MD5 - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.

org/wiki/MD5

MD5
The MD5 message-digest algorithm is a widely used hash function
MD5
producing a 128-bit hash value. Although MD5 was initially designed to be
used as a cryptographic hash function, it has been found to suffer from General
extensive vulnerabilities. It can still be used as a checksum to verify data Designers Ronald Rivest
integrity, but only against unintentional corruption. It remains suitable for First April 1992
other non-cryptographic purposes, for example for determining the published
partition for a particular key in a partitioned database.[3]
Series MD2, MD4, MD5,
MD5 was designed by Ronald Rivest in 1991 to replace an earlier hash MD6
function MD4,[4] and was specified in 1992 as RFC 1321. Cipher detail

One basic requirement of any cryptographic hash function is that it should Digest sizes 128 bit
be computationally infeasible to find two distinct messages that hash to the Block sizes 512 bit
same value. MD5 fails this requirement catastrophically; such collisions can Structure Merkle–Damgård
be found in seconds on an ordinary home computer. construction

The weaknesses of MD5 have been exploited in the field, most infamously Rounds 4[1]
by the Flame malware in 2012. The CMU Software Engineering Institute Best public cryptanalysis
considers MD5 essentially "cryptographically broken and unsuitable for A 2013 attack by Xie Tao, Fanbao
further use".[5] Liu, and Dengguo Feng breaks MD5
collision resistance in 218 time. This
As of 2019, MD5 continues to be widely used, in spite of its well- attack runs in less than a second on
documented weaknesses and deprecation by security experts.[6] a regular computer.[2] MD5 is prone
to length extension attacks.

Contents
History and cryptanalysis
Security
Overview of security issues
Collision vulnerabilities
Preimage vulnerability
Applications
Algorithm
Pseudocode
MD5 hashes
Implementations
See also
References
Further reading

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External links

History and cryptanalysis

MD5 is one in a series of message digest algorithms designed by Professor Ronald Rivest of MIT (Rivest, 1992). When
analytic work indicated that MD5's predecessor MD4 was likely to be insecure, Rivest designed MD5 in 1991 as a
secure replacement. (Hans Dobbertin did indeed later find weaknesses in MD4.)

In 1993, Den Boer and Bosselaers gave an early, although limited, result of finding a "pseudo-collision" of the MD5
compression function; that is, two different initialization vectors that produce an identical digest.

In 1996, Dobbertin announced a collision of the compression function of MD5 (Dobbertin, 1996). While this was not
an attack on the full MD5 hash function, it was close enough for cryptographers to recommend switching to a
replacement, such as SHA-1 or RIPEMD-160.

The size of the hash value (128 bits) is small enough to contemplate a birthday attack. MD5CRK was a distributed
project started in March 2004 with the aim of demonstrating that MD5 is practically insecure by finding a collision
using a birthday attack.

MD5CRK ended shortly after 17 August 2004, when collisions for the full MD5 were announced by Xiaoyun Wang,
Dengguo Feng, Xuejia Lai, and Hongbo Yu.[7][8] Their analytical attack was reported to take only one hour on an IBM
p690 cluster.[9]

On 1 March 2005, Arjen Lenstra, Xiaoyun Wang, and Benne de Weger demonstrated construction of two X.509
certificates with different public keys and the same MD5 hash value, a demonstrably practical collision.[10] The
construction included private keys for both public keys. A few days later, Vlastimil Klima described an improved
algorithm, able to construct MD5 collisions in a few hours on a single notebook computer.[11] On 18 March 2006,
Klima published an algorithm that could find a collision within one minute on a single notebook computer, using a
method he calls tunneling.[12]

Various MD5-related RFC errata have been published. In 2009, the United States Cyber Command used an MD5 hash
value of their mission statement as a part of their official emblem.[13]

On 24 December 2010, Tao Xie and Dengguo Feng announced the first published single-block (512-bit) MD5
collision.[14] (Previous collision discoveries had relied on multi-block attacks.) For "security reasons", Xie and Feng did
not disclose the new attack method. They issued a challenge to the cryptographic community, offering a US$10,000
reward to the first finder of a different 64-byte collision before 1 January 2013. Marc Stevens responded to the
challenge and published colliding single-block messages as well as the construction algorithm and sources.[15]

In 2011 an informational RFC 6151[16] was approved to update the security considerations in MD5[17] and HMAC-
MD5.[18]

Security
The security of the MD5 hash function is severely compromised. A collision attack exists that can find collisions within
seconds on a computer with a 2.6 GHz Pentium 4 processor (complexity of 224.1).[19] Further, there is also a chosen-
prefix collision attack that can produce a collision for two inputs with specified prefixes within seconds, using off-the-

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shelf computing hardware (complexity 239).[20] The ability to find collisions has been greatly aided by the use of off-
the-shelf GPUs. On an NVIDIA GeForce 8400GS graphics processor, 16–18 million hashes per second can be
computed. An NVIDIA GeForce 8800 Ultra can calculate more than 200 million hashes per second.[21]

These hash and collision attacks have been demonstrated in the public in various situations, including colliding
document files[22][23] and digital certificates.[24] As of 2015, MD5 was demonstrated to be still quite widely used, most
notably by security research and antivirus companies.[25]

