By

Himanshu Panwar
Asst. Prof. Civil Engineering Department
AKGEC
 Content

Basic Concepts

Data types

Data models

Data acquisition

GIS applications in civil engineering.
A product of GIS
Google Maps
 What is GIS?
Explaination:
Geographical Information
System (GIS) are computer based
tools for mapping and analyzing
features and events on earth.

GIS technology integrates common

database operations such as query
and statistical analysis with the unique
visualization and geographic analysis
benefits offered by maps.

This image shows the GIS

environment in which data is uploded
and analyzed.
 What is GIS?
Definition:
A Geographical Information System is a system designed
to capture, store, manipulate, analyze, manage, and
present spatial or geographic data for solving complex
problems.
 GIS CONTRIBUTION DISCIPLINES

GIS is an integration of various

specilizations:

Data Source:
1) Remote sensing – to acquire
satellite images

2) Photogrammetry – to acquire
aerial images i.e. photographs
taken by an airplane.

3) Surveying – provides accurate

ground or field data such as
control points, coordinates etc
 GIS CONTRIBUTION DISCIPLINES
GIS is an integration of
various specilizations:

Mathematics and Statistics:

For quantitative and
qualitative analysis

Qualitative analysis focuses on

why. Why do people behave in
certain ways? Why do they
make decisions?

Quantitative analysis focuses on

what. What happened? How
many people bought this
product? What percentage of
people considered this brand?
 Components of GIS
GIS system can be viewed as an integration of five components :-
1) Hardware
Relates to device used by end users such as graphic devices or plotters and scanners,
storage device such as external hard disk, high functioning micro-processor and various
display units.
2)Software
GIS software provides the functions and tools needed to store, analyze, and display
geographic information. Key software components are:
A database management system (DBMS)
Tools for the input and manipulation of geographic information
Tools that support geographic query, analysis, and visualization
A graphical user interface (GUI) for easy access to tools
 Components of GIS
GIS system can be viewed as an integration of five components :-
3) Data
It the most important component of a GIS is the data. Geographic data are basically
divided into two main groups are vector and raster.
Vector data/layers in GIS refers to discrete objects represented by points, lines and
polygons. Lines are formed by connecting two or more points and polygons are closed
set of Lines.
Raster data is a continuous grid of cells in two dimension or in three dimension. Raster
data are divided into categorical and continuous.
 Categorical raster every cell value is linked to a category in a separate table. Typical
Raster sources are aerial images, satellite images and scanned map images.
 Continuous raster images usually describes continuous phenomena in space such
as Digital Elevation Model** where each pixel is an elevation value.
 DIGITAL ELEVATION MODEL

This is for your

understanding...how Digital
Elevation Model (DEM) looks
like.

A digital elevation model (DEM)

is a 3D representation of a
terrain's surface – commonly of
a planet (e.g. Earth), moon, or
asteroid – created from a
terrain's elevation data.
 Components of GIS

4) People
People are involved in all phases of development of a GIS system and in
collecting data. They include cartographers and surveyors who create the maps and
survey the land and the geographical features. They also include system users who
collect the data, upload the data to system, manipulate the system and analyze the
results.
5) Methods
 A successful GIS operates according to a well-designed plan and business rules,
which are the models and operating practices unique to each organization
 Data Types
Spatial Data
Spatial data are used to provide the
visual representation of a geographic
space and is stored as raster and
vector types. Hence, this data is a
combination of location data and a
value data to render a map
SPATIAL DATA
(Visualization)
Attribute Data
Attribute data are descriptions,
measurements, and/or classifications
of geographic features in a map.
Attribute data can be classified into 4
levels of measurement: nominal, ATTRIBUTE DATA
ordinal, interval and ratio (Table)
 GIS Architecture/ Subsytems
GIS has the following generic subsystems:
Data Input
A data input subsystem allows the user to capture, collect, and transform spatial and
thematic data into digital form. The data inputs are usually derived from a combination of
hard copy maps, aerial photographs, remotely sensed images, reports, survey
documents, etc.

