AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT I

(DESIGN MODIFICATION ON

ANTONOV AN225 MRIYA AIRCRAFT)

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

BATCH - 01

AARIF MOHAMED (310811101001)

ASHOK KUMAR A (310811101003)

BALAMANIKANDAN B (310811101007)

BLESSING SAM PAUL J (310811101010)

In partial fulfilment for the award of the degree

Of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

IN

AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

JEPPIAAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

APRIL/MAY 2014

1
 ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

BONIFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report titled “AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT I (Design
modification on ANTONOV AN 225 MRIYA Aircraft)” is the bonifide work of AARIF
MOHAMED M (310811101001), ASHOK KUMAR A(310811101003),
BALAMANIKANDAN B(310811101007) and BLESSING SAM PAUL J
(310811101010) Who carried out the work under my supervision.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE

Mr. S.MANIKANDAN Prof. G. PRABHAHARAN

Assistant Professor HEAD OF THE DEPARTMANT

Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering

Jeppiaar Engineering College Jeppiaar Engineeing College

2
 CERTIFICATE FOR EVALUATION

College Name : 3108 – JEPPIAAR ENGINEERING

COLLEGE

Branch : AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

Semester : 06

S.No Name of the Student Who have Title of the project Name of the Supervisor
done the project

01 AARIF MOHAMED
(310811101001)

02 ASHOK KUMAR A
ANTONOV AN225 Mr. S.MANIKANDAN,
(310811101003)
MRIYA Asst, Prof.,
03 BALAMANIKANDAN B
(310811101007)
04 BLESSING SAM PAUL J
(310811101010)
The report of the project work submitted by the above student in partial fulfillment for
the award of Bachelor of Engineering Degree in Aeronautical Engineering of ANNA
UNIVERSITY were evaluated and confirmed to be the reports of the work done by the
above student and then evaluated.

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

3
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are very much indebted to the Chairman, Hon’ble. Dr. JEPPIAAR, M.A.,B.L.,
Ph.D., the Director Mrs. M. REGEENA JEPPIAAR, B.Tech, M.B.A.,(Ph. D).,and the
Principal Dr. SUSHIL LAL DAS, M.Sc (Eng)., Ph.D.

We would like to express our deep sense of gratitude to Prof. G.PRABHAKARAN,

A.M.I.E, M.Tech (PhD)Head of the Department and also to our guides Asst.Prof.,
S.MANIKANDAN, M.E. and Mr. M.BALARAMAN, AME Instructor for giving valuable
suggestions for making this project a grand success.

I also thank the teaching and non-teaching staff members of the Department of
Aeronautical Engineering for their constant support.

4
 INDEX

Sl No Topic Page No

1 List of symbols 9

2 Abstract 10

3 Introduction 11

4 Comparison of aircrafts 18

5 AntonovAn225-Mriya 21

6 Weight Estimation 23

7 Drag Estimation 35

8 Airfoil Selection 45

9 Tail Surface Selection 56

10 Power plant Selection 70

11 C.G Estimation 78

12 Stability and balancing 89

13 3 – View Diagram 97

14 Conclusion 98

15 Reference 99

5
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure no. Content Page no.

01 Sizing and Trade Studies 12

02 Steps for conceptual Design 14

03 Classification of aircraft 15

04 Types of wing 15

05 Types of fuselage 16

06 Wing Location 16

07 Landing Gear 17

08 Engine Location 17

09 Antonov AN 225 Mriya 21

10 Components of Weight 24

10.A Phases 26

11 Origin of Aerodynamic Forces 36

12 Airfoil Nomenclature 46

13 Role of Nose Radius 50

14 CL Vs α 50

15 CL Vs M 50

16 CL Vs CD 51

17 Catia diagram 54

18 Tail Arrangement 58

19 Tail Configuration 59

20 Tail Geometry 60

21 Catia Diagram 70

22 Three View of a Aircraft 98

6
 LIST OF GRAPHS

SL NO CONTENT PAGE NO

1 Comparison Graph 19

2 Comparison Graph 19

3 Comparison Graph 20

4 Comparison Graph 20

5 For Wing Vs 54

6 For Wing Vs 55

7 For Horizontal Tail Vs 66

8 For Horizontal Tail Vs 67

9 For Horizontal Tail Vs 68

10 For Vertical Tail Vs 69

11 For Vertical Tail Vs 69

12 For Vertical Tail Vs 70

13 Propulsion System Speed Limit 73

14 Altitude Vs Thrust 78

7
 LIST OF TABLE

SL NO CONTENT PAGE NO

1 Comparison Table 18

2 Iteration of Weight 33

3 Airfoil coordinates 52

4 Vs 55

5 Vs 56

6 Tail Aspect Ratio Vs Taper Ratio 62

7 Coordinates for Horizontal Tail 65

8 Coordinates for Vertical Tail 68

9 Range Vs Limits 72

10 Altitude Vs Thrust 77

11 Coefficients for Transport Aircraft 85

12 Center of Gravity Calculation 88

8
 LIST OF SYMBOLS

A.R - Aspect Ratio

b - Wing Span (m)
C - Chord of the Airfoil (m)
Cr - Chord at Root (m)
Ct - Chord at Tip (m)
̅ - Mean Aerodynamic Chord (m) C
CD - Drag Co-efficient
CD - Zero Lift Drag Co-efficient
Cp - Specific fuel consumption (lbs/hp/hr)
CL - Lift Co-efficient
D - Drag (N)
E - Endurance (hr)
e - Oswald efficiency
L - Lift (N)
M - Mach number of aircraft
Mff - Mission fuel fraction
R - Range (km)
Re - Reynolds Number
S - Wing Area (m²)
Sref - Reference surface area
Swet - Wetted surface area
Sa - Approach distance (m)
Sf - Flare Distance (m)
Sfr - Free roll Distance (m)
Sg - Ground roll Distance (m)
T - Thrust (N)
Tcruise - Thrust at cruise (N)
Ttake-off- Thrust at take-off (N)
Vcruise - Velocity at cruise (m/s)
Vstall - Velocity at stall (m/s)
Vt - Velocity at touchdown (m/s)
Wcrew - Crew weight (kg)
Wempty - Empty weight of aircraft (kg)
Wfuel - Weight of fuel (kg)
Wpayload- Payload of aircraft (kg)
W0 - Overall weight of aircraft (kg)
W/S - Wing loading (kg/m²)
𝝆 - Density of air (kg/m³)
µ - Dynamic viscosity (Ns/m²)
λ - Tapered ratio

9
 ABSTRACT

The AntonovAn-225Mriya strategic airlift aircraft is a high-wing, six-engine, H-tailed

transport vehicle capable of carrying payloads up to 545000 lbs. The gross weight of the
aircraft is estimated and the aircraft’s drag during cruise is showed. The AntonovAn-
225Mriya has a distinguished high lift system. Therefore supercritical airfoil is designed for
the wings and symmetrical airfoil for the H-tailed empennage. The airfoil characteristics are
studied. The effect of altitude on engine thrust is estimated. The aircraft’s C.G point is
determined and finally it is proved that the aircraft is stable.

10
INTRODUCTION

11
SIZING AND TRADE STUDIES:

 Design concept
 Design analysis

Sizing & trade

studies

Reqirement
Design
given by
analysis
cutomers

Design
concept

Fig. 1

THREE PHASES:

 Conceptual design
 Preliminary design
 Detailed design

CONCEPTUAL DESIGN:

 Will it work?
 How does it look like?
 Initial estimation of weight and cost?

12
(a) PRELIMINARY DESIGN:

 Freeze the configuration

 Develop lifting testing on analytical base
 Testing on analytical base
 Testing all the items including minor items
 Testing all items including minor items
 Testing of tooling and fabrication
 Finalizing weight and cost

(C) DETAILED DESIGN:

 Design of tooling and fabrication

 Design of major items
 Testing of all items
 Finalize the weight and cost

CONCEPTUAL DESIGN:

Conceptual design = requirement +New concept

 Technology available
 Design sketch
 First order sizing
 Initial layout
 Aerodynamics
 Propulsion
 Structure
 Weight and cost

13
 Requirements
Technology
availablity
Design
sketch
First order
sizing
Initial
layout
Aerodynam
ics

Propulsion

Structure

Weight

Cost

Sizing & performance

optimization
Refined
sizing
Aerodynam
ics
Propulsion

Structures

Landing gear design

Weight &
cost

Sizing & performance

optimization

Preliminarry design

Retailed design

Fig 2

14
CLASSIFICATION OF AIRCRAFT:

Factors to be
considered
*High level
safety
Passenger *Economy
*Comfortable
*Abilities of
Civil aircraft
*Low
economy
Cargo *High load
Based on carrying
purpose capacity
Tactical
Fighter
Interceptor
Military
Stratagic
Bomber
Tactical

Fig 3

BASED ON CONFIGURATION:

Based on types of wing:

straight wing
Shape of wing

swept wing

delta wing

Fig 4

15
Based on types of fuselage:

Conventional single fuselage

Type of fuselage

Twin fuselage

Pod & lower structure

Fig 5

Based on the wing location:

Based on wing location

High wing

Mid wing

Low wing

Fig 6

16
Based on landing gear:

Rectractable

Based on landing gear

Non rectractable

Nose wheel

Tail wheel

Fig 7

Based on engine location:

Engine at tip

Engine at root
Based on engine location

Engine at wing leading edge

Engine at tail surface

Engine at over wing

Engne at under wing

Fig 8

17
REQUIREMENTS FOR CIVIL:

 High load carrying capacity

 High fuel efficient
 High range

REQUIREMENTS FOR FIGHTER:

 High speed
 Good maneuverability
 Height & service ceiling

REQUIREMENTS FOR BOMBER:

 High loads carrying capacity

 High Speed
 Range & endurance
 Best maneuvering
COMPARISON TABLE

Table 1

18
COMPARISION GRAPH:

Graph 1

Graph 2

19
 Graph 3

Graph 4

From the above five flight, we chose ANTONOV AN 225 MRIYA.

