as an efficient
and effective result-oriented method for studying the development and management of
water resources. Chittoor area, comprised of a hard rock terrain, is located in the
drought-prone Rayalaseema region of Andhra Pradesh, India. Using remote sensing and
GIS technology, groundwater potential zones, along with zones of water quality suitable
for domestic purposes, were delineated and classified. Results indicated that, for the
town of Chittoor, 1.64% of the area was classified to have very high groundwater poten-
tial, with groundwater quality suitable or moderately suitable for domestic purposes; and
31.68% of the area was classified as high potential, with over 31% being suitable or
moderately suitable. Most (62.05%) of the area is of moderate groundwater potential,
with groundwater quality mostly suitable or moderately suitable for domestic purposes.
Key words groundwater potential zones; groundwater quality; remote sensing; GIS;
Andhra Pradesh, India
Délimitation par télédétection et SIG de zones où l’eau souterraine
est exploitable à des fins d’alimentation domestique
Résumé La recherche d’eaux souterraines dans des sites à roches dures est une tâche
complexe. Face à cette complexité, l’approche intégrée basée sur des applications
avancées de télédétection et de système d’information géographique (SIG) permet de
proposer une méthode efficace et efficiente pour étudier le développement et la gestion
des ressources en eau. La zone de Chittoor, présentant un substrat de roches dures, se
situe dans la région sensible aux sécheresses de Rayalaseema en Andhra Pradesh, en
Inde. Les zones de potentiel en eaux souterraines ainsi que les zones où la qualité d’eau
est compatible avec les usages domestiques ont été délimitées et classifiées en utilisant
la télédétection et la technologie SIG. Les résultats indiquent que, pour la ville de
Chittoor, un peu moins de 2% de la zone ont été classifiés avec un très fort potentiel en
eaux souterraines, bien que moins de 1% seulement soit valable ou presque valable pour
les usages domestiques; et que 31.68% de la zone aient été classifiés avec un fort
potentiel, avec plus de 31% valables ou presque valables. La plupart (62.05%) de la zone
présente un potentiel en eaux souterraines modéré, avec une qualité d’eau
essentiellement valable et modérément valable pour les usages domestiques.
Mots clefs zones de potentiel en eaux souterraines; qualité d’eaux souterraines; télédétection;
SIG; Andhra Pradesh, Inde

INTRODUCTION
Increasing population and modern industrial and agricultural activities are not only
creating more demand for groundwater resources due to the inadequate availability of
surface water resources, but are also polluting groundwater resources by releasing

Open for discussion until 1 April 2004

822 Y. Srinivasa Rao & D. K. Jugran

untreated wastes. Consequently, these activities have resulted in an increase of

research, not only with regard to groundwater resources, but also with an emphasis on
locating groundwater of good quality for human consumption.
Integrated studies using conventional surveys along with satellite image data
interpretation techniques, and geographical information systems (GIS) technology, are
useful, not only to increase the accuracy of results, but also to reduce the bias on any
single theme. Karanth & Seshu babu (1978), Moore (1978), Raju et al. (1985),
Palanivel et al. (1996), Sree devi et al (2001) and Sankar (2002) applied remote sensing
techniques in the delineation of groundwater potential zones. Many researchers (Saraf &
Jain, 1994; Krishnamurthy & Srinivas, 1995; Kamaraju et al, 1996; Krishnamurthy et
al., 1996; Khan Subhan & Asif Mohd, 1997; Ravindran, 1997; Saraf & Choudary, 1998;
Ashok Kumar, 1999; Krishnamurthy et al, 2000; Murthy, 2000; Srivastava &
Bhattacharya, 2000; Shahid et al., 2000; Khan & Moharana, 2002) have applied
remote sensing techniques and GIS applications in delineation studies of groundwater
resources and potential zones. Saraf et al. (1994) used GIS technology for processing
and interpretation of groundwater quality data.
The study area Chittoor lies between 13°10′00′′–13°15′00′′Ν and 79°04′00′′–
79°09′00′′E with an area of 83.7 km2 (Fig. 1). It lies in the drought-prone and econo-
mically backward Rayalaseema region of Andhra Pradesh, India. The ephemeral Niva
River flows through the centre of the study area. The drainage pattern is dendritic to
sub-dendritic. Geologically, the study area is underlain by unnamed granitic gneisses
of Archaean age. A sugar factory, distillery, dairy, and an industrial estate are present
in the study area. All of these prevailing natural and anthropogenic conditions are in
turn reflected in the hydrological and groundwater quality conditions of the area. In
some places, groundwater availability is a problem, while at others, where ground-
water is available, its quality is questionable.
This study was undertaken to delineate both groundwater potential zones and
zones of groundwater quality suitable for domestic purposes in the Chittoor area, using
remote sensing techniques and the application of GIS technology.

