POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE differences in higher anatomical

PHILIPPINES structure.
DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY 3. They possess a Genetic Program and the
REVIEWER means to use it.
MARIA CARMELA R. LIPO 4. They are capable of producing more of
themselves.
Cells 5. Cells acquire and utilize energy
- Basic unit of life 6. Carry out a variety of chemical reaction.
- Composed of organelles; each organelle (METABOLISM-sum of all chemical rx
has its own activity in the human body)
- Prokaryotes; no nuclear membrane 7. They engage in mechanical activities.
- Eukaryotes; with true nucleus 7.1 – materials are transported from
place to place
Robert Hooked- first to discover the cells using 7.2 Structure are assembled and rapidly
cork disassembled.
- “cellula” to “cell” 8. They respond to stimuli.
- Coined the term “cell” 8.1 – internal and external stumuli.
Anton Van Leuwenhoek- first to observe living 8.2 -cells within a multicellular
cells/ protozoans. organisms respond to stimuli less
obviously.
Cell Theory (old) 8.3 – most cells are covered with
1. All organisms are composed of one or receptors that interact with substance
more cells // Theodore Schwann & in highly specialized
Matthias Schleiden 8.4 – cells may respond to stimuli by
2. The cell is the structural unit of life // // altering their metabolic activities.
Theodore Schwann & Matthias 9. Cells are capable of self-regulation.
Schleiden 9.1- if fluctuation occur, specific
3. Cells arise only by division from feedback circuits are activated that serve
preexisting cells // Rudolf Virchow to return the cell to appropriate state.
10. Cell evolve.
Cell Theory (modern) 10.1 - all cells originated from Last
1. Genetics can be inherited from one Universal Common ancestor
generation to another (LUCA).
2. Basic chemical composition of the cell is
the same Structure and Functions of Plasma Membrane
3. There is energy flowing in the cell
HeLa Cell (Henrietta Lacks)- the first culture of Plasma membrane- separates the cells from the
human cells by George and Martha Grey of John external world.
Hopkins University
- Tumor cells was discovered from her FUNCTIONS:
- HeLa Cell is a tumor cell. 1. Compartmentalization.
- the plasma membrane encloses the
Properties of Cells contents of the entire cell.
1. Are highly complex and Organized 2. Scaffold for biochemical activities.
1.1 – Cellular activities can be - Membrane provide the cell with an
remarkably precise. extensive framework or scaffolding
2. Each level of structure in cells has a great within which components can be ordered
level of consistency from cell to cell. for effective interaction.
2.1 – organelles have a particular shape 3. Providing a selectively permeable
and location in all individuals of barrier.
species. - Prevents the unrestricted exchange of
2.2 Organelles have consistent molecules from one side to the other.
macromolecule composition - Also, membranes provide the means of
arranged in a predictable pattern. communication b/w the compartments
2.3 Cell structure is similar from they separate.
organism to organism despite - C02, O2, H+- can pass through
 4. Transporting solutes. pure lipid structures. This is due to the
- It contains a machinery for physically presence of proteins in the membrane.
transporting substances from high to low  The lipid bilayer is composed of globular
concentrations. proteins on its inner and outer surface.
5. Responding to external stimuli.  The protein-lined pores provides
- Plays a critical role in the response of a conduits for the polar solutes and ions to
cell to external stimuli, a process known enter and exit the cell.
as SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION.  “Fluid Mosaic Model” which has served
- Membranes possess receptors that as the central dogma of membrane. It is
combine with specific molecules called as fluid mosaic model because it is
(LIGANDS) or respond to other types of present in a fluid state and individual
stimuli such as light or mechanical lipid molecules can move laterally within
tension. the plane of the membrane.
- Different types of cells have membranes
with different receptors and are therefore MEMBRANE LIPIDS
capable of recognizing and responding to - Are amphipathic because they contain
different environmental stimuli. both HYDROPHOBIC and
- The interaction of a plasma membrane HYDROPHILIC REGIONS.
receptor with an external stimulus may 3 types of Membrane Lipids
cause the membrane to generate a signal 1. Phosphoglycerides
that stimulates or inhibits internal - Most membrane group contains a
activities. phosphate group making them
6. Intercellular interaction. phospholipids
- Plasma membrane allows the cells to - Most membrane phospholipids are built
recognize and signal one another, to on a glycerol backbone they are called
adhere when appropriate and to exchange phosphoglycerides.
materials and information. - Membrane glycerides are diglycerides-
- Protein within the plasma membrane only 2 of the hydroxyl groups of the
facilitate the interaction between glycerol are esterified to fatty acids, the
extracellular materials and the third is esterified to a hydrophilic
intracellular cytoskeleton. phosphate group.
7. Energy transduction. - Have an additional group linked to the
- Involve in the process by which one type phosphate, either Choline
of energy is converted to another type (phosphatidycholine), Ethanolamine
(called ENERGY TRANSDUCTION). (Phosphatidylethanomine), Serine
(Phosphatidylserine), Inositol
PLASMA MEMBRANE (Phosphatidylinositol)
- A membrane fatty acid may be fullay
saturated (lack double bond) or
monosaturated (with one double bond)
- Contains 1 saturated and unsaturated
fatty acyl chain.