20
 ANTONOV AN-225 MRIYA

Fig 9

The Antonov An-225 Mriya is a strategic airlift cargo aircraft that was designed by
the Soviet Union's Antonov Design Bureau in the 1980s. The An-225's name, Mriya means
"Dream" (Inspiration) in Ukrainian. It is powered by six turbofan engines and is the longest
and heaviest aircraft ever made with a maximum takeoff weight of 640 tonnes. It also has the
largest wingspan of any aircraft in operational service. The single example built bears the
civil registration UR-82060 of its Ukrainian operator. A second airframe was partially built;
its completion has been halted due to lack of funding and interest.

The Antonov An-225, originally developed specifically to transport the Buran spaceplane,
was an enlargement of the successful Antonov An-124. The first An-225 was completed in
1988 and remains in commercial operation with Antonov Airlines carrying oversized
payloads. The airlifter holds the absolute world records for an airlifted single item payload of
189,980 kilograms (418,834 pounds),and an airlifted total payload of 253,820 kilograms
(559,577 pounds). It has also transported a payload of 247,000 kilograms (545,000 pounds)
on a commercial flight.

General characteristics:

 Crew: 6
 Length: 84 m (275 ft 7 in)
 Wingspan: 88.4 m (290 ft 0 in)
 Height: 18.1 m (59 ft 5 in)
 Wing area: 905 m2 (9,740 sq ft)
 Aspect ratio: 8.6
 Empty weight: 285,000 kg (628,317 lb)
 Max takeoff weight: 640,000 kg (1,410,958 lb)
 Fuel capacity: 300,000 kg

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  Cargo hold – volume 1,300m3, length 43.35m, width 6.4m,
height 4.4m
 Powerplant: 6 × ZMKB Progress D-18 turbofans, 229.5 kN
(51,600 lbf) thrust each
Performance

 Maximum speed: 850 km/h (528 mph; 459 kn)

 Cruising speed: 800 km/h (497 mph; 432 kn)
 Range: 15,400 km (9,569 mi; 8,315 nmi) with maximum
fuel; range with maximum payload: 4,000 km (2,500 mi)
 Service ceiling: 11,000 m (36,089 ft)
 Wing loading: 662.9 kg/m2 (135.8 lb/sq ft)
 Thrust/weight: 0.234

22
WEIGHT ESTIMATION

23
 WEIGHT ESTIMATION

OBJECTIVE :-

 To find Initial takeoff weight.

 Assume a initial takeoff weight and do the titration and get the final calculated value.
 Compare the final weight and assumed weight.
 Take difference between required weight and get Surplus weight.
COMPONENTS OF WEIGHT:-

1. W crew
(Includes: - the members necessary to operate the aircraft)

2. Payload weight
(Includes: - passengers, cargo, luggages)

for bomber
expandable
rocket,armament
weight payload
non-expandable passenger,cargo

Fig 10

Non Expandable Weight – Weight which remains constant from take off to landing.

E.g.:- Passengers, Cargo.

Expendable Weight – Weight that will change during different phase of flight.

Eg :- Bombs, Rockets.

3.Wempty or Structure weight

(Includes: - structure, engine, electronic compo, Landing gear)

(Does not include: - fuel, payload, crew)

4. Fuel Weight

It’s nothing but weight of the fuel

24
GROSS WEIGHT:

To Find Wo :-

Wo = Wc+ Wp +( ) ( )

Where,

Wo – gross weight in pounds

Wc – crew weight in pounds

Wp – payload weight in pounds

We – empty weight in pounds

Wf - fuel weight in pounds

Wo( )

Initial Take-Off Weight:

Wo=( )
( )

Where We/Wo can be obtained by structure factor

Structure factor = Req empty weight/Takeoff weight

Wf/Wo = for large range aircraft it varies with time

FINAL WEIGHT ESTIMATION:

It can be found out by

STRUCTURE FACTOR:

The structure factor is the ratio between empty weight and gross weight.

STRUCTURE FACTOR (S.F) =

S.F=A(WTO)c

25
Where,

We = empty weight in pounds

Wo = gross weight in pounds

CRUSING:

Crusing is a condition at which the aircraft flies at constant altitude with constant speed.

FOR FIGHTER AIRCRAFT: AIRCRAFT FOR COMMERCIAL:

There are eight phases during flight There are five phases during flight

1. Take off 1. Take off

2. Climb 2. Climb
3. Cruise out of destination 3. Cruise out of destination
4. High speed interceptor 4.Loiter
5. Combat 7.Cruise back 5. Landing
6. Loiter 8.Landing

PHASES:

FIG 10.A

26
FUEL WEIGHT RATIO:

Using the historical values,the equations for cruise and loiter segments, the mission=segment
weight fraction can be estimated.

( )

PHASE 1. ENGINE STARTUP AND TAKE OFF

- 2.5% to 3% of Wo

- Wf/Wi should be in range of 0.9 < Wf/Wi < 0.975

PHASE 2.CLIMB [ ACCELERATE TO CRUISE SPEED AND CRUISE ALTITUDE]

It is the phases at which the aircraft accelerates to reach the cruise speed and cruise altitude.
The aircraft consumes more fuel to climb. The consumption of fuel is less until mach number
1 reaches.

From the historically calculated data given by Nicolis ( 1975 )

PHASE 3: CRUISE OUT TO DESTINATION

We have to use berquet range equation for different types of aircraft.

R=V/C * L/D In (Wi/Wf) – turbojet

R=n/C * L/D In(Wi/Wf) - prop engine

R- range in knotical miles

V-cruise velocity in knots.

C-TSFC

If SFC is given, SFC = ms/F

Then TSFC = ms/F * 3600

n-propeller efficiency TV/P = Excess power/Shaft power

27
For designing a aircraft L/D = 0.94*(L/D) max

(L/D)max = 1/√4KCdO

K = 1/πeAR

e-Oswald’s coefficient, approx = 0.8

Cdo – coefficient of drag at zero lift

Range of Cdo is

0.01< Cdo < 0.02

PHASE 4: HIGH SPEED INTERCEPT:

This phase is applicable only for military aircraft. To attain combact condition, the aircraft
must attain maximum speed.

To calculate the difference between the cruise speed and the maximum speed two factors are
used as follows:

1.The fuel weight ratio varies from minimum mach number to maximum mach number.

Minimum mach number in the sense M=0.1

2.The fuel weight ratio varies from minimum mach number to cruise mach number.

Then ,

THRUST SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION:

TSFC (c) ranges from 0.5 to 1.5 with respect to the by-pass ratio of the engine.

28
 For high by-pass ratio, the TSFC will be minimum and the efficiency will be more.
Turbo fan engine aircraft has more by-pass ratio which will consumes less amount of fuel.
Example: commercial aircraft

For low by-pass ratio, the TSFC will be maximum and the efficiency will be less.
Turbo jet engine aircraft has less by-pass ratio which will consumes more amount of fuel.
Example: military aircraft. At maximum altitude the specific fuel consumption is low and
thrust produced will be more because of the variation in temperature and density of the
atmosphere.

PHASE 5: COMBACT:

This phase is applicable only for military aircraft. It depends upon time. Hence it is known as
tcombact. The aircraft should fly at minimum altitude and speed while dropping the weapons to
avoid parabolic motion of the weapon.

Wi- Wf = CmaxTmaxtcombact

PHASE 6: CRUISE BACK:

This phase can also be called as cruise return condition. This phase is applicable only for
military aircraft. When trim is operated then the drag value will increase which will put the
aircraft into cruise speed and the cruise altitude by decreasing the (L/D) ratio and by
increasing the drag. The horizontal trim is less efficient than the vertical trim.

The cruise return varies from cruise due to the difference in weight of the payload (Wpayload)
.The Wpayload which will get reduced at combact phases due to the dropping of weapons.

PHASE 7: LOITER:

This phases is common for both the commercial as well as the military aircraft. It is the phase
at which the aircraft waits in air until the signal from ATC is reached for landing commands.
It can be calculated by using endurance equation,

For Turbo jet aircraft,

( ) ( )

For Propeller- driven aircraft,

29
 ( ) ( )

( ) ( )

E=

Where,

E= endurance (in second),

effiency of the propeller,

D= diameter of the propeller,

C = thrust specific fuel consumption

(L/D) = lift to drag ratio

v = cruise speed (in knots)

( )= initial to final weight ratio

PHASES 8: LANDING:

This phase is the final stage for the aircraft. Structure Value Factor should be low for
commercial aircraft should be high for military for withstand “G” levels.