DATA USED AND METHODOLOGY

Survey of India (SOI) topographic sheet (no. 57 O/4, 1:50 000) was used to prepare
base, contour, drainage and slope percent maps. Remotely sensed image data from IRS
ID (LISS III) (false colour composite (FCC) of bands 321 (rgb), acquired January
1998) and Landsat 5 TM (Thematic Mapper) (false colour composite (FCC) of bands
457 (rgb), acquired February 1989) were visually interpreted for tone, texture, size,
shape, relief, drainage pattern, vegetation association, and other factors.
Field studies were conducted and corrections were made accordingly to maps of
geology, lineaments, and hydromorphogeology. Well inventory, well yield, water table
level, and groundwater samples were collected during field study. The locations of the
collected groundwater samples are shown in Fig. 1. The groundwater samples were
analysed for various ions (AWWA, 1950; Rainwater & Thatcher, 1960; Brown et al.,
1973) and interpreted using standard methods (WHO, 1984; ISI, 1983).
Using Integrated Land and Water Information System (ILWIS) software, thematic
maps of slope percent, geology and lineament, hydromorphogeology, water-table, iso-
yield, iso-weathered zone thickness, lineament distance, drainage channel distance,
 Delineation of groundwater potential zones and zones of suitable groundwater quality 823

Fig. 1 Location map of Chittoor area, Chittoor district, Andhra Pradesh, India.

tank distance, and groundwater quality maps of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Total
Hardness (TH), incrustation problem, and magnesium concentration were prepared and
classified for spatial analysis. Lineament distance, drainage distance, and tank distance
maps were prepared by considering the well yield vs distance from lineament, drainage
channel and tank, respectively (i.e. as the distance from lineament/drainage channel/
tank increases the well yield decreases). Different classes in each thematic map were
assigned a knowledge-based hierarchy of weights.
For groundwater potential, these weights ranged from 1 to 7. For groundwater
quality and suitability of use, the weights ranged from 1 to 4, according to World
Health Organization (WHO) and Indian Standards Institution (ISI) guidelines. In
each thematic map, highest weight is given to the class that is most favourable, either
to potential, or to quality and suitability of use, and lowest weight is given to the class
 824
(a) Topographic Map (b) Remote sensing data (c) Fieldwork & groundwater sample collection (d) Laboratory work
Survey of India: 57 O/4 FCC –Landsat 5 Well inventory; well yield data; water table levels Total dissolved solids
FCC – IRS 1D (LISS III) Total hardness
Incrustation problem
Magnesium
concentration

Contour map Geology & lineament Weathered zone thickness map

Drainage map hydromorphogeology map Iso-yield map
Water table contour map

Y. Srinivasa Rao & D. K. Jugran

Slope percent Lineament distance map
Drainage distance map
Tank distance map

Classification of groundwater quality suitable

Classification of groundwater potential zones for domestic purposes

Classification of groundwater potential and

groundwater quality suitable for domestic purposes
Fig. 2 Flow chart of methodology used in the study.
 Delineation of groundwater potential zones and zones of suitable groundwater quality 825

that is least favourable. All the thematic maps related to groundwater potential zones
were integrated and classified depending on the added weight factors determined in the
analysis. In the same way, all thematic maps of groundwater quality were also
integrated and classified. Finally, by integrating the groundwater potential zone classes
with the groundwater quality and suitability classes, areas of both groundwater poten-
tial and groundwater quality and suitability were delineated. The processing flow chart
of methodology is shown in Fig. 2.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Geologically, the study area (Fig 3) is underlain by unnamed granitic gneisses of