2. Sphingolipids
- They consist of sphingosine linked to a
fatty acid by its amino group. This
molecule is called CERAMIDE.
- All sphingolipids have 2 long
hydrophobic hydrocarbon chains at one
 Plasma Membrane contains a end and a hydrophilic region at the other.
bimolecular layer of lipids that is LIPID They are amphipathic din.
BILAYER. - Their fatty acids are longer and more
 Hydrophobic tail. Faces the cytoplasm. saturated than those phosphoglycerides.
 Hydrophilic head. - Galactocerebroside is formed when a
 Surface tension of membranes were galactose is added to ceramide.
calculated to be much lower than those of
 3. Cholesterol 3. Lipid-Anchored membrane proteins
- Consist of up to 50% of the lipid - Located outside the lipid bilayer, on
molecules. either extracellular or cytoplasmic
- The hydrophilic hydroxyl group is surface but are covalently link to a lipid
oriented toward the membrane surface molecule.
and the remainder are embedded in the - Involved in the fluidity of the membrane.
lipid bilayer.
HOMEOSTASIS 2 TYPES
NATURE AND IMPORTANCE OF LIPID
BILAYER Homeostasis- is the tendency of biological
systems to maintain relatively constant conditions
1. Cell membrane has its own lipid in the internal environment while continuously
composition and difference from one interacting with and adjusting to changes
another in types of lipids, nature of head originating within or outside the system.
groups, and species of fatty acyl chains.
2. Lipid composition can determine the 1. Negative feedback mechanism
physical state of the membrane and a) Glucoregulation
influence the activity of particular - Example yung sa gastric level
membrane proteins. b) Thermoregulation
3. Membrane lipids provide the precursors - Example yung pagpapawis
for highly active chemical messengers c) Osmoregulation
that regulate cellular function. - Example yung sa ion exchange and high
4. Because of the flexibility of the lipid blood
bilayer, membranes are deformable and 2. Positive feedback
the shape can change a) Blood clotting
5. The lipid bilayer facilitates the regulated - Platelets are responsible for blood clot
fusion or budding of membranes. b) Child birth
6. Has the ability to self-assemble. - Oxytocin is responsible for the muscular
contraction secreted in the pituitary
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF gland.
MEMBRANE PROTEINS
Amphipathic - with polar (hydrophilic) and
1. Integral membrane proteins non-polar (does not bind with water)
- They are transmembrane proteins. They Semi-permeable- because of the polarity and
pass entirely through the lipid bilayer. non-polarity
- Acts as receptors that bind specific
substances at the membrane surface.
- Acts as channels or transporters involved
in the movement of ions and solutes
across the membrane.
- Acts a agents that transfer electrons
during the process of photosynthesis and
respirations.
- They are AMPHIPATHIC.