The fuel consumed for landing ranges 2.5% to 3% of Wo.

0.97 < <0.975

CALCULATION

Antonov An 225 weight calculation are as follows:

Maximum take-off weight= gross weight= W0= 1410958

Commercial fighter has 5 phases.

30
 1. Take off 3. Cruise out of destination 5. Landing

2. Climb 4. Loiter

Phase (i) : ENGINE START UP AND TAKE OFF

Maximum fuel capacity = 66138.6 lbs

3% of 6613806 lbs is

W1/W0 = 0.975

Phase (ii) : CLIMB [ ACCELERATE TO CRUISE SPEED )By Nicoli’Graph,

For M=0.75,

W2/W1 = 0.95

Phase (iii) : CRUISE

R = V/Ct * L/D * ln(Wi/Wf)

R =2159 nmi

V – 432 knots

(L/D)max = 1/√4kCDO

K = 1/πeAR = 1/3.14 *0.8 * 8.6 = 0.0462

AR = = (88.4)2/905 = 8.6

(L/D)max = 1/√4* 0.0462*0.01

=18.97

L/D =17.84

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Phase (iv) : LOITER :

E=

E=

E=5.79 sec

( ) ( )

( )

( )

Phase (v): LANDING :

Max fuel capacity = 66138.6 lbs

3% of 66138.6 lbs is 0.975

W5/W4 = 0.975

FINAL WEIGHT ESTIMATION:

It can be estimated by

= 0.975*0.95*0.869*0.877*0.995

=0.7023

32
Since 6% of fuel is reserved,the fuel ratio is,

Wf/W0=0.06*0.7623

Wf/Wo= 1.06(1-0.7623)

Wf/Wo=0.2519

STRUCTURE FACTOR:

For commercial aircraft,

A=0.93 and c=0.07,

S.F=A(WTO)c

=0.93*( 1410958)(-0.07)

S.F=0.345

TO FIND Wo:

Wo=( )
( )

Wo=( )

Wo= 1879251.539

Iteration of weight:

Structure
Wo(assume) Factor Wo

14109580 0.3454324 1215167

1215167 0.399314 1382567

1382567 0.402451 1371791

33
 1371791 0.402262 1372437

1372437 0.402273 1372398

1372398 0.402273 1372400

1372400 0.402273 1372400

Table 2

Thus we have calculated,

(We/Wo)*Wo=552079.46lbs

Required weight:

(Wempty)required=0.2519*552079.46

(Wempty)required=139068.816lbs

Available weight:

(Wempty)available=0.2519*552079.46

(Wempty)available=139068.81lbs

SURPULSE WEIGHT:

The surpulse weight can be calculated by using the below formula

Wsurpulse= Wavailable -Wrequried

Wsurpulse = 139068.81-139068.81

Wsurpulse = 0

RESULT:

Thus the weight can be estimated for Antonov An 225 Mriya.

34
DRAG ESTIMATION

35
 DRAG ESTIMATION

As the aircraft moves forward , the air molecules are pushed aside. This causes the relative
velocity of air to vary about the aircraft in mostly towards the nose, the air is slowed down in
other places the air is speeded up relative to freestream velocity.

According to bernoulli’s equation, the total pressure ( static plus dynamic) along a
subsonic streamline remains constant. If the local air velocity increases,the dynamic pressure
has increased so the static pressure must decrease. Similarly,a reduction in local air velocity
leads to an increase in static pressure.thus the passage of aircraft creates varying pressure
around it, which push on the skin as shown in fig below.

Fig 11: origin of aerodynamic forces.

LIFT AND WEIGHT:

Lift is a force created by difference of pressure between the upper and the lower
surfaces of the wing, that supports the aircraft. Lift force acts vertically upwards in a level
flight. Opposite to the lift force, there acts the weight of the aircraft vertically downwards.

Weight force always acts in downward direction without any inclination. Lift forces are
sometimes inclined to an angle for various maneuvers of the aircraft.

36
DRAG INDUCING COMPONENTS:

1. Wing
2. Fuselage
3. Tail
4. Engine Installation
5. Under Carriage
TYPES OF DRAG:

1. Profile
2. Lift induced drag
3. Wave drag

Total drag equation is, CD= profile drag + lift induced drag + wave drag.

CD = CD0 +CDi+ drag due to flow losses used when mach no > 0.7

CD = CD0 +CDi+k1(CL-CLmin) where k1 is supersonic which ranges from 0.02 to 0.16

CD= CD0 + KCL2

K=

e= e’ [ 1- ( ]

e= 0.98

Where, d- Diameter of the fuselage in m.

b- Wing Span in m.

Cr =

Where – Cr- Root Chord Ratio

λ-

PROFILE DRAG:

Due to the pressure effect on surface and skin friction drag. It is the function of Reynolds
number.

37
WAVE DRAG:

It is mainly caused due to shocks.

To find CDO:

CDO= Cf x F x Q x

Where,

Cf – Skin Friction Coefficient

F- Shape Factor

Q- Interference factor

S- Wing Planform Area in m2

Swet – Wetted Surface Area in m2

Here, Generally
Swet= 2.008 x S for (t/c) ratio < 0.005
Swet = [ 1.918 + 0.6 (t/c) ] S for (t/c) value ≥ 0.05
Q = 1 for Fuselage
Q = 1.2 for Wing

TO FIND Cf:

If Laminar Flow: Cf =

If Turbulent Flow: Cf =

Where ,

Re= =

Where,

V= forward speed in m/s.

l=characteristic length in m.

ᵞ=Kinematic viscocity in m2/s

To use mean aerodynamic chord

Re =

38
 Where, ̅ is the Mean Aerodynamic Chord.

So the equation value to find Cf is

SHAPE FACTOR:

For Fuselage,

F=1+ -

Where, λ=

For Wing,

F = (( F*- 1) Cos2ʌ0.5c

Where, F* = 1+ 3.3 – 0.003 + 27

= tan-1[ tanʌLE – ( ) ( ) ]

For Tail Surface,F= (F*-1 ) Cos-1ʌLE +1

ENGINE INSTALLATION:

For wing mounted Engine: FQ = 1.25

For Aft Fuselage Mounted Engine: FQ = 1.5

FOR UNDER CARRIAGE:

The Drag Caused by Under carriage is based on following parameters:

1. Size Of Landing Gear

2. Number of Wheels
= 0.0025 (WL)0.73

s x CDO = (WL )0.73 x 0.0025

CONTRIBUTION OF SECONDARY COMPONENTS:

(CDO )S.C. = 10% ( CDO )Overall Or

From Wing 6% of (CDO)w

39
From Fuselage 7 % of ( CDO)f

From Engine 15% of (CDO)e

From System 3% of Total CDO

Total CDO = ∑ (All Components) ≈ 0.0078

LIFT INDUCED DRAG (CDi):

1.Component from wing geometry

2.Due to Un Optimized wing twist
3.Due to viscous flow effects
⁄
CDi= (

Where, C1 = 1 and C2 = 0.8 (Obtained From Standard Table)

WAVE DRAG:

When M=0.7, Overall drag will have 2 to 16% in supersonic flow.

So,

CDW = 0.02 to 0.16

Thus the Overall Drag is,

CD =

CALCULATION OF DRAG:

We know Swet = 2S

To find :

= =

Length of the wing – Mean Aerodynamic chord

̅= ( )

ct = 10.34m

40
 = 24m

̅= *24(

̅= 18.37

TO FIND REYNOLDS NUMBER

Re=

Re=

Re= 1158*

So it is a turbulent flow

CF =

CF =0.00207

TO FIND SHAPE FACTOR (F)

FOR FUSELAGE:

F= -

- Ratio

( )

( )

F= -

F = 1. 08266
CD0= 0.00207*1.08266*2.005
CD0= 0.00449

41
FOR WING:

F= +1

( ) ( ) ( )

F= +1

FQ = 1.279

CD0 =0.00207*1.279*1.2*2.005

CD0 =0.00636

FOR TAIL SURFACE:

F= +1

F= +1
F=1.276

Q=1.2

CD0 =0.00207*1.276*1.2*2.005

CD0 =0.00635

FOR NACELLE :

In Fuselage mounted engine,

FQ = 1.5
CD0 =0.00207*1.25*2.005
CD0 =0.005187

FOR UNDER CARRIAGE :

CD0=0.0025*14100000.73/905

CDo = 0.085

42
Total CDo = 0.00449+0.00636+0.00635+0.005187+0.085

CD0= 0.10738
FOR 10% DUE TO SECONDARY COMPONENTS,

CD0=0.10738*10/100
CD0 =0.010738

For lift induced drag,

CDi = =

=0.1511

K= = = 0.0462

CL = .

Meff =

Meff =

√ = 0.785

= 4.8641

= 4.8641

= 1.01
=4.8641

43
 = 0.33

CL =1.01-0.33

CL =0.68

CDi = K

= 0.0462*

CDi = 0.0213

Unoptimized wing twist = 0.0004

Due to Viscous Flow

For older technique,

= 0.35 (0.010738)

= 0.00375

Total CDi=0.0213+0.0004+0.0003+0.00375

Total CDi =0.02575

CD=0.010738+0.02575

CD=0.0364

D = 75769.69lbs. The total drag is 75769.69lbs

Result:
Thus the drag was estimated for Antonov An225 Mriya.