Archaean age. Recent alluvium consisting of gravel, sand (coarse to fine), silt and clay
are present along drainages. Granites generally outcrop as hillocks, and rarely outcrop
in sheet forms. Dolerite rocks intrude the granitic gneisses as dikes. Dike lengths range
from a few metres, to a few kilometres, with widths ranging from a few metres to tens
of metres. The dominant trend of the dikes is NEE–SWW. The presence of dendritic to
sub-dendritic drainage patterns aided in identifying the major rock type of granitic
gneiss. Lineaments were interpreted from the remotely sensed satellite image data. A
lineament may be interpreted as a fault, fracture, major joint, a long and linear
geological formation, the straight course of streams, vegetation alignment or
topographic linearity.
The IRS ID image data were found to be somewhat more useful than the Landsat 5
data for identification of dikes and hydrological features, due to the inherent higher
image resolution (23.5 m vs 30 m). Two dominant trends for lineaments were deter-
mined from the image data: NE–SW and NW–SE.

Fig. 3 Geology and lineament map of Chittoor area, Chittoor district, Andhra Pradesh,
India.
826 Y. Srinivasa Rao & D. K. Jugran

Table 1 Classification of various themes for delineation of groundwater potential zones.

Class Criterion Percentage of study area Area (km2)
Slope (%):
Nearly level <1% 31.36 26.248
Very gentle 1–3% 27.33 22.875
Gentle 3–5% 6.15 5.147
Moderate 5–10% 13.85 11.592
Strong 10–15% 5.15 4.311
Moderately steep to steep 15–35% 11.98 10.027
Very steep >35% 4.18 3.499
Geology:
Dolerite dike 2.99 2.503
Unnamed Archaean granitic gneiss 97.01 81.197
Hydromorphogeology:
Alluvium 5.84 4.888
Moderately weathered pediplain 19.84 16.606
Shallow weathered pediplain 47.79 40.000
Pediment 2.17 1.816
Inselberg 0.12 0.100
Residual hill 12.19 10.203
Denudational hill 9.40 7.868
Drainage channel distance (m):
Very near <30 11.61 9.717
Near 30–70 13.41 11.224
Far 70–120 15.44 12.923
Moderately far 120–140 5.55 4.645
Very far 140–180 10.44 8.738
Extremely far 180–210 6.46 5.407
Farthest >210 37.09 31.044
Tank distance (m):
Very near <50 6.08 5.089
Near 50–140 6.62 5.541
Far 140–190 4.69 3.925
Moderately far 190–220 2.91 2.436
Very far 220–340 13.53 11.325
Extremely far 340–460 14.13 11.827
Farthest >460 52.04 43.557
Lineament distance (m):
Very near <30 4.64 3.884
Near 30–120 15.86 13.275
Far 120–180 10.24 8.571
Moderately far 180–210 4.87 4.076
Very far 210–320 16.52 13.827
Farthest >320 47.87 40.067
Depth to water table (m):
Very shallow <1 0.09 0.075
Shallow 1–2.8 30.58 25.595
Moderately shallow 2.8–7.5 50.47 42.244
Deep 7.5–11 14.64 12.254
Very deep >11 4.22 3.532
Weathered zone thickness (m):
Very shallow <3 0.15 0.126
Shallow 3–6 24.87 20.816
Moderate 6–8 70.73 59.200
Deep 8–10 3.83 3.206
Very deep >10 0.42 0.352
Well yield (l min-1):
Very low <30 0.02 0.017
Low 30–80 5.24 4.386
Moderate 80–150 38.81 32.484
High 150-300 47.94 40.126
Very high >300 7.99 6.687
 Delineation of groundwater potential zones and zones of suitable groundwater quality 827