2. Peripheral membrane proteins

- Located outside the lipid bilayer on either INTRO TO DEV BIO
the cytoplasmic or extracellular site
- Are associated with the membrane by Development- process of progressive change.
weak electrostatic bonds. Zygote- The development of a multicellular
- They provide mechanical support for the organism begins with a single cell the fertilized
membrane egg,//which divides mitotically to produce all the
- Function as an anchor for integral cells of the body.
membrane proteins.
Embryology -The study of animal development, development of cartilage and muscles occurred
from that stage of an organism that exists between over many generations in the embryos of the
fertilization and birth. horse's ancestors. How do changes in
developmental biology -is the discipline that development create new body forms? Which
studies embryonic and other heritable changes are possible, given the
developmental processes. constraints imposed by the necessity of the
organism to survive as it develops?
Question in Developmental Biology
The question of environmental integration.
The question of differentiation. A single cell, The development of many organisms is
the fertilized egg, gives rise to hundreds of influenced by cues from the environment.
different cell types muscle cells, epidermal cells, Certain butterflies, for instance, inherit the
neurons, lens cells, lymphocytes, blood cells, ability to produce different wing colors based on
fat cells, and so on (Figure 1.1). This generation the temperature or the amount of daylight
of cellular diversity is called differentiation. experienced by the caterpillar before it
Since each cell of the body (with very few undergoes metamorphosis. How is the
exceptions) contains the same set of genes, we development of an organism integrated into the
need to understand how this same set of genetic larger context of its habitat?
instructions can produce different types of cells.
How can the fertilized egg generate so many Comparative embryology- the study of how
different cell types? anatomy changes during the development o
different organisms.
The question of morphogenesis. Our
differentiated cells are not randomly distributed. Evolutionary embryology- the study of how
Rather, changes in the development may cause
they are organized into intricate tissues and evolutionary changes and of how an organisms’
organs. These organs are arranged in a given way: ancestry may constrain the types of changes that
the are possible.
fingers are always at the tips of our hands, never
in the middle; the eyes are always in our heads, Teratology- the study of birth defects caused by
not in our toes or gut. This creation of ordered mutant genes or by substances in environment
form is called morphogenesis. How can the cells that interfere with development.
form such ordered structures?
Mathematical modelling- seeks to describe
The question of growth. How do our cells developmental phenomena in terms of equations.
know when to stop dividing? If each cell in our
face were to undergo just one more cell division, Homologous structures (divergent)- are those
we would be considered horribly malformed. If organs whose underlying similarity arises from
each cell in our arms underwent just one more their being derived from a common ancestral
round of cell division, we could tie our shoelaces structure.
without bending over. Our arms are generally
the same size on both sides of the body. How is Analogous structures (convergent)- are those
cell division so tightly regulated? structures whose similarity comes from their
performing a similar function, rather than arising
The question of reproduction. The sperm and from a common ancestor.
egg are very specialized cells. Only they can
transmit the instructions for making an organism Malformations- abnormalities caused by genetic
from one generation to the next. How are these events
cells set apart to form the next generation, and Syndromes- malformations that are seen
what are the instructions in the nucleus and Disruptions- abnormalities due to exogenous
cytoplasm that allow them to function this way? agents
Teratogens- agents responsible for disruptions
The question of evolution. Evolution involves Vegetal hemisphere- contains large yolks
inherited changes in development. When we say - Divides slower
that today's one-toed horse had a five-toed - Lower portion
ancestor, we are saying that changes in the - Produces immobile cells
Animal hemisphere- contain less yols and divides OOCYTE
faster Made through oogenesis
- Upper portion From an egg stem cell = oogonium
- Cells derived from here are actively Bounded by a plasma membrane with
mobile several proteins studded in it
Isometric growth- all components grow at the Surrounded by 1 to 3 membranes
same rate Mammalian oocyte thin zona pellucida then
a thicker corona radiata
Allometric growth-diff.growth rates of parts Other animals innermost coat is called
within the same organisms vitelline layer or the jelly coat
Amphibian jelly coat
FERTILIZATION Innermost layer (ZP or VL) is made by the
oocyte
Fertilization Outermost layer is produced by the cells of
- Start of embryonic development the oviduct
- ◦Formation of diploid zygote (from layers of the shell
haploid egg and sperm) COMPONENTS OF OOCYTE
- ◦Takes place in the 1stthird of the human 1.NUCLEUS 23 chromatid
fallopian tube 2. CYTOPLASM composed of yolk granules,
mRNAs and proteins for fertilization, cleavage,
2 types of animals cell fate, determination, embryo axis orientation
1.Internal - mammals, reptiles, amphibians, 3. MATERNAL CONTRIBUTIONS
worms 1.nucleolus
2. External - echinoderms, cnidarians, fish 2.Mitochondria
Step of fertilization 3.Centriole pair
1. Sperm penetrates the protective layers around 4.ribosomes
the egg
2. Receptor of the egg surface bind to molecules Acrosome reaction
on the sperm surface First studied with sea urchin eggs
3.Changes at the egg surface prevent polyspermy Triggered when the sperm meets the egg
(entry of multiple sperm 1.Contact . The sperm cell contacts the egg’s jelly
nuclei into the egg) coat, triggering exocytosis from the sperm’s
sperm acrosome
3 functions of sperm: 2.Acrosomal reaction . Hydrolytic enzymes
1. reach the oocyte released from the acrosome make a hole in the
2. penetrate the oocyte jelly coat, while growing actin filaments form
3. donate its chromosomes to the oocyte the acrosomal process. This structure protrudes
MAJOR PARTS from the sperm head and penetrates the jelly
HEAD coat, binding to receptors in the egg cell
contains the nucleus with 23 highly condensed membrane that extend through the VL
chromosomes (one chromatid) 3.Contact and fusion of sperm and egg
ACROSOME membranes . A hole is made in the VL, allowing
covers the anterior 2/3 of the head; contains contact and fusion of the gamete plasma
digestive enzyme (hyaluronidase and membranes. The membrane became
proteases) to dissolve the protective barriers depolarized, resulting in the fast block to