44
AIRFOIL SHAPE SELECTION

45
 AIRFOIL SHAPE SELECTION:

An airfoil-shaped body moved through a fluid produces an aerodynamic force.

The component of this force perpendicular to the direction of motion is called lift. The
component parallel to the direction of motion is called drag. Subsonic flight airfoils have a
characteristic shape with a rounded leading edge, followed by a sharp trailing edge, often
with asymmetric camber. Foils of similar function designed with water as the working fluid
are called hydrofoils.

AIRFOIL NOMENCLATURE:

Fig 12

The various terms related to airfoils are defined below:

 The suction surface (upper surface) is generally associated with higher velocity and
lower static pressure.
 The pressure surface (lower surface) has a comparatively higher static pressure than
the suction surface. The pressure gradient between these two surfaces contributes to
the lift force generated for a given airfoil.

The geometry of the airfoil is described with a variety of terms.

A key characteristic of an airfoil is its chord. We thus define the following concepts:

1.LEADING EDGE

 The leading edge is the point at the front of the airfoil that has maximum curvature.[7]

46
2.TRAILING EDGE
 The trailing edge is defined similarly as the point of maximum curvature at the rear of
the airfoil.

3.CHORD LINE

 The chord line is a straight line connecting the leading and trailing edges of the airfoil.

4.CHORD LENGTH OR SIMPLY CHORD

 The chord length, or simply chord , is the length of the chord line and is the
characteristic dimension of the airfoil section.

The shape of the airfoil is defined using the following concepts:

5.CAMBER

 The camber of an aerofoil can be defined by a camber line, which is the curve that is
halfway between the upper and lower surfaces of the aerofoil. Camber is usually
designed into an aerofoil to increase the maximum lift coefficient. This minimizes the
stalling speed of aircraft using the aerofoil. Aircraft with wings based on cambered
aerofoils usually have lower stalling speeds than similar aircraft with wings based on
symmetric aerofoils.
 An aircraft designer may also reduce the camber of the outboard section of the wings
to increase the critical angle of attack (stall angle) at the wing tips. When the wing
approaches the stall angle this will ensure that the wing root stalls before the tip,
giving the aircraft resistance to spinning and maintaining aileron effectiveness close
to the stall.

1. MEAN CAMBER LINE

 The mean camber line is the locus of points midway between the upper and lower
surfaces. Its exact shape depends on how the thickness is defined.

47
2. THICKNESS OF AN AIRFOIL

 The thickness of an airfoil varies along the chord. It may be measured in either of two
ways:
o Thickness measured perpendicular to the camber line.This is sometimes
described as the "American convention"
o Thickness measured perpendicular to the chord line.This is sometimes
described as the "British convention".

Two key parameters to describe an airfoil's shape are its maximum thickness (expressed as a
percentage of the chord), and the location of the maximum thickness point (also expressed as
a percentage of the chord).

Finally, important concepts used to describe the airfoil's behavior when moving through a
fluid are:

3.AERODYNAMIC CENTER

 The aerodynamic center, which is the chord-wise length about which the pitching
moment is independent of the lift coefficient and the angle of attack. The aerodynamic center
is the point at which the pitching moment coefficient for the airfoil does not vary with lift
coefficient (i.e. angle of attack).
 For symmetric airfoils in subsonic flight the aerodynamic center is located
approximately 25% of the chord from the leading edge of the airfoil. This point is described
as the quarter-chord point. This result also holds true for 'thin-airfoils'. For non-symmetric
(cambered) airfoils the quarter-chord is only an approximation for the aerodynamic center.

Where CL is aircraft’s lift coefficient.

4.CENTER OF PRESSURE

 The center of pressure, which is the chord-wise location about which the pitching
moment is zero.the aerodynamic center which is the point on an airfoil where the pitching
moment produced by the aerodynamic forces is constant with angle of attack.

48
 The location of the center of pressure varies with changes of lift coefficient and angle
of attack. This makes the center of pressure unsuitable for use in analysis of longitudinal
static stability.

Main wing consist of design criteria like

1. Airfoil selection.
2. Tapper ratio.
3. Aspect ratio.
4. Sweep angle.
5. (t/c)max.

Condition should be satisfied for a perfect wing

1. (dcl/dα)max should be maximum.

2. cl max should be maximum.
3. Cd min should be minimum.
4. High internal volume of wing. 5.Low weight.

For ideal airfoil, the condition to be satisfied is

1. Withstand frictional effect.

2. Proper thermal corrosion/resistance.
3. Give laminar flow.
4. (t/c) should be maximum.
5. Cl should be maximum.
6. Good drag bucket
Role of nose radius :

Fig 13

i. Nose radius should be maximum at subsonic speeds.

ii. Nose radius should be minimum at supersonic speeds.

AIRFOIL SHAPE: Shape which going to provide proper pressure distribution over upper
and lowersurface. The integrated value of pressure over the wing give the value of cl from
where we can find L. L=1/2(ρv2scl)

49
EFFECT OF (t/c)MAX:

If (t/c) increases, cl increases

cƟ= 2 dimensions
cl= 3 dimensions

The bending stress bα√3 t

t=b3 if we increases thickness
bending will be greater

For contact airfoil the structural weight can be greatly reduced for same amount of
bending stress.

DISADVANTAGE:

Fig 14 Fig 15

If we increases (t/c)max, cricticalmach no. reduces

Fig 16

For (t/c)max increases design mach no decreases.

50
NACA- National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics.

4 DIGITS:

1st- maximum camber (% of chord)

2nd- position of maximum camber (from L.E. * 10th of chord)

3rd and 4th – (t/c) ratio.

Eg.

NACA 4415

1.Maximum camber = 4* (c/100) =0.04c

2. Position of maximum camber = 4*(10c/100) =0.4c

3.t/c=15/100=0.15.

5 DIGITS:

1st – maximum camber

1st -0.15-cld (design lift coefficient).

2nd and 3rd – (*0.5)- position of maximum camber.

4th and 5th -(t/c)

Eg.

NACA 23012

1.Maximum camber = 2*(c/100) = 0.02c

2.cld =2*0.15 = 0.3
3.Position of maximum camber =(30/100)*0.5 = 0.15c
4.t/c = 12/100 = 0.12

6 DIGITS:

Coefficient of drag decreases by establishing laminar flow region).

1st – series no.

2nd – Position of minimum pressure.( in 10th of c).

3rd – acceptable ‘cl’ value (10th of cl)

4th – design lift coefficient

51
 5th and 6th – t/c

Eg.

NACA 653-421

1. Series type 2-minimum pressure = 5*(10c/100) = 0.5c

3.Accept ‘cl’ value = ± 3*(10c/100) = 0.3c.

4. (cl)d = 4*0.1 = 0.4

5 and 6.t/c= 21/100 = 0.21

BEST EQUIVALENT AIRFOIL :

 NASA SC(2)- O412.It’s a supercritical airfoil.

The airfoil curve is plotted in CATIA V5 R17 using the airfoil coordinates.the airfoil
coordinates are shown below.

COORDINATES:

UPPER SURFACE UPPER SURFACE

0.002 0.00920
0.030 0.02970
0.080 0.04180
0.130 0.04840
0.180 0.05300
0.230 0.05620
0.280 0.05830
0.330 0.05950
0.380 0.06010
0.430 0.06000
0.480 0.05930
0.530 0.05780
0.580 0.05550
0.630 0.05220
0.680 0.04790
0.730 0.04280
0.780 0.03700
0.830 0.03060
0.880 0.02350
0.930 0.01580
0.980 0.00720
1.000 0.00330

52
LOWER SURFACE LOWER SURFACE

0.002 -0.0092
0.040 -0.0329
0.090 -0.0434
0.140 -0.0499
0.190 -0.0542
0.240 -0.0572
0.290 -0.0591
0.340 -0.0599
0.360 -0.0600
0.390 -0.0598
0.440 -0.0586
0.490 -0.0562
0.530 -0.0530
0.580 -0.0473
0.630 -0.0397
0.680 -0.0307
0.730 -0.0212
0.780 -0.0119
0.830 -0.0037
0.880 0.00240
0.930 0.00450
0.980 0.00100
1.000 -0.0022
Table 3

Fig 17

53
 Graph 5 CL vs α

ALPHA(α) CL
-2.5 0
2.01784 0.17
4.03568 0.3403
5.0446 0.4253

Table 4

54
 CL VS CD
0.06

0.578, 0.0536
0.05
-0.4624, 0.0473 0.4624, 0.0473
-0.3468, 0.0424 0.3468, 0.0424
0.04 0.2312, 0.0389
-0.2312, 0.0389
-0.1156, 0.0368 0.1156, 0.0368
CD

0.03 0, 0.036113

0.02

0.01

0
-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

CL
Graph 6

CL cd
-0.4624 0.0473
-0.3468 0.0424
-0.2312 0.0389
-0.1156 0.0368
0 0.036113
0.1156 0.0368
0.2312 0.0389
0.3468 0.0424
0.4624 0.0473
0.578 0.0536

Table 5

RESULT:

Thus the airfoil was selected for Antonov An225 Mriya.