The topographic slope of the area has its own importance in affecting the runoff,
recharge and movement of surface water. From a slope percent analysis, topographic
slopes within the study area were classified as nearly level, very gentle, gentle,
moderate, strong, moderately steep to steep, and very steep (Table 1). About 58% of
the study area was classified as nearly level to very gentle slope. Numerous low relief
pediments are present in the very gentle, gentle, and moderate slope classes. Moderate
relief hills are present in strong, moderately steep to steep, and very steep slope
classes.
Hydromorphogeological maps depict important geomorphic units, landforms and
underlying geology so as to provide an understanding of the processes, materials/
lithology, structures, and geologic controls relating to groundwater occurrence as well
as to groundwater prospects. Such maps depicting prospective zones for groundwater
targeting are essential as a basis for planning and execution of groundwater explora-
tion. Hydromorphogeologically, the study area has been classified as: denudational
hill, residual hill, inselberg, moderately weathered pediplain (>5 m weathered zone
thickness), shallow weathered pediplain (<5 m weathered zone thickness), pediment,
or alluvium. Their characteristics and groundwater prospects are given in Table 2.
Nearly 70% of the study area is covered by pediplains. The hills within the region
comprise a total area of 21.71%. All of these hills are classified as residual hills, except
for one denudational hill in the southeastern portion and one inselberg in the central
part of the study area. Dolerite rocks intrude these hills at various locations and stand
as ridges since they are more resistant than surrounding granitic gneisses. Pediments
cover nearly 2.17% of the study area in the northwestern and SSW portions.
Groundwater occurs under unconfined conditions in shallow, moderately
weathered zones of the pediplain and in semi-confined conditions in joints, fissures,
and fractures that extend beyond the weathered zones. The crystalline granites and
gneisses of the region lack primary porosity. As such, secondary porosity (joints,

Table 2 Hydromorphogeological characteristics in Chittoor area, Chittoor district, AP, India.

Unit Characteristics Groundwater
prospects
Alluvium Nearly level surface along the river courses with gravel, Very good to
coarse-fine sand, clay etc., at various locations coconut excellent
gardens and plantations are present.
Moderately Away from hills; gentle slopes with more vegetation. Good to
weathered Weathered zones thickness ranges from 5 to 15 m. very good
pediplain Along fractures, weathered zone thickness is more than 15 m. Very good
Shallow weathered Gentle to moderate slope with sparse vegetation. Moderate
pediplain Weathered zone thickness is less than 5 m.
(PPS) Along fractures weathered zone thickness is greater than 5 m. Moderate to
good
Pediment Moderate slopes with a veneer of detritus and broad Poor to
undulating rock floor. Dike exposures are seen at some negligible
places.
Along fractures potential is poor.
Inselberg Steep slopes occupying lesser dimensions. Nil
Residual hill Group of massive hills occupying relatively small area Nil
present with dike intrusive.
Denudational hill A group of massive hills with resistant rock bodies, with Nil
medium to high relief.
828 Y. Srinivasa Rao & D. K. Jugran

lineaments and the weathered zone) is the main source for groundwater occurrence,
movement and transmission. In the majority of the region (70.73%), the weathered
zone is between 6 and 8 m thick. In 25.02% of the study area, the weathered zone is
less than 6 m thick. A weathered zone thickness between 8 and 10 m occurs in 3.83%
of the study area. A weathered zone thickness greater than 10 m is present in only
0.42% of the region. The weathered zone attains a maximum thickness of 18 m in the
northeast and south-central portions of the study area.
In general, groundwater is present at relatively shallow depths in the southeastern
portion and at deeper levels in the southwestern and central portions of the study area.
Nearly 50.47% of the study area has groundwater at moderately shallow depth (below
7.5 m) while less than 0.1% of the area has the water table at very shallow depths
(Table 1). Well yields within the region range from 30 to 560 l min-1. Very high well
yields (>300 l min-1) are present in 7.99% of the area and high yields (150–300 l min-1)
are present in 47.94% of the study area (Table 1).