surrounding the oocyte polyspermy.
MIDPIECE 4.Entry of sperm nucleus
contains mitochondria and pair of centrioles for 5.Cortical reaction . Fusion of the gamete
the production of microtubules for membranes triggers an increase of Ca 2+ in the
the tail; (only centrioles are donated to the oocyte) egg’s cytosol, causing cortical granules in the
TAIL OR FLAGELLUM egg to fuse with the plasma membrane and
◦principal piece longest portion of the tail discharge their contents. This leads to swelling
◦End piece terminal portion of the tail of peri vitelline space, hardening of the vitelline
◦Microtubules of the flagellum arranged in a 9+2 layer, and clipping of sperm binding receptors.
pattern and are known as the axoneme The resulting fertilization envelope is the slow
block to polyspermy.
 Life Cycle  ESTROGEN-a hormone that instructs the
 the life of a new individual is liver to make and secrete the yolk proteins
initiated by the fusion of genetic which are transported through the blood into
material from the two gametes- the eggs in the ovary—the yolk is
sperm and egg. The fusion is called transported into the bottom portion of the
FERTILIZATION. egg.
 PROGESTERONE- signals the eggs to
Five Stages of Embryogenesis resume its meiotic division.
1. CLEAVAGE- occurs after fertilization  Eggs are enclosed in a jelly coat that acts to
- this is a series of extremely rapid mitotic enhance their size, to protect them against
divisions wherein the enormous volume of bacteria and to attract and activate sperm.
zygote cytoplasm is divided into numerous  Sperms occur in seasonal basis.
smaller cells- this are called BLASTOMERES.  External fertilization.
- By the end of the cleavage, they form a sphere  The male frog grabs the female’s back and
known as BLASTULA. fertilizes the eggs as the female frog releases
2. GASTRULATION- when blastomeres change them.
their positions relative to one another.  Fertilization allow the egg to complete its
- The embryo is in GASTRULA STAGE. second meiotic division, which provides the
- The result of gastrulation, the embryo contains cell with a haploid PRONUCLEUS.
3 germ layers- ectoderm, endoderm, mesoderm.  The egg pronucleus and the sperm
3. ORGANOGENESIS-the cells interact with pronucleus will meet in the egg cytoplasm to
one another and rearrange themselves to form the diploid zygotic nucleus.
produce tissues and organs.  Fertilization causes the cytoplasm of the egg
- During this stage the certain cells migrates such to move such the parts of the cytoplasm finds
as the blood cells, lymph cell, pigment cells, and themselves in new locations.
gametes.
 Fertilization activates those molecules
- Bones from our face ae derived from cells that
necessary to begin ell cleavage and
have migrated ventrally from the dorsal region
development.
of the head.
4. GAMETOGENESIS- differentiation of
CLEAVAGE;
gametes and is completed until the organism has
 The volume of the frog’s egg stays the same,
become physically mature.
but is divided into tens of thousands of cells.
- A specialized portion of egg cytoplasm gives
 The animal hemisphere of the egg divides
rise to cell that are precursos of gametes (egg
faster than the vegetal hemisphere and the
and sperm)
cells of the vegetal hemisphere becomes larger
- GERM CELLS-collection of precursors of cells the more vegetal the cytoplasm.
and gametes. // for reproductive function.  The BLASTOCOEL forms in the animal
- SOMATIC CELLS-body cells// give rise to hemisphere. It is important for allowing cell
individual body. movements to occur in gastrulation.
- The separation of the somatic and germ cells is
one of the first differentiations during animal GASTRULATION:
development.  Begins with the formation of
5. LARVA- young organism; is different from BLASTOPORE at a part of the embryo
adult. surface.
- The larval stage is the one that last longest and  Cells migrate through the blastopore and
the adult is a brief state solely for reproduction. forward the animal pole.
 These cells become dorsal mesoderm.
FROG LIFE CYCLE  The blastopore extends into a circle, and
cells migrating through this circle becomes
 Gametogenesis and fertilization are seasonal the lateral and vegetal mesoderm.
because its life depend upon the plants and  The cells remaining on the outside becomes
insects in the pond. the ectoderm and this layer extends vegetally
 Id the frog is mature, the pituitary gland secretes to enclose the entire embryo.
hormones that stimulate the ovary to make  The large yolk cells that remain at the
estrogen. vegetal hemisphere becomes the endoderm
  At the end of gastrulation, the ectoderm posterior, and arch; cardinal
(precursor of the epidermis and nerves) is on common veins
the outside of the embryo. jugular veins
 The endoderm (precursor of the gut lining) Nutritional Herbivorous; Carnivorous;
is on the inside of the embryo long spiral short gut;
 The mesoderm (precursor of connective gut; intestinal proteases;
tissue, blood, skeleton, gonads and kidneys) symbionts; large mouth
is b/w the endoderm. small mouth; with long
horny jaws; tongue
ORGANOGENESIS; labial teeth
 Begins with the NOTOCHORD- a rod of Nervous lack of Development
mesodermal cells in the most dorsal portion of nictitating of ocular
the embryo tells the ectodermal cells they are membrane; muscles,
not going to be a skin. porphyropsin, nictitating
 The dorsal ectoderm cells form a tube and lateral line membrane,
becomes the nervous system- at this stage the system, rhodopsin’
embryo is called a NEURULA. Mauthner’s loss of lateral
 The neural precursors cells elongate, stretch neuron line system,
and fold into the embryo, forming a NEURAL degeneration
TUBE. of
 The cells that is connected to the neural tube Mauthner’s
to the epidermis becomes the NEURAL neurons;
CREST CELLS. tympanic
 Neural crest cells are the fourth germ layer. membrane
They give rise to the pigment cells of the body, Excretory Largely Largely urea;
peripheral neurons and cartilage of the face. ammonia, high activity
 Once the neural tube has formed, it induces some urea of enzymes
changes in its neighbors and continues (ammonotelic) of ornithine-
organogenesis. urea cycle
 The mesodermal tissue adjacent to the (ureotelic)
notochord becomes segmented into Integumental Thin, Stratified
SOMITES, the precursors of the frog;s back bilayered squamous
muscles, spinal cord and dermis. epidermis epidermis
 The somites appear as block mesodermal with thin with adult
tissue. dermis; no keratins; well
 The embryo develops mouth and anus and it mucous developed
elongates into the typical tadpole structure, glands or dermis
 Th neurons make their connection to the granular contains
muscles and to other neurons, the gills forms, glands mucus glands
and the larva’s ready to hatch from its egg and granular
jelly. glands
 The tadpole will feed itself once the yolk secreting
supply from the mother is exhausted. antimicrobial
peptides