55
TAIL SURFACE SELECTION

56
 TAIL ARRANGEMENTS SELECTION
Tail Functions
Tails are little wings. Much of the previous discussion concerning wings can
also be applied to tail surfaces. The major difference between a wing and a tail is that, while
the wing is designed routinely to carry a substantial amount of lift, a tail is designed to
operate normally at only a fraction of its lift potential. Any time in flight that a tail comes
close to its maximum lift potential, and hence its stall angle, something is very wrong!
Tails provide for trim, stability, and control. Trim refers to the generation
of a lift force that, by acting through some tail moment arm about the center of graw'ty,
balances some other moment produced by the aircraft. For the horizontal tail, trim primarily
refers to the balancing of the moment created by the wing. An aft horizontal tail typically has
a negative incidence angle of about 2-3 deg to balance the wing pitching moment. As the
wing pitching moment varies under different flight conditions, the horizontal tail incidence is
usually adjustable through a range of about 3 degree up and down.
For the vertical tail, the generation of a trim force is normally not required because the
aircraft is usually left-right symmetric and does not create any unbalanced yawing moment.
The vertical tail of a multiengine aircraft must be capable of providing a sufficient trim force
in the event of an engine failure.
A single-engine propeller airplane will experience a yawing moment caused by the
tail itself. The propeller tends to “drag” the air into a rota- tional motion in the same direction
that the propeller spins. Since the verti-cal tail is above the fuselage, it will be pushed on by
the rotating propwash, causing a nose-left motion for the normal direction of engine rotation.
To counter this, some single-engine propeller airplanes have the vertical tail offset several
degrees.
The tails are also a key element of stability, acting much like the fins on an arrow. While it is
possible to design a stable aircraft without tails, such a design is usually penalized in some
other area, such as a compromised airfoil shape, excessive wing area or sweep, or narrow
center-of-gravity range.
The other major function of the tail is control. The tail must be sized to provide adequate
control power at all critical conditions. These critical conditions for the horizontal tail or
canard typically include nosewheel liftoff, low-speed flight with flaps down, and transonic
maneuvering. For the vertical tail, critical conditions typically include engine-out flight at low
speeds, maximtun roll rate, and spin recovery.

57
Tail Arrangement

FIG 18 AIRFOIL AND GEOMETHY SELECTION 69

that it works. For most aircraft designs, the conventional tail will usually provide adequate
stability and control at the lightest weight. Probably 70% or more of the aircraft in service
have such a tail arrangement. However, there are many reasons for considering others.

Fig 19

58
DRAG-DUE-TO-LIFT.
The drag-due-to-lift, or induced drag, is a function of the square of the lift being produced. If
the weight of the aircraft is evenly distributed to two wings, each wing would have only
one—fourth of the induced drag of a single wing. Thus, the sum of the induced drags of the
two wings should be half of the drag of a single wing.
As was shown for biplane wings, this theoretical result is not seen in practice because of the
interference between the two wings. The second wing must fly in the downwash of the first
wing, which requires a higher angle of attack on the second wing. Also, the wake of the first
wing tends to create turbulence on the second wing. Finally, to attain stability with a tandem-
wing it is usually necessary to move the center of gravity somewhat forward of the location
for an even weight split, which may prevent the aft wing from attaining its full lift capability.
To maximize efficiency of a tandem-wing design it is desirable to separate the two wings as
far apart as possible, both horizontally and vertically. To attain maximum total lift, it is
common to use high-lift devices on the front wing.

A three-surface arrangement provides both aft-tail and lifting-canard surfaces. This allows the
use of the lifting-canard for reduction of wing drag-due-to-lift without the difficulty of
incorporating wing flaps as seen on a canard-only configuration.

Fig 20

59
The three»surface aircraft theoretically offers minimum trim drag. A canard or aft-tail, when
generating lift for trim purposes, will change the aircraft total lift distribution, which
increases total induced drag. On a three-surface configuration the canard and aft-tail can act
in opposite directions, thus cancelling out each other’s effect upon the total lift distribution.
However, this reduction in trim drag is a theoretical farfield effect and may not be fully
realized in an actual design. The drawback of the three-sur- face arrangement is the additional
weight, complexity, and interference drag associated with the extra surfaces.
The “back-porch” or “aft-strake” is a horizontal control surface that is incorporated into a
faired extension of the wing or fuselage. This device, seen on the X-29, is mostly used to
prevent pitchup but can also serve as a primary pitch control surface in some cases.
The tailless configuration offers the lowest weight and drag of any tail configuration, if it can
be made to work. For a stable aircraft, the wing of a tailless aircraft must be reflexed or
twisted to provide natural stability. This reduces the efficiency of the wing.
For an unstable aircraft with a computerized flight control system, this need not be done. In
fact, an unstable, tailless aircraft can be designed to be “self-trimming," meaning that the
wing trailing-edge flap angles required to balance the aircraft at different speeds and angles of
attack can be designed to be almost exactly the optimal flap angles for maximum L/D.
This is very difficult to accomplish, and is very sensitive to the location of the center of
gravity. In fact, all tailless designs are sensitive to center-of- gravity location, and are most
successful in designs in which the expendable fuel and payload are located very close to the
empty center of gravity.
The vertical tail can also be eliminated for reduced weight and drag. However, the fully
tailless (flying-wing) design is probably the most diffi- cult configuration to stabilize, either
naturally or by computer. Fully-tail- less designs must rely exclusively upon wing control
surfaces for control, unless vectored thrust is provided. Rudder control is usually provided by
wingtip-mounted drag devices. Some fully-tailless designs utilize drooped outer wing panels
for stability and control enhancement. These act somewhat like an inverted V-tail and provide
the desirable proverse roll-yaw coupling with rudder deflection.
Winglets or endplates mounted at the wing tips can be used in place of a vertical tail. This
may provide the required vertical tail surface for free, since the effective increase in wing
aspect ratio may more than compensate for the wetted area of the tail. To place these tip
surfaces far enough aft to act like vertical tails requires either extreme wing sweep or a
canard arrange- ment, or both.

60
Tail Geometry
The surface areas required for all types of tails are directly proportional to the aircraft’s wing
area, so the tail areas cannot be selected until the initial estimate of aircraft takeoff gross
weight has been made.Other geometric parameters for the tails can be selected at this time.
Tail aspect ratio and taper ratio show little variation over a wide range of air- craft types.
Table 4.3 provides guidance for selection of tail aspect ratio antaper ratio.
Note that T-tail aircraft have lower vertical-tail aspect ratios to reduce the weight impact of
the horizontal tail’s location on top of the vertical tail. Also, some general-aviation aircraft
use untapered horizontal tails to reduce manufacturing costs.

Table 6
Leading-edge sweep of the horizontal tail is usually set to about 5 degmore than the wing
sweep. This tends to make the tail stall after the wing,and also provides the tail with a higher
Critical Mach Number than thewing, which avoids loss of elevator effectiveness due to shock
formation.For low-speed aircraft, the horizontal tail sweep is frequently set to providea
straight hinge line for the elevator, which usually has the left and rightsides connected to
reduce flutter tendencies.
Vertical-tail sweep varies between about 35 and 55 deg. For a low-speed aircraft, there is
little reason for vertical-tail sweep beyond about 20 degotherthanasthetics. For a high-speed
aircraft, vertical-tail sweep is usedprimarily to insure that the tail’s Critical Mach Number is
higher than thew1ng’s.
The exact planform of the tail surfaces is actually not very critical in theearly stages of the
design process. The tail geometries are revised duringlater analytical and wind-tunnel studies.
For conceptual design, it is usually acceptablesimply to draw tail surfaces that “look right,”
based upon prior
experience and similar designs.

61
Tail thickness ratio is usually similar to the wing thickness ratio, as deter-mined by the
historical guidelines provided in the wing-geometry section.For a high-speed aircraft, the
horizontal tail is frequently about 10% thin-ner than the wing to ensure that the tail has a
higher Critical Mach Number.
1.Design and placement of tail section

(i) Traditional
(ii) Canard
2.Airfoil Selection
(i) Tail weight must be low
(ii) Control and Stability
(iii) Survivability
(iv) Combat health
(v) Spin Recovery
3.Tail Arrangement
(i) Conventional
(ii) T-Tail
(iii) Cruciform
(iv) H-Tail
(v) V-Tail
(vi) Inverted V-Tail
(vii) Y-Tail
(viii) Twin tail
(ix) Canard – controlled and lifting
4.Tail Sizing
For Vertical Stabilizer ,

Where,

CVT is Coefficient of vertical tail ≈ 0.02 to 0.09

Bw is the Wing Span

Sw is the Span Area of main wing

LVT is the equivalent length of Vertical tail (i.e.) the distance between the quarter chord point
of mean aerodynamic chord of main wing and vertical stabilizer.

For Aft Fuselage Horizontal Stabilizer,

62
 ̅̅̅̅

CHT = 0.5 to 1

Where,

̅̅̅̅ = mean aerodynamic chord

Sw =wing area.

PLANFORM SHAPE OF TAIL SECTION

L.E. will be slightly more than sweep angle of main wing.