Data Storage and Retrieval

The data storage and retrieval subsystem organizes the data (spatial and attribute), in a
form which permits it to be quickly retrieved by the user for analysis, and permits rapid
and accurate updates to be made to the database.
This component usually involves use of a database management system (DBMS) for
maintaining attribute data. Spatial data is usually encoded and maintained in a proprietary
file format.
 GIS Architecture/ Subsytems
Data Manipulation and Analysis
The data manipulation and analysis
subsystem allows the user to define and
execute spatial and attribute data to
generate information.
Data Output
The data output subsystem allows the
user to generate graphic displays,
normally maps, and tabular reports
representing derived information products.
 DATA MODELS
Def:
Data Models are defined as the structure or mathematical construct for
representing geographic features or surfaces.

Read carefully and understand...

Don’t get confused between Data Types (slide 12) and Data Model
Data types are the format in which the information is presented whereas Data
model is the way in which information is stored and organized
 DATA MODELS
Data Model are of two types:
1) Spatial Data Model
2) Attribute Data Model
1. Spatial Data Model:-
1.1 Vector Data Model
1.2 Raster Data Model
2. Attribute Data Model:-
2.1 Tabular Model 2.3 Network Model 2.5 Object Oriented Model:
2.2 Hierarchical Model 2.4 Relational Model
 Feature Representation in Vector and Raster Data Model
Q. What are features in GIS?
A. Features are everything that you see on the
Earth’s surface. River, lands, forests , buildings etc.
These features are also called as
SPATIAL ENTITIES and they are of 3 types: Point,
Line and Polygon
Whenever you hear the term “SPATIAL”
just think of Earth’s surface.

This figure shows how information is stored in

Vector and Raster format:-

In simple terms:
If you have any photograph...
Zoom it to the max, you will see pixels.

So each pixel is storing some information, hence

this format in which info is stored in cells is called
as RASTER
 SPATIAL DATA MODELS
1.1 Raster Data Model:
This model consists of a regular grid of cells divided into rows and columns.
The data values for a given parameter are stored in each cell – these values may represent an
elevation in meters above sea level, a land use class, a plant biomass in grams per square
meter etc.
Raster data structures do not provide precise locational information because geographic space
is now divided into discrete grids.
The location of the feature stored in pixel is identified in X,Y format where
X- pixel column and Y- pixel row
The Point feature is represented by a single pixel that differentiates itself from the surrounding.
The line feature is represented by a linear pattern of pixels, with uniform or almost uniform
pixel tone.
The polygon feature or Area feature is represented by group of pixels having similar pixel tone.
 SPATIAL DATA MODELS
1.2 Vector Data Model:
The second method of representing geographic space, called vector, allows us to give
specific spatial locations explicitly.
In this method it is assumed that geographic space is continuous , rather than being
quantised as small discrete grids .
The information is stored and represented by linking various coordinated (X and Y) in
coordinate system.
The Point feature in vector models are represented as single (X,Y) isolated point.
The Line feature is represented by connecting two or more points in a sequence.
The Polygon feature is represented by connecting several points in a sequence in
such as way that the last point ends on first point
 RASTER DATA - ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Advantages :

The geographic location of each cell is implied by its position in the cell matrix. Accordingly, other than an origin point,
e.g. bottom left corner, no geographic coordinates are stored.

Due to the nature of the data storage technique data analysis is usually easy to program and quick to perform.

The inherent nature of raster maps, e.g. one attribute maps, is ideally suited for mathematical modeling and quantitative
analysis.

Discrete data, e.g. forestry stands, is accommodated equally well as continuous data, e.g. elevation data, and facilitates
the integrating of the two data types.

Grid-cell systems are very compatible with raster-based output devices, e.g. electrostatic plotters, graphic terminals.

Disadvantages:

The cell size determines the resolution at which the data is represented.

It is especially difficult to adequately represent linear features depending on the cell resolution. Accordingly, network
linkages are difficult to establish.

Processing of associated attribute data may be cumbersome if large amounts of data exists. Raster maps inherently
reflect only one attribute or characteristic for an area.

Since most input data is in vector form, data must undergo vector-to-raster conversion. Besides increased processing
requirements this may introduce data integrity concerns due to generalization and choice of inappropriate cell size.

Most output maps from grid-cell systems do not conform to high-quality cartographic needs.
 VECTOR DATA - ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Advantages :

Data can be represented at its original resolution and form without generalization.

Graphic output is usually more aesthetically pleasing (traditional cartographic representation);

Since most data, e.g. hard copy maps, is in vector form no data conversion is required.

Accurate geographic location of data is maintained.