METAMORPHIC CHANGES IN ANURANS HORMONAL CONTROL OF AMPHIBIAN

METAMORPHOSIS
SYSTEM LARVA ADULT  Thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3)
Locomotory Aquatic: tail Terrestrial: from the thyroid during metamorphosis.
fins tailless
tetrapod
Respiratory Gills, Skin, lungs,
skin,lungs: adult
hemoglobins hemoglobins
Circulatory Aortic arches; Carotid arch;
aorta anterior, systematic
 ECTODERM- Epidermis, Nervous System, 4. Synaptic connection refinement
(elimination of axon branches and cell
Pigment Cells
death)
MESODERM- Kidneys, Gonads, Bones,
Heart, Blood Cells OOGENESIS

ENDODERM-Lining of the digestive tube

and Respiratory System

Stages of Embryogenesis
1. Cleavage- single celled zygote undergoes
a period of rapid cell division which
grows to produce a ball of cell called
blastula.
2. Gastrulation -formation of germ layers
3. Organogenesis-formation of neurula and
neural crest.

Types of Cleavage

Oogenesis- production of female gametes called

OVA/OVUM.
- Occurs in the ovary of the female fetus.
 The oogonia divide from the 2nd to the 7th month
of gestation.
 When the primary oocyte divide, its nucleus
called GERMINAL VESICLE, breaks down,
and the metaphase spindle migrates to the
periphery of the cell.
Oogenesis in Mammals:
Two patterns:
NERVOUS SYSTEM 1. Stimulated by the act of a copulation.
 Most complex cell in the animal Physical stimulation of the cervix triggers the
embryo release of gonadotropins from the pituitary. These
 Provides communication in a gonadotropins signal the egg to resume meiosis
network of varied neurons and initiate the events that will expel it from the
Supporting Cells ovary.
1. Glia Cell- connected to the neurons; 2. Periodic ovulation pattern.
specialized cells In which the female ovulates, only at a specific
2. Schwann Cells- connected to the axons time of the year. This ovulation time is called
3. Oligodendrocytes- responds to the ESTRUS.
antibodies
4. Astrocytes- for repair; not part of neuron  The hypothalamus is stimulated to release
Gonadotropin-releasing factor.
4 stages of nervous system development  Gonadotropin releasing factor stimulates the
1. Specification of the neural cell identity pituitary to release gonadotropins, FSH, and
(neural or glial) LH which cause the follicle cells to proliferate
2. Neuron migration and axon growth and secrete estrogen.
3. Synapse formation with target (neurons,  Estrogen enters certain neurons and evokes
muscles, or gland cells) the pattern of mating behavior.
 The gonadotropins also stimulate follicular
growth and initiate ovulation.
 various sperm precursors. It regulates
Theca Cells- responsible for the conversion of the spermatogenesis.
cholesterol to androgen. Spermatogenesis – the developmental pathway
Luteinizing Hormone- triggers the theca cell to from germ cell to mature sperm. Occurs in Sertoli
function. cell.
Granulosa- convert androgen to estrogen  The initiation of spermatogenesis is regulated
Follicle Stimulating Hormone- triggers the by the BMP8B by the spermatogenic germ
granulosa cells.
Estrogen- thicken the lining of the endometrium BMP8B- is an enzyme that cause the adhesion to
Polar bodies- disintegrates by apoptosis Sertoli cells.
Corpus luteum- remnant of the secondary follicle  Nagiging motile and sperm pag na release na
Ovulation- maturation of the egg. sa lumen; pag nasa seminiferous tubule non-
 When there is no interaction between motile pa.
the sperm and the oocyte Spermiogenesis- spermatids to sperm cells
menstruation begins. - Initiated by the Follicle Stimulating
Hormone
SPERMATOGENESIS Androgen binding protein- increase the
accumulation of androgen in the seminiferous
tubular epithelium
Testosterone- produced by the LEYDIG CELLS.
- The major androgen in the testis that
regulates spermatogenesis.
Spermatozoa- spermatids na umalis na sa
seminiferous tubule through SPERMIATION.
Golgi region- becomes the acrosomal cap.
Centrioles- becomes the flagellum
Spermiogenesis- differentiation of sperm cells.