Note: Any aircraft’s tail section must satisfy 2 conditions:

1. Airfoil must be symmetrical

2. It must produce minimum base drag

(⁄ )
√ ( )

Where, √

63
CALCULATION:

VERTICAL TAIL:

Svt = (Cvt* bw * Sw)/Lvt

= (0.50* 39.79* 407.25)/32.65

Svt = 248.15m2.

̅̅̅̅= ((1+λ+λ2/(1+λ)))

= ((1+0.35+0.352/(1+0.35)))

̅̅̅̅ = 16.36 m

HORIZONTAL TAIL:

SHT = (CHT* bw * Sw)/LHT

CHT = 0.75

̅̅̅̅= ((1+λ+λ2/(1+λ)))

= ((1+0.4+0.42/(1+0.4)))

̅̅̅̅=16.89m

SHT =158.02 m2

PLANFORM SHAPE:
HORIZONTAL TAIL:
AR =3.88
Sweep angle =36.4 degree.
β=0.785
CDO = 0.010738
dcl/dα = 3.37
CD = 0.0107+0.0462Cl2

VERTICAL TAIL:
AR =3.88
Sweep angle =35.4 degree.
β=0.785

64
 CDO = 0.010738
dcl/dα = 3.4
Cl =3.4
CD = 0.0107+0.0462Cl2

HORIZONTAL TAIL

α Cl CD
0 0 0.0107
1 3.37 0.5353
2 6.74 2.1094
3 10.11 4.7328
4 13.48 8.4057
5 16.85 13.1279
6 20.22 18.8995
7 23.59 25.7204
8 26.96 33.5907
9 30.33 42.5104
10 33.7 52.4795
11 37.07 63.4980
12 40.44 75.5658
13 43.81 88.6831
14 47.18 102.8497
15 50.55 118.0657
16 53.92 134.331
17 57.29 151.6458
18 60.66 170.0099
19 64.03 189.4233
20 67.4 209.8862
Table 7

65
CL vs α

Graph 7

CD vs α

Graph 8

66
 CD vs CL Graph 9

VERTICAL STABILIZER

α CL CD
0 0 0.0107
1 3.4 0.5447
2 6.8 2.1469
3 10.2 4.8173
4 13.6 8.5558
5 17 13.3625
6 20.4 19.2372
7 23.8 26.1802
8 27.2 34.1913
9 30.6 43.2705
10 34 53.4179
11 37.4 64.6334
12 40.8 76.9170
13 44.2 90.2688
14 47.6 104.6888
15 51 120.1769
16 54.4 136.7331
17 57.8 154.3575
18 61.2 173.05
19 64.6 192.8107
20 68 213.6395
Table 8

67
 CL vs α

Graph 10

CD vs α

Graph 11

68
 CD vs CL

Graph 12

The tail airfoil curve is plotted in CATIA V5 R17 using the airfoil coordinates.the airfoil
coordinates are shown below.

Fig 21

RESULT:

Thus the tail surface was selected for Antonov An 225 Mriya.

69
SELECTION OF POWERPLANT

70
 POWER PLANT SELECTION

Stall due to wake formed by wings affects the horizontal tail when it is placed in wake
area which is produced by powerplant. Horizontal tail should be placed below the mean
aerodynamic chord for more stability to avoid reduced elevator performance.

Spin due to wake formed by horizontal tail affects the vertical tail when it is placed
above the horizontal tail which will further create problem in rudder performance. So we
have to place the vertical tail at a point where the performance of rudder doesn’t get affected.

PROPULSION SYSTEM:

The engine used in ANTONOV An-225 MRIYA is D-18

Turbo Fan engines. Totally there are six engines which produces 225.25KN each
(ie.51655lbs). The diameter of the engine used is 3.42m and the length of the engine is
6.057m (1514.25lbs).

Table 9

RANGE LIMITS
Long range 0.2 to 0.35
Short range 0.4 to 0.6
Combat 0.4 to 0.6
Air to air combat 0.8 to 1.3

71
 Graph 13

PROPULSION SYSTEM SPEED LIMITS

For aircraft with high by pass ratio (β), fuel efficiency will be more. Upto 10,000m thrust
produced by turbojet engine.

T= (Ve Va) + Ac (Pe Pa)

T= (Ve Va)
T= Ve

T=Treq*( )…………….(1)

Where,
= ( Av)

= )exit

( ) ( ) …………….(2)

Compare (1) and (2),

⁄
( ) ( )

72
Then,

Wengine = Wref*( )

Lengine= Lref*( )

The value of ( ) between 0.5 to 1.5 and the value is in the range of 0.8 to 1.3.

Dengine= 0.288

EFFECT OF ALTITUDE AND VELOCITY

Thrust, T α
Mass flow rate is directly proportional to density at that particular altitude.

INSTALLED THRUST:
Based on correction factors
(a) Inlet pressure recovery
(b) Bleed air power extraction
(c) Inlet flow distribution effect
(d) Nozzle area performance.

Drag:
Inlet drag
Nozzle drag
Trim drag
Inlet pressure recovery:
For M<1,

73
For M>1,

Loss %= Cram[( ) ( ) ]X100%

( ) , When M

( ) , , When M

( ) , , When M

For cabin cooling purpose, some amount of engine bleed air is drawn.
Loss %= ( )*100
Where,
=2.0
To find the diameter of propeller and shaft horse power,

𝝆
Tip speed = nD
Advance ratio,

J=

T=

Shape of propeller depends on activity factor which ranges between 80 to 200

Activity factor = ∫

When ( ) increases, then aspect ratio increases.

When ( ) decreases, then aspect ratio decreases.

74
CALCULATION FOR POWERPLANT:
DIAMETER:

From drag estimation T=D= 75,769.69lbs,

Thrust produced by single engine alone at sea level is

⁄
( ) ( )

d=2.83

d=3.42m

MASS FLOW RATE:

( )

1.466

=577.75 1.466

= 4 .4 /s=1872.90 lbs/s
LENGTH:

Lengine=LrefX( ) (a=0.8 to 1.3)

=5.4

l=6.057m
WEIGHT:

Wengine=WrefX( )

=9039( )

Wengine=12280.71lbs

75
The thrust required is, T=
= 847.46*1.4*0.287*223.26

T=168008.91lbs
The thrust at cruise altitude is greater than the thrust at sealevel.
Hence,

Bleed air loss percentage ,

Loss %= ( )X 100

=2*0.05*100%

Loss%=10%

Inlet pressure recovery ,

Loss %= Cram[( ) ( ) ]X100%

For Antonov AN 225 Mriya, the mach number is less than 1, then

[( ) ( ) ]

Inlet pressure recovery loss % = 0

EFFECT OF ALTITUDE AND VELOCITY:

T12000=51,655X

T12000=13572.7lbs

Altitude ⁄ ⁄ T
[m] [lbs]

0 1 1 51655
1000 0.887 1.023 46875.72

76
2000 0.7846 1.047 42444.44
3000 0.6920 1.0725 38338.31
4000 0.6085 1.098 34546.74
5000 0.5334 1.126 31051.6
6000 0.4659 1.156 27833.93
7000 0.4056 1.187 24878.9
8000 0.3518 1.2196 22166.7
9000 0.3039 1.2542 19694.28
10,000 0.2615 1.2906 17436.39
11,000 0.2240 1.3292 15436.716
12,000 0.1975 1.33 13572.7

Table 10

Altitude Vs Thrust

Graph 14

RESULT:

Thus the selection of powerplant has been done for Anronov AN

225 Mriya.

77
BALANCING OF AIRCRAFT
(DETERMINATION OF C.G.)

78
 Balancing of aircraft

(determination of c.g)

The center of gravity (CG) of an aircraft is the point at which the aircraft would balance if it
were possible to suspend it at that point. It is the theoretical point at which the entire weight
of the aircraft is assumed to be concentrated. Its position is calculated after supporting the
aircraft on at least two sets of weighing scales or load cells, and noting the weight shown on
each set of scales or load cell. The center of gravity affects the stability of the aircraft. To
ensure the aircraft is safe to fly, the center of gravity must fall within specified limits
established by the aircraft manufacturer.

Terminology

Ballast

Ballast is removable or permanently installed weight in an aircraft used to bring the

center of gravity into the allowable range.

Center-of-gravity limits

CG limits are specified longitudinal (forward and aft) and/or lateral (left and right)
limits within which the aircraft's center of gravity must be located during flight. The
CG limits are indicated in the airplane flight manual. The area between the limits is
called the CG range of the aircraft.

Weight and balance

When the weight of the aircraft is at or below the allowable limit(s) for its
configuration (parked, ground movement, take-off, landing, etc.) and its center of
gravity is within the allowable range, and both will remain so for the duration of the
flight, the aircraft is said to be within weight and balance. Different maximum
weights may be defined for different situations; for example, large aircraft may have
maximum landing weights that are lower than maximum take-off weights (because
some weight is expected to be lost as fuel is burned during the flight). The center-of-
gravity may change over the duration of the flight as the aircraft's weight changes due
to fuel burn.