Groundwater potential zones

By integration of all the maps (classified maps of slope percent, geology, lineament,
hydromorphogeology, iso-yield, iso-weathered zone thickness, water table, tank
distance, drainage channel distance and lineament distance), groundwater potential
zones were delineated and classified as: very high potential, high potential, moderate
potential, low potential and very low potential (Table 3). Only 1.64% (1.373 km2) of
the study area (83.7 km2) was classified as having very high potential at few locations
(southeast, southwest and central regions), 31.68% (26.516 km2) was of high potential
(southwest, southeast, northeast and central regions) and 62.05% (51.936 km2) was
classified as having moderate potential (Table 3). Hence, a total of 95.37% of the area
(79.825 km2) can be classified as moderate to very high potential.
Very high groundwater potential zones cover an area of only 1.373 km2, as pockets
where nearly level slopes, very near distance to drainage channel, very near distance to
lineament and tank, very shallow water table levels (<1 m), very deep weathered zone
thickness (>10 m) and very high well yields (>300 l min-1) are present in alluvium
zones. High groundwater potential zones cover an area of 26.516 km2, where very
gentle to gentle slopes, near distance to drainage channel, near distance to lineament
and tank, deep weathered zone thickness (8–10 m), high well yields (150–300 l min-1)
and shallow water table levels (1–2.8 m) are present in alluvium to moderately
weathered pediplains. Moderate groundwater potential zones cover an area of 51.936
km2, where very gentle to gentle slopes, near to moderately far distance to drainage,
lineament and tank, moderate to deep weathered zone thickness

Table 3 Classification of groundwater potential zones (after integration all thematic maps).
Class Percentage of the area Area (km2)
Very low potential 0.03 0.025
Low potential 4.60 3.850
Moderate potential 62.05 51.936
High potential 31.68 26.516
Very high potential 1.64 1.373
 Delineation of groundwater potential zones and zones of suitable groundwater quality 829

(6–10 m), moderately shallow water table levels (2.8–7.5 m), and moderate well yields
(80–150 l min-1) are present in moderately weathered pediplain to shallow weathered
pediplains. Low groundwater potential zones cover an area of 3.850 km2 where
moderate to steep slope, extremely far to farthest distances to drainage, lineament and
tank, deep to very deep water table levels, shallow to very shallow weathered zone
thickness, and low to very low well yields are present as pockets spread over the whole
study area. Very low groundwater potential zones are present in the northwestern
corner of the study area and comprise an area of 0.025 km2.

Quality of groundwater

The chemical quality of the groundwater largely depends on the nature of rock
formations, physiography, soil environment, recharge, and draft conditions in which it
occurs. The chemical composition of water is an important factor to be considered
before it is used for domestic, irrigation or industrial purposes (Suresh et al., 1991).
Magnesium ion concentration, incrustation, total hardness (TH) and total dissolved
solids (TDS) are considered criteria for classification of groundwater for domestic
purposes (Table 4).
According to WHO (1984) standards for suitable drinking water, magnesium ion
should be below 30 mg l-1 when sulphate is more than 250 mg l-1, and if magnesium is
more than 150 mg l-1 then sulphate should be below 250 mg l-1. Based on this,
groundwater beneath nearly 25% of the study area (21.042 km2) is unsuitable for
drinking purposes (Table 4).

Table 4 Classification of various aspects of groundwater quality for domestic purposes.