1. Construction of acrosomal vesicle from

the golgi apparatus.
2. Acrosomal cap is formed and the nucleus
Spermatogenesis- production of mature male rotates facing the basal membrane of the
gametes known as SPERMS. S.T.
 The sperms is produced in testis, and 3. Formation of the flagellum from the
matures in the epididymis; it is centriole on the other side of nucleus. The
haploid. flagellum extends into the lumen.
Seminiferous tubules- spermatogenesis occurs 4. The nucleus flattens, condenses, the
testis cytoplasm is jettisoned, and the
here mitochondria form a ring around the base
Germ cells- cell that will become gametes. of the flagella.
Spermatogonium-primordial germ cells found in ** note that the organelles and cytoplasm are the
Nucleus- contains the haploid genome. Its residual body.
function is to get the haploid genome into the Prostate gland
ovum. Follicle stimulating Luteinizing hormone
Acrosome- a structure that forms a cap over most hormone
of the nucleus of the sperm cell. Its function is to Sertoli cell Leydig cell
penetrate the outer layer of ovum so that the Androgen binding Testosterone
sperm can enter. protein
Flagellum- a long whip-like cellular appendage
that is used for locomotion. It contains MEIOSIS
mitochondrion that produces ATP that provides
energy. Haploid- has one copy of each chromosome
Sertoli Cells- somatic cells of the seminiferous Diploid-2 copies of each chromosome.
tubules that support and provide nutrients to the
  Each chromosome has 2 sister chromatids  This last stage end with the breakdown of
attached to a common kinetochore the nuclear membranes and the migration
(centromere) of the chromosomes to the metaphase
 The diploid nucleus contains four copies of plate.
each chromosome, but each chromosome
is seen as 2 chromatids. Anaphase I- homologous chromosomes are
Meiosis 1- homologous chromosome separates separated from each other, leading to telophase.
into 2 daughter cells. Telophase 1- 2 daughter cells are formed, each
Meiosis 2- sister chromatids separates containing one partner of the homologous
chromosome pair.
Meiosis 1 Interkinesis- the centromere of each chromosome
 Long prophase divided into 5 stages. divides during anaphase so each new cells gets
1. Leptotene (thin thread) stage one of the two chromatids, the final result is four
 The chromatin of the chromatids is haploid cells.
stretched out very thinly and it is not possible  The products of meiotic cell division remain
to identify individual chromosome. coupled to each other by CYTOPLASMIC
 DNA replication already occurred. BRIDGES.
2. Zygotene (yoked threads) stage
 Homologous chromosome pair side by Female oogenesis Male spermatogenesis
Meiosis initiated once in a Meiosis initiated
side.
finite population of cells continuously in a
 Pairing is called SYNAPSIS- mitotically dividing stem
characteristic of meiosis. cell population
 Synapsis requires the presence of the One gamete produced per Four gametes produced per
nuclear membrane and the formation of meiosis meiosis
Completion of meiosis Meiosis completed in days
proteinaceous ribbon called delayed for months or or weeks
SYNAPTONEMAL COMPLEX. years
 This complex is a ladderlike structure Meiosis arrested at first Meiosis and differentiation
with a central element and two lateral meiotic prophase and proceed continuously
bars. reinitiated in without
a smaller population of cell cycle arrest
 The configuration formed by the 4 cells
chromatids and the synaptonemal Differentiation of gamete Differentiation of gamete
complex is referred to as a TETRAT or occurs while diploid, in occurs while haploid, after
BIVALENT. first meiosis
3. Pachytene (thick thread) meiotic prophase ends
 the chromatids thicken and shorten
All chromosomes exhibit Sex chromosomes
 crossing over occurs. equivalent transcription excluded from
Crossing over is the exchange of genetic and recombination and
material whereby genes from one recombination during transcription during first
chromatid are exchanged with meiotic prophase meiotic prophase
homologous gene from another
chromatid. GAMETOGENESIS
4. Diplotene (double threads) stage
 Crossing-over continuous Primordial Germ Cells
 The synaptonemal complex breaks down  Development begins with
and the 2 homologous chromosomes fertilization (sperm + oocyte =
starts to separate. zygote)
 However, they remain attached at various  Gametes are derived from PGCs that are
places called CHIASMATA, which are formed in the EPIBLAST during the
thought to represent regions where SECOND WEEK and that move to the
crossing over is occurring. walls of the yolk sac.
 This stage is characterized by a high level  During 4th week—these cells begin to
of gene transcription. migrate from yolk sac towards the
5. Diakenesis (moving apart) stage developing gonads, where they arise by the
 The centromeres move away from each end of the end of 5th week.
other, and the chromosomes remain
joined only at the tips of the chromatids.
 Mitotic division increase their number during  In contrast, one primary
their migration and also when they arrive in the spermatocyte gives rise to 4 daughter