79
Reference datum

The reference datum is a reference plane that allows accurate, and uniform,
measurements to any point on the aircraft. The location of the reference datum is
established by the manufacturer and is defined in the aircraft flight manual. The
horizontal reference datum is an imaginary vertical plane or point, arbitrarily fixed
somewhere along the longitudinal axis of the aircraft, from which all horizontal
distances are measured for weight and balance purposes. There is no fixed rule for its
location, and it may be located forward of the nose of the aircraft. For helicopters, it
may be located at the rotor mast, the nose of the helicopter, or even at a point in space
ahead of the helicopter. While the horizontal reference datum can be anywhere the
manufacturer chooses, most small training helicopters have the horizontal reference
datum 100 inches forward of the main rotor shaft centerline. This is to keep all the
computed values positive. The lateral reference datum is usually located at the center
of the helicopter.

Arm

The arm is the chordwise (fore-and-aft) distance from the datum to any point within
the aircraft.

Moment

The moment is a measure of force that results from an object’s weight acting through
an arc that is centered on the zero point of the reference datum distance. Moment is
also referred to as the tendency of an object to rotate or pivot about a point (the zero
point of the datum, in this case). The further an object is from this point, the greater
the force it exerts. Moment is calculated by multiplying the weight of an object by its
arm.

Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC)

A specific chord line of a tapered wing. At the mean aerodynamic chord, the center of
pressure has the same aerodynamic force, position, and area as it does on the rest of
the wing. The MAC represents the width of an equivalent rectangular wing in given
conditions. On some aircraft, the center of gravity is expressed as a percentage of the
length of the MAC. In order to make such a calculation, the position of the leading

80
 edge of the MAC must be known ahead of time. This position is defined as a distance
from the reference datum and is found in the aircraft's flight manual and also on the
aircraft's type certificate data sheet. If a general MAC is not given but a LeMAC
(leading edge mean aerodynamic chord) and a TeMAC (trailing edge mean
aerodynamic chord) are given (both of which would be referenced as an arm
measured out from the datum line) then your MAC can be found by finding the
difference between your LeMAC and your TeMAC.

Calculation

Center of gravity is calculated as follows:

 Determine the weights and arms of all mass within the aircraft.
 Multiply weights by arms for all mass to calculate moments.
 Add the moments of all mass together.
 Divide the total moment by the total weight of the aircraft to give an overall arm.

Component Weight Length

wing
fuselage
Horizontal tail
Vertical tail
Main landing
gear
Nose landing
gear
payload
fuel
engine

The C.G point is given by:

The values of weights are obtained from different coefficients. Stratton (1968,1969) and
Jackson (1971) derived formulas for finding weights of all components of all aircrafts.
They derived formulas for

81
  Combat/fighter aircrafts.
 Long range/passenger aircraft.
 General aviation.

FORMULAE TO FIND WEIGHT OF ALL COMPONENTS:

WEIGHT OF WING
c4 c5 c6
= C1C2C3 n Ac7 [ ] c8 (C9 + λc10) ( )c11 c12
qc13 Wfwc14

Where,

= Design Gross Weight

n = Load Factor

SW = Wing Plan-form Area

A = Aspect Ratio

[ ] =Thickness to Chord Ratio

λ = Taper Ratio

ɅLE = Leading edge Sweep Angle

= Flapped portion Plan-form Area

q = Dynamic Pressure for Cruising

= Fuel Weight

WEIGHT OF HORIZONTAL TAIL:

WHT = C1[1+ ]c2Wdgc3 nc4SHTc5LHTc6 ( )c8 Ac9 [ ]c10 λc11 qc12

Where,

= Design Gross Weight

n = Load Factor

= The portion occupied by Horizontal Stabilizer on Fuselage

= Span of Horizontal Stabilizer

SHT = Horizontal Stabilizer plan-form area

LHT = Length of Horizontal Stabilizer

82
 = Pitching radius of Gyration

WEIGHT OF VERTICAL TAIL:

WVT =C1 [ C2+ ]Wdgc4 nc5 SVTc6 Mc7 LVTc8 [ 1+ ] Ac10 ( C11 + λc12 ) ( cos ɅVT

)c13 [ ]c14 kzc15 qc16

KZ = yawing radius of gyration = LVT

Where,

= Design Gross Weight

n = Load Factor

HHT = Horizontal tail height above the centre line

HVT = Vertical tail height above the centre line

M = Cruise Mach

Sr = Rudder surface plan-form area

KZ = Yawing radius of Gyration

WEIGHT OF FUSELAGE:

WF = C1C2C3 Wdgc4nc5 Lc6 Lt c7Dc8 Sfc9 Wfc10 (1+ KWSc11) qc12 + C13

KWS= 0.75[ ][( ) ɅLE ]

Where,

= Design Gross Weight

n = Load Factor

L = Length of the Fuselage

Lt =Length of Fuselage Tail

D = Structural depth of Fuselage [Diameter]

WEIGHT OF MAIN LANDING GEAR:

WMLG = C1C2C3 Wlc4nc5 LLGc6 NmwC7 NmssC8 VSC9

VS =√ . . )

Where,

83
 n = Load Factor

= No. of Main wheels

= No. of Main wheel shock strut

VS = Stalling Velocity

WEIGHT OF NOSE LANDING GEAR:

WNLG = C1C2 WlC3 nC4 LC5 NnwC6

WLG = 0.057 (W0)

n = L/W

Where,

n = Load Factor

= No. of nose wheel

ENGINE:

= 1.4

= 0.17.

C.G of extra weight

 is fuselage length.
 is location of remaining weight.

Constants for transport aircrafts is given below:

Coefficients Wing Horizontal Vertical Fuselage Main Nose

Tail Tail Landing Landing
Gear Gear
0.0051 0.0379 0.0026 0.328 0.0106 0.032
1 -0.25 1 1 1 1
1 0.639 0.225 1 1 0.646
0.557 0.1 0.556 0.5 0.888 0.2

84
 0.557 0.75 0.536 0.5 0.25 0.5
0.649 -1 0.5 0.35 0.4 0.450
0.5 0.704 0 0 0.329 NIL
-0.4 .1 -0.5 -0.35 -0.5 NIL
1 0.116 0 0 0.1 NIL
0.1 0 0.350 -0.1 NIL NIL
-1 0 0 0.302 NIL NIL
0.1 NIL 0 0 NIL NIL
0 NIL .1 0.04 NIL NIL
0 NIL -0.5 0 NIL NIL
NIL NIL 0.875 0 NIL NIL
NIL NIL 0 NIL NIL NIL
Table 11

CALCULATION:

WEIGHT OF WING:

WW = C1C2C3 Wdgc4nc5 Swc6Ac7 [ ] c8 (C9 + λc10) (cos ɅLE)c11Sfc12 qc13 Wfwc14

WW=0.0051*1*1*13724000.557*4.450.557*2968.40.649*8.60.5*0.06-0.4-*(1+0.42)0.1*cos36.4-
1
*742.10.1*1*1

WW = 119766.771 pounds

WEIGHT OF HORIZONTAL TAIL:

WHT = C1 [ 1+ ]c2 Wdgc3 nc4 SHTc5 LHTc6ky(cos ɅHT)c8 Ac9 [ ]c10 λc11 qc12

WHT= 0.0379*(1+1)-0.25*13724000.639*4.450.1*518.300.75*107.092-1 *32.170.704*cos36.4-

1
*3.80.116*0.060*0.420

WHT= 5032.65pounds

WEIGHT OF VERTICAL TAIL:

WVT =C1 [ C2+ ]Wdgc4 nc5 SVTc6 Mc7 LVTc8 [ 1+ ] Ac10 ( C11 + λc12 ) ( cos ɅVT )c13 [
]c14 kzc15 qc16

WVT = 0.0026*1*13724000.556*4.450.536*813.9320.5*M0*107.092-0.5*3.880.35*λ0*cos36.4-
1
*0.06-0.05*107.0920.875

WVT = 19772.51 pounds

85
WEIGHT OF FUSELAGE:

WF = C1C2C3 Wdgc4nc5 Lc6 Lt c7 Dc8 Sfc9 Wfc10( 1+ KWSc11 ) qc12 + C13

WF = 0.328*1*1*13724000.5*4.450.5*229.60.35* Lt0*826.24-
0.1
*540.50.302*W0*(1+13.37)0.04q0+0

WF = 26846.15 pounds

WEIGHT OF MAIN LANDING GEAR:

WMLG = C1C2C3 Wlc4nc5 LLGc6 NmwC7 NmssC8 VSC9

WMLG = 0.0106*1*1*13040000.888*4.450.25*65.60.41*280.321*5-0.5*58.180.1

WMLG= 44194.35 pounds

WEIGHT OF NOSE LANDING GEAR:

WNLG = C1C2 WlC3 nC4 LC5 NnwC6

= 0.032*1*13040000.646*4.450.2*16.980.5*40.450

WNLG = 2956.61 pounds

ENGINE:

= 1.3

= 1.3

Winstall=11750.7pounds

REMAINING WEIGHT:

= 0.17

Wremain = 0.17*1410958

Wremain = 239862.86 pounds

Payload = 559577lbs

Fuel = 661386lbs

TO FIND LENGTH OF ALL COMPONENTS FROM NOSE:

NLG = nose to NLG/ 2

=9.57/2

86
 NLG =4.785feet.

MLG = nose to MLG/2

= 32.64/2

MLG = 16032 feet

Wing = nose to wing center + wing span/4.