Class Criteria Percentage of Area
study area (km2)
Bicarbonate and sulphate (mg l-1):
No incrustation HCO3 <400 mg l-1 and SO4 <100 mg l-1 31.08 26.014
Soft incrustation HCO3 >400 mg l-1 62.56 52.363
Hard incrustation SO4 >100 mg l-1 6.36 5.323
-1
Magnesium (mg l ):
Suitable SO4 >250 mg l-1 and Mg <30 mg l-1 74.86 62.658
or
SO4 <250 mg l-1 and Mg <150 mg l-1
Unsuitable Otherwise 25.14 21.042
Total dissolved solids (mg l-1):
Very low <250 0 0
Low 250–500 16.07 13.451
Moderate 500–750 18.12 15.166
High 750–1000 14.92 12.488
Very high >1000 50.89 42.595
-1
Total hardness (mg l ):
Soft water <75 0 0
Moderately hard water 75–150 0.02 0.017
Hard water 50–300 15.31 12.814
Very hard water >300 84.67 70.869
830 Y. Srinivasa Rao & D. K. Jugran

Most of the tube/filtered/bore wells fail due to incrustation and corrosion problems
caused by poor water quality. Incrustation results from clogging of the aquifer around
the well and the openings of the well screen causing a decrease in well capacity.
Incrustation reduces the well yield and increases the pumping cost. Hard incrustation
forms due to sulphates and silicates of calcium and magnesium. Most of the cases are
due to deposition of CaCO3, which is usually the basic binder and causes the chief
trouble. Calcium carbonate is easily removed by acid treatment. However, Ca, Mg and
Al sulphates and silicates are insoluble in acids or other chemicals. According to
Raghunath (1983), if the HCO3 concentration is greater than 400 mg l-1, soft
incrustation will form; however, if the SO4 concentration is higher than 100 mg l-1,
hard incrustation will form. In the greater part of the study area, bore-well suction
pipes and water-supply lines are facing incrustation problems. Therefore, based on
water quality, the study area has been classified as comprising regions of: soft
incrustation, hard incrustation or no incrustation. Approximately 6.36% of the study
area (5.323 km2) can be classified as subject to hard incrustation problems and 62.56%
of the area (52.363 km2) subject to soft incrustation problems.
Hardness of water affects its reaction with soap and causes scale and incrustation
accumulation in containers and conduits where the water is heated or transported.
According to the standards of Sawyer & McCarty (1967), 84.67% of the study area
contains very hard water (>300mg l-1 TH) and 15.31% of the area contains hard water
(150–300 mg l-1 TH). Only 0.02% of the area contains moderately hard water (75–
150 mg l-1 TH). As a whole, the entire study area contains very hard water except
within the northeastern, northwestern and southwestern portions which contain hard to
moderately hard water at two or three point locations.
Based on TDS standards (Anonymous, 1946; AWWA, 1950; Robinov et al., 1958;
Davis & DeWiest, 1967), nearly 51% of the study area (42.595 km2) contains very
high concentrations of total dissolved solids (in excess of 1000 mg l-1).
By integrating the thematic maps of magnesium, incrustation problem, TH and
TDS, a map of suitable groundwater quality for domestic purposes was prepared.
Water quality on this map was classified as: suitable, moderately suitable and un-
suitable (Table 5). Groundwater of suitable quality for domestic purposes is available
in the northeastern, southern, southwestern, southeastern and northwestern portions,
comprising 30.06% of the study area. In general, the entire central portion (67.45%) of
the study area, where Chittoor town is present, is moderately suitable. Regions with
unsuitable quality of groundwater (2.49%) are present at the northeastern portion as a
NW–SE trending strip, where sugar factory effluents and industrial estate effluents are
released into the streams. These effluents subsequently seep into the groundwater
system and pollute the groundwater.
To identify the zones of suitable quality specifically in the potential zones, the map
of groundwater potential zones, and the map of groundwater quality suitable for

Table 5 Classification of zones of groundwater quality suitable for domestic purpose (after integrating
all aspects).
Class Percentage of study area Area (km2)
Suitable 30.06 24.160
Moderately suitable 67.45 56.456
Unsuitable 2.49 2.084
 Delineation of groundwater potential zones and zones of suitable groundwater quality 831

Fig. 4 Classification of groundwater potential zones and zones of groundwater quality

suitable for domestic purposes.