Allows for efficient encoding of topology, and as a result more efficient operations that require topological information,
e.g. proximity, network analysis.

Disadvantages:

The location of each vertex needs to be stored explicitly.

For effective analysis, vector data must be converted into a topological structure. This is often processing intensive
and usually requires extensive data cleaning. As well, topology is static, and any updating or editing of the vector data
requires re-building of the topology.

Algorithms for manipulative and analysis functions are complex and may be processing intensive. Often, this
inherently limits the functionality for large data sets, e.g. a large number of features.

Continuous data, such as elevation data, is not effectively represented in vector form. Usually substantial data
generalization or interpolation is required for these data layers.

Spatial analysis and filtering within polygons is impossible
Raster and Vector Data
 ATTRIBUTE DATA MODEL
Attribute data model is used to store and maintain attribute data for GIS software. The most
common are:
1. Tabular Model:

It is the model that stores the information in a sequence and with fixed format for a particular
location of attribute values. This type of data model is outdated in GIS arena as it lacks any
method for checking data integrity as well as inefficient with respect to data storage.
 ATTRIBUTE DATA MODEL
Attribute data model is used to store and maintain attribute data for GIS software. The most
common are:

2. Hierarchical Model:

The hierarchical database organizes data in a tree structure. Data is structured downward in
a hierarchy of tables.

Any level in the hierarchy can have unlimited children, but any child can have only one
parent.

Hierarchical DBMS have not gained any noticeable acceptance for use within GIS.

They are oriented for data sets that are very stable, where primary relationship among the
data change frequently or never at all.

The limitation of attribute data model is that it is restricted to only one parent.
 ATTRIBUTE DATA MODEL

Parent-Child relationship in Hierarchical

Database model.

Root – Parent

Level 1 is the parent of level 2

 ATTRIBUTE DATA MODEL
3) Network Model:


The network database organizes data in a network
or plex structure i.e a structure that can be described in
terms of parents and children.


Any column in a plex structure can be linked to any
other like a tree structure. This model allows having
more than one parent.


Network DBMS have found not much more
acceptance in GIS than the hierarchical DBMS.


They have the same limitations as hierarchical
database but it is the more powerful structure for
representing data relationships which allows for more
realistic modeling of geographic phenomena.


However network database tend to become complex
too easily. In this regard it is easy to lose control and
understanding of the relationships between elements.
 ATTRIBUTE DATA MODEL
4) Relational Model:


The relational database organizes data in tables. Each table is identified by a unique table name,
and is organized by rows and columns.


Each column within a table also has a unique name. Columns store the values for a specific
attribute, e.g. cover group, tree height. Rows represent one record in the table.


In GIS each row is usually linked to a separate feature i.e. columns and each column containing a
specific value for that geographic feature.


In this model a key represents one or more attributes whose value can uniquely identify a record in
a table. Therefore, a key common to two tables can establish connection between corresponding
records in the tables.


A relational database usually contains three types 0f relationship between tables.:

One to One

One to Many

Many to One
ATTRIBUTE DATA MODEL
 ATTRIBUTE DATA MODEL
5) Object Oriented Model: -

The object oriented data model manages data through object.

An object is a collection of data elements and operations that together are considered as single entity.

The object oriented database is a relatively new model. This approach has the attraction that querying is very
natural, as features can be bundled together with attributes at the database.

Today, only a few GIS packages are promoting the use of this attribute data model. However, initial impressions
indicate that this approach may hold many operational benefits with respect to geographic data processing.

Explaination:
Object oriented is a concept that you might have studied in C++. So what exactly is the object??
Example... if there is a Car then Honda Civic is an object of a car
If there is an airplane then Boeing 747 is an object of airplane.
This means Honda civic and Boeing 747 indicate us that they belong to a particular class.
So, object oriented data model or object oriented programming makes a software better and faster.

# Do NOT use explaination part for writing in exams, this is for your understanding.
 Applications of GIS

Urban Planning

Transport Planning

Environmental Impact Analysis

Forestry

Agriculture

Disaster Management

Water Resources
and many more......
# You should be aware of these topics ! Question will be like “Explain the
application of GIS in disaster management” ....you have to write this in your own
language.
 Data Acquisition

Hard copy maps

Aerial photographs

Remotely-sensed imagery

Point data samples from surveys

Existing digital data files.
RASTER DATA
VECTOR DATA
THANK YOU