gonad. cells, 2 with 22 plus 1 X
 In the preparation for fertilization, germ cells chromosomes and 2 with 22 plus Y
undergo GAMETOGENESIS which includes chromosome.
MEIOSIS to reduce the number of chromosomes  All 4 develops into mature gametes.
and CYTODIFFERENTIATION to complete
their maturation. Human Somatic cell= 46 chromosomes
Normal gamete= 23 chromosomes
Teratoma- are tumors of disputed origin that often Normal somatic cells are diploid (2n)
contains a variety of tissues, such as bone, hair, Normal gametes are haploid (n)
muscle, gut epithelia and others. Euploid- refers to any exact multiple of n.
 Teratomas are thought to have arise from Aneuploid refers to any chromosome number that
PLURIPOTENT STEM CELLS that can is not euploid.
differentiate into the 4 germ layers or their Trisomy- extrachromosome
derivatives. Monosomy- one chromosome missing
Nondisjunction- no separation of chromosomes
Linked genes- genes on the same chromosome and both member of a pair move into one cell.
 Each gamete contains a haploid number of 23 - One cell with 24 and one with 22
chromosomes and the union of gametes at - Occurs either during 1st or 2nd meiotic
fertilization restores the number of 46. divisions of the germ cells.
Mitosis- is the cell division that takes place in the Oogenesis- oogonia differentiates into mature
germ cells to generate male and female gametes. oocytes.
Meiosis- requires 2 cell division, Meiosis 1 and 2.
MATURATION OF OOCYTE BEFORE BIRTH
 In mitosis, male and female germ cells at the  Once PGCs arrive in the gonad of a genetic
beginning of meiosis 1 replicate their DNA so female, they differentiate into oogonia.
that each of the 46 chromosomes is replicated  They undergo a number of mitotic divisions
into sister chromatids.  End of 3rd month- they are arranged in
 Homologous chromosomes align themselves in clusters surrounded by layer of flat epithelial
the process called SYNAPSIS. cells.
 Homologous pairs separate into 2 daughter  All of oogonia in one cluster are derived
cells, reducing the chromosome number from from the flat epithelial cell called
diploid to haploid. FOLLICULAR CELLS, originate from
 CROSSOVER—critical events in MEIOSIS 1 surface epithelium covering the ovary.
- Are the interchange of chromatid  The majority of oogonia continue to divide
segments b/w paired homologous by mitosis, but some are arrested in prophase
chromosomes. of meiosis 1 and form PRIMARY
OOCYTES.
Result of Meiotic Divisions  By the 5th month of prenatal development,
1. Genetic variability through crossover the total number of germ cells in the ovary
2. Random distribution of homologous reaches the maximum (7 million).
chromosome for the daughter cells  At this time, cell death begins and many
3. Each germ cell contains a haploid oogonia and primary oocytes degenerate and
number of chromosomes so that after a become ATRETIC.
fertilization the diploid number is 46.  By the 7th month, the majority of the oogonia
have degenerated except for a few near the
Polar Bodies surface.
 In meiosis, one primary oocyte gives rise to  All surviving oocytes have entered prophase
four daughter cells each with 22 plus 1 X of meiosis 1, and most of them are
chromosomes. individually surrounded by a layer of flat
 Only 1 of these develops into a mature gamete follicular epithelial cell.
(the oocyte)  A primary oocyte, together with its
 The other 3 polar bodies receive little surrounding flat epithelial cell is known as
cytoplasm and degenerate. PRIMORDIAL FOLLICLE.
 MATURATION OF OOCYTES CONTINUES AT These processes are important for transport of
PUBERTY materials from follicular cells to the oocyte.
 As development continues, fluid-filled
 Near the time of birth, all primary oocytes have spaces appear between granulosa cells.
started prophase of meiosis I, but instead of Coalescence of these spaces forms the
proceeding into metaphase, they enter the antrum, and the follicle is termed a
diplotene stage, a resting stage during prophase vesicular or an antral follicle.
that is characterized by a lacy network of  Granulosa cells surrounding
chromatin the oocyte remain intact and form the cumulus
 Primary oocytes remain arrested in prophase oophorus.
and do not finish their first meiotic division  With each ovarian cycle, a number of
before puberty is reached. follicles begin to develop, but usually only
 This arrested state is produced by oocyte one reachesfull maturity. The others
maturation inhibitor (OMI), a small peptide degenerate and become atretic.
secreted by follicular cells  When the secondary follicle is mature, a
 During childhood, most oocytes become surge in luteinizing hormone (LH) induces
atretic; only approximately 40,000 are present the preovulatory growth phase. Meiosis I is
by the beginning of puberty, and fewer than completed, resulting in formation of two
500 will be ovulated. daughter cells of unequal size, each with 23
 At puberty, a pool of growing follicles is double-structured chromosomes One cell, the