Table 6 Classification of groundwater potential zones and zones of groundwater quality suitable for
domestic purposes (after integration of respective maps).
Class Percentage of Area
study area (km2)
Very high groundwater potential with suitable quality 0.65 0.544
Very high groundwater potential with moderately suitable quality 0.99 0.829
High groundwater potential with suitable quality 7.53 6.304
High groundwater potential with moderate suitable quality 23.57 19.728
High groundwater potential with unsuitable quality 0.58 0.485
Moderate groundwater potential with suitable quality 20.38 17.058
Moderate groundwater potential with moderately suitable quality 39.97 33.455
Moderate groundwater potential with unsuitable quality 1.70 1.423
Low groundwater potential with suitable quality 1.47 1.231
Low groundwater potential with moderate suitable quality 2.92 2.442
Low groundwater potential with unsuitable quality 0.21 0.176
Very low groundwater potential with suitable quality 0.03 0.025

domestic purposes were integrated and classified (Fig. 4; Table 6). Although 1.64% of
the study area can be classified as having very high groundwater potential (Table 3),
only 0.65% is suitable and 0.99% is moderately suitable for domestic purposes. A total
of 31.68% of the study area can be classified as having high potential; however, only
7.53% can be classified as suitable, with 23.57% moderately suitable, and 0.58%
unsuitable. Although 62.05% of the study area was classified as having moderate
groundwater potential, 20.38% is suitable, 39.97% is moderately suitable, and 1.70%
is unsuitable. 4.60% of the study area can be classified as having low groundwater
potential, with 1.47% being suitable, 2.92% moderately suitable, and 0.21% unsuitable
832 Y. Srinivasa Rao & D. K. Jugran

for domestic purposes. The remaining 0.03% of the study area can be classified as
having very low potential with suitable quality for domestic purposes.

CONCLUSIONS

Remotely sensed satellite image data from IRS ID and Landsat 5 provided information
used to identify and outline geology, lineament features, geomorphological and hydro-
morphogeological conditions. These features served as either direct, or indirect indica-
tors of groundwater occurrence. The comprehensive use of GIS resulted in the
development of an efficient and effective methodology of spatial data management and
manipulation. The integration and analyses of various thematic maps and image data
proved useful for the delineation of zones of groundwater potential and zones of
groundwater quality suitable for domestic purposes.
Zones with moderate to very high groundwater potential, which are present in the
southeastern, southwestern, northeastern and central portions of the study area, are
being polluted by insufficiently treated industrial effluents and municipal sewages.
These zones are gradually becoming unsuitable to moderately suitable for domestic
purposes. To help to overcome this situation, remedial measures have to be imple-
mented by imposing restrictions on industries and municipalities for proper treatment
of effluents and wastes as per the WHO and ISI standards for mitigating the sources of
the pollution. Measures to be taken could include the construction of water-harvesting
structures for augmentation of groundwater resources and also through the
implementation of proper BMPs (best management practices) for watersheds
throughout the region. Groundwater quality monitoring studies could also be
conducted to monitor both new occurrences, and remediation of, particular pollutants
affecting the available groundwater resources.

Acknowledgements Y. S. Rao is highly grateful to the Indian Institute of Remote

Sensing (IIRS), Dehradun, India for providing the opportunity to learn the GIS
applications in geosciences and also to its faculty members who helped with the
project work. Thanks are due to the University Grants Commission (UGC) for
providing Dr Rao with a Research Associateship during 1995–2000 and to the
Department of Science and Technology (SR/FTP/ES-64/2000), Government of India
for sanctioning financial assistance under the Fast Track Young Scientist programme.
The author also thanks the anonymous reviewers for giving valuable suggestions for
improving the quality of the paper.

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Received 22 July 2002; accepted 28 May 2003