Wing =117.81 + 291.72/4

Wing =190.74feet

Engine = location of engine from nose +lengine/2.

= 23.205 + 17.82/2

Engine = 32.115feet

Horizontal Tail = (Position of horizontal tail to nose/2) +

( ).

= 231/2 +

Horizontal Tail = 138.6 feet.

Vertical Tail = position of vertical tail to nose/2 +

=240.9/2 +

Vertical Tail = 138.6 feet

S.NO COMPONENT WEIGHT(pounds) LENGTH(feet) MOMENT

1 Wing 119766.771 190.74 22844313.9
2 Fuselage 26846.15 115.5 3100730.325
3 Horizontal Tail 5032.65 138.6 697525.29
4 Vertical Tail 19772.51 138.6 2740469.886
5 Main Landing 44194.35 53.856 2380130.914
Gear
6 Nose Landing 2956.61 4.785 14147.37885
Gear
7 Winstall 11750.7 32.115 377373.7305
8 Wremain 239862.86 138.6 33244992.4
9 Payload 559577 115.5 64631143.5
10 Fuel 661386 115.5 76390083
Table 12

87
C.G

C.G.=

C.G = 122.05 feet or 36.98m. from nose.

RESULT:

The Center of Gravity was find for Antonov An 225 Mriya.

88
STABILITY AND CONTROL

89
 STABILITY AND CONTROL
The three basic controls on aircraft are Ailerons, Elevator, Rudder which are
designed to change the moment in X, Y,Z directions (lateral, longitudinal and directional
stability)

STATIC STABILITY:
Any vehicle moves it will be sufficient to minor changes on forces that act on it, and in its
speed.
1) Statically stable-changes cause the further changes tend to restore the vehicle to its original
speed and orientation.
2) Statically unstable-tend to away from its speed and orientation
3)Neutrally stable-neither restored nor provide tendency to away from its speed and
orientation
For statically stable we have to consider in all the three directions

 Pitch
 Roll
 Yaw
NOTE:
Excessive stable cause adverse effects on maneuverability and performance
LONGITUDINAL STABILITY:
It is the measure of response of the aircraft due to change in pitch angle.
Static margin:
It is the distance between the Neutral point and center of gravity of airplane.
For longitudinal stability it is given by

S.M=

Where is location of neutral point and

- Mean Aerodynamic Chord

The coefficient of longitudinal stability is given by

= -(S.M) where, W-Main wing

=Lcosα +Dsinα

=Dcosα-Lsinα

90
Sum of the moments about the C.G:

= + -

Note:

-Which affects by the upstream components such as fuselage and the main landing gear.

The measure of upstream influence is known as “Tail Efficiency”.

= ≤ 1, for canard =1

equipped with flaps and vary with pitch angles.

FLAPS

= α- ]

Where is the factor that changes the effectiveness ‘α’ as a result of downwash from Main
Wing.
It can be obtained from NACA TR 648.

VARIABLE PITCH ANGLE

= ]

So =[ ]α, for canard =α

If HT uses variable pitch angle to vary lift coefficient, i,e flying tail,

Where - control stick α of Horizontal tail.

Note:

→Moment of coefficient represents the force in y direction produced by turning of air at

the inlet of engine.

= *V∞tanβ

Fy = *V∞*β (for small angle of β)

= *

So =

Thus coefficient of longitudinal stability can be obtained by differentiating the terms in trim
equation by α i.e =

91
 = + - ] –

Where →Volume coefficient =

Within drag bucket =0 so

= - ] –

And, =

Where, depends upon ‘M’ and location of engine inlet,

 For supersonic flow

 For subsonic flow = where, is distance between engine inlet
and wing trailing edge.
 If at upstream of the wing trailing edge

Note:

Static stability is the tendency to return to equilibrium if perturbed for pitch stability <0

i.e -1.5 ≤ ≤-0.16

(Too large a negative coefficient will result in excessive amount of trim drag in aft tail
design)
Neutral point: It may be considered as aerodynamic center of complete aircraft.

It is the specific location where then it’s called neutral point.

It is in fixed location, independent of C.G location.

For longitudinal stability C.G must be forward of N.P

Static Margin:

Stick fixed static margin= -

= + ( ]

TO FIND AEROCYNAMIC CENTER

=(

LATERAL STABILITY:
Rolling motion about the longitudinal centerline of fuselage.
92
 =

If it is positive when right wing down,in a sideslip rotation of aircraft with Sideslip angle (β).
Rolling motion of the aircraft in response to a gust at an angle ‘Β’ w.r.to flight direction is a
measure of lateral stability.

For lateral stability

= + +

Contribution of wing,

= + + <0 (-0.9 to -0.05)

Where ᴧ is sweep angle.

For lateral stability

 Aspect Ratio should be small and have a Positive sweep angle and dihedral
angle.

 Wing fuselage →high wing (stabilizing lateral stabilizing)

→Low wing (destabilizing lateral stabilizing)
→Mid wing (Neutrally stable)

It is difficult to obtain ( ) for conceptual design.So

=-

→coefficient of directional stability.

DIRECTIONAL STABILITY:
Rotation about the vertical axis (Clockwise moment)
POSITIVE →right wing back

The lateral forces produced by fuselage,wing due to side slip angle ‘ ’ rotate the aircraft
Vertical tail opposes this motion to produce the counter moment and maintain original
flight dim.

= + + →1 where is lateral lift force.

= →2 (L= *q*s)

93
And =(1+ ) →3

= + +

For differential stability >0 (i.e, reduced slip angle)

For the Vertical stabilizer

= (1+ )

Note:

( = )

In equation 4,(1+ ) is the influence of the wing and fuselage on effectiveness of vertical
stabilizer and it can be obtained by Ellison 1968

(1+ ) =0.724+ +0.4 +0.009Aw

→ Planform area of vertical stabilizer

→ Height of wing root chord with respect to fuselage centre line

h→ Total height of fuselage

For wing:

= ̅
)

For fuselage:

It is in angle of attack,product lift along its length counters the stability by vertical stabilizer.

=1.3

Where, → volume of fuselage and h, and w are the average height and weight of the
fuselage.

So (0.08≤ ≤0.28)

CALCULATION:

static margin= -

94
To find neutral point:

= + ( ]

VHT = (lht * Sht)/(Sw * ̅ )

= (107.745* 521.4)/(2986.5 * 60.621)
VHT= 0.3103 feet3
(dCl/dα)HT = 3.37
(CL)HT=40.8
(CL)w = 38.98

Xnp=( -0.227

Xa.cw = (

= (14.6/18.27) – 0.00
Xa.cw =0.797m
Xnp = 0.797+0.227
Xnp =1.024
S.M. = 22.7%

LONGITUDINAL STABILITY:

= + - ] –

VHT = (lht * Sht)/(Sw * ̅ )

VHT = (107.745* 521.4)/(2986.5 * 60.621
VHT= 0.3103 feet3
ηHT =(Vt2*St*clt)/(Vw2*Sw*Clw)
=(767.52*521.466*40.8)/(733.322*2986.5*38.98)
= 12534577420/62602462020
ηHT =0.20.
Vt=(Vw*ClHT)/CLw
=(733.32*40.8)/38.9
Vt =767.559
dβ/dα =0.33

95
 =

=0.00069

= -(0.05*0.8)*(0.3103*0.2)-0.000692

= 0.000692

DIRECTIONAL STABILITY:

= + +

For wing:

= ̅
)

= 0.682(0.00925-(0.00211*-11.625))

=0.0156

For fuselage:
=-1.3

=-1.3*( )*
=- 0.0228

For vertical stabilizer,

= (1+ )

(1+ ) =0.724+ +0.4 +0.009Aw

= 0.742+0.465+0.175+0.074

(1+ ) = 1.456

=0.1017*3.4*1.456
=0.5034
LATERAL STABILITY:
= )
=-0.5034
RESULT: Thus the stability for Antonov An 225 Mriya was finally determined.

96
THREE VIEW DIAGRAM

Fig 22

97
 CONCLUSION

In the conceptual design, we altered the things as follows,

• Reduce the weight

• Altering the drag value at sea level

• Change the airfoil suited to our requirements

• Select the tail surface as adopted to our mission

• Design the power plant that overcome the new arrived drag value

• Change the centre of gravity position for the newly designed components

• Find the longitudinal, directional and lateral stability for the aircraft having better
performance.

98
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Introduction to Flight by J.D.Anderson

2. Aerodynamics by Clancy
3. Fundamentals of Aerodynamics by J.D.Anderson
4. Jane’s All the World’s Aircraft
5. Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach by Daniel. P. Raymer
6. Aircraft Performance and stability by J.D. Anderson
7. Flight Stability and control by Nelson
8. The Design Of The Airplane by Darrol Stinton
9. Aircraft Series, Cambridge Aerospace Series by Ajay Kumar Kundu

WEBSITE REFERENCES

1. www. airfoiltools.com
2. www.naca/aerofoil.gov
3. www.worldaircraftdierctory.com
4. www.airliners.net
5. www.uicc.com/airfoil
6. www.antonov.com

99