established and continuously maintained from secondary oocyte, receives most of the
the supply of primordial follicles. cytoplasm; the other, the fi rst polar body,
 Some of these die, while others begin to receives practically none.
accumulate fl uid in a space called the antrum,  The first polar body lies between the zona
thereby entering the antral or vesicular stage. pellucida and the cell membrane of the
 Fluid continues to accumulate such secondary oocyte in the perivitelline space
that, immediately prior to ovulation, follicles  The cell then enters meiosis II but arrests
are quite swollen and are called mature in metaphase approximately 3 hours
vesicular follicles or Graffi an follicles ( before ovulation.
 The antral stage is the longest, whereas the  Meiosis II is completed only if the oocyte
mature vesicular stage encompasses is fertilized;
approximately 37 hours prior to ovulation.  otherwise, the cell degenerates
 As primordial follicles begin to grow, approximately 24 hours after ovulation.
surrounding follicular cells change from fl at The fi rst polar body may undergo a
to cuboidal and proliferate to produce a second division.
stratified epithelium of granulosa cells, and
the unit is called a primary follicle Spermatogenesis
 Granulosa cells rest on a basement membrane Maturation of Sperm Begins at Puberty
separating them from surrounding ovarian  Spermatogenesis, which begins at
connective tissue (stromal cells) that form the puberty, includes all of the events by
theca folliculi. which spermatogonia are transformed
 Also, granulosa cells and the oocyte into spermatozoa.
secrete a layer of glycoproteins on the surface  At birth, germ cells in the male infant
of the oocyte, forming the zona pellucida can be recognized in the sex cords of the testis
 As follicles continue to grow, cells of as large, pale cells surrounded by supporting
the theca folliculi organize into an inner layer cells (Fig. 2.21A).
of secretory cells, the theca interna, and an  Supporting cells, which
outer fi brous capsule, the theca externa. are derived from the surface epithelium of the
 Also, small,finger-like processes of the testis in the same manner as follicular cells,
follicular cells extend across the zona become sustentacular cells, or Sertoli cells
pellucida and interdigitate with microvilli of  Shortly before puberty, the sex cords
the plasma membrane of the oocyte. acquire a lumen and become the seminiferous
tubules. At about the same time, PGCs give
rise to spermatogonial stem cells.
  At regular intervals, cells emerge from this and (4) shedding of most of the cytoplasm
stem cell population to form type A as residual bodies that are phagocytized by
spermatogonia, and their production marks Sertoli cells.
the initiation of spermatogenesis.  In humans, the time required for
 Type A cells undergo a limited number of a spermatogonium to develop into a mature
mitotic divisions to form clones of cells. spermatozoon is approximately 74 days, and
 The last cell division produces type B approximately 300 million sperm cells are
spermatogonia, which then divide to form produced daily.
primary spermatocytes  When fully formed, spermatozoa enter the
 Primary spermatocytes then enter a prolonged lumen of seminiferous tubules. From there,
prophase (22 days) followed by rapid they
completion of meiosis I and formation of are pushed toward the epididymis by
secondary spermatocytes contractile
 During the second meiotic division, these cells elements in the wall of the seminiferous
immediately begin to form haploid tubules.
spermatids. Throughout this series of events, Although initially only slightly motile,
from the time type A cells leave the stem cell spermatozoa obtain full motility in the
population to formation of spermatids, epididymis.
cytokinesis is incomplete, so that successive
cell generations are joined by cytoplasmic
bridges.
 Thus,the progeny of a single type A
spermatogonium form a clone of germ cells
that maintain contact throughout
differentiation (Fig. 2.22).
 Furthermore, spermatogonia and spermatids
remain embedded in deep recesses of Sertoli
cells throughout their development
 In this manner, Sertoli cells support
and protect the germ cells, participate in their
nutrition, and assist in the release of mature
spermatozoa.
 Spermatogenesis is regulated by LH
production by the pituitary gland. LH binds to
receptors on Leydig cells and stimulates
testosterone production,which in turn binds to
Sertoli cells to promote spermatogenesis
 Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is also
essential because it binding to Sertoli cells
stimulates testicular fl uidproduction and
synthesis of intracellular androgen receptor
proteins.

Spermiogenesis
 The series of changes resulting in the
transformation
of spermatids into spermatozoa
is spermiogenesis.
 These changes include
(1) formation of the acrosome, which covers
half of the nuclear surface and contains
enzymes to assist in penetration of the egg
and its surrounding layers during fertilization
(2) condensation of the nucleus;
(3) formation of neck, middle piece, and tail;