As of 2019, one quarter of widely used content management systems were reported to still use MD5 for password
hashing.[6]

Overview of security issues

In 1996, a flaw was found in the design of MD5. While it was not deemed a fatal weakness at the time, cryptographers
began recommending the use of other algorithms, such as SHA-1, which has since been found to be vulnerable as
well.[26] In 2004 it was shown that MD5 is not collision-resistant.[27] As such, MD5 is not suitable for applications like
SSL certificates or digital signatures that rely on this property for digital security. Also in 2004 more serious flaws were
discovered in MD5, making further use of the algorithm for security purposes questionable; specifically, a group of
researchers described how to create a pair of files that share the same MD5 checksum.[7][28] Further advances were
made in breaking MD5 in 2005, 2006, and 2007.[29] In December 2008, a group of researchers used this technique to
fake SSL certificate validity.[24][30]

As of 2010, the CMU Software Engineering Institute considers MD5 "cryptographically broken and unsuitable for
further use",[31] and most U.S. government applications now require the SHA-2 family of hash functions.[32] In 2012,
the Flame malware exploited the weaknesses in MD5 to fake a Microsoft digital signature.

Collision vulnerabilities
In 1996, collisions were found in the compression function of MD5, and Hans Dobbertin wrote in the RSA Laboratories
technical newsletter, "The presented attack does not yet threaten practical applications of MD5, but it comes rather
close ... in the future MD5 should no longer be implemented ... where a collision-resistant hash function is
required."[33]

In 2005, researchers were able to create pairs of PostScript documents[34] and X.509 certificates[35] with the same
hash. Later that year, MD5's designer Ron Rivest wrote that "md5 and sha1 are both clearly broken (in terms of
collision-resistance)".[36]

On 30 December 2008, a group of researchers announced at the 25th Chaos Communication Congress how they had
used MD5 collisions to create an intermediate certificate authority certificate that appeared to be legitimate when
checked by its MD5 hash.[24] The researchers used a cluster of Sony PlayStation 3 units at the EPFL in Lausanne,
Switzerland[37] to change a normal SSL certificate issued by RapidSSL into a working CA certificate for that issuer,
which could then be used to create other certificates that would appear to be legitimate and issued by RapidSSL.
VeriSign, the issuers of RapidSSL certificates, said they stopped issuing new certificates using MD5 as their checksum
algorithm for RapidSSL once the vulnerability was announced.[38] Although Verisign declined to revoke existing
certificates signed using MD5, their response was considered adequate by the authors of the exploit (Alexander
Sotirov, Marc Stevens, Jacob Appelbaum, Arjen Lenstra, David Molnar, Dag Arne Osvik, and Benne de Weger).[24]
Bruce Schneier wrote of the attack that "we already knew that MD5 is a broken hash function" and that "no one should

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be using MD5 anymore".[39] The SSL researchers wrote, "Our desired impact is that Certification Authorities will stop
using MD5 in issuing new certificates. We also hope that use of MD5 in other applications will be reconsidered as
well."[24]

In 2012, according to Microsoft, the authors of the Flame malware used an MD5 collision to forge a Windows code-
signing certificate.[40]

MD5 uses the Merkle–Damgård construction, so if two prefixes with the same hash can be constructed, a common
suffix can be added to both to make the collision more likely to be accepted as valid data by the application using it.
Furthermore, current collision-finding techniques allow to specify an arbitrary prefix: an attacker can create two
colliding files that both begin with the same content. All the attacker needs to generate two colliding files is a template
file with a 128-byte block of data, aligned on a 64-byte boundary that can be changed freely by the collision-finding
algorithm. An example MD5 collision, with the two messages differing in 6 bits, is:

d131dd02c5e6eec4 693d9a0698aff95c 2fcab58712467eab 4004583eb8fb7f89

55ad340609f4b302 83e488832571415a 085125e8f7cdc99f d91dbdf280373c5b
d8823e3156348f5b ae6dacd436c919c6 dd53e2b487da03fd 02396306d248cda0
e99f33420f577ee8 ce54b67080a80d1e c69821bcb6a88393 96f9652b6ff72a70

d131dd02c5e6eec4 693d9a0698aff95c 2fcab50712467eab 4004583eb8fb7f89

55ad340609f4b302 83e4888325f1415a 085125e8f7cdc99f d91dbd7280373c5b
d8823e3156348f5b ae6dacd436c919c6 dd53e23487da03fd 02396306d248cda0
e99f33420f577ee8 ce54b67080280d1e c69821bcb6a88393 96f965ab6ff72a70

Both produce the MD5 hash 79054025255fb1a26e4bc422aef54eb4.[41] The difference between the two samples is
that the leading bit in each nibble has been flipped. For example, the 20th byte (offset 0x13) in the top sample, 0x87, is
10000111 in binary. The leading bit in the byte (also the leading bit in the first nibble) is flipped to make 00000111,
which is 0x07, as shown in the lower sample.

Later it was also found to be possible to construct collisions between two files with separately chosen prefixes. This
technique was used in the creation of the rogue CA certificate in 2008. A new variant of parallelized collision searching
using MPI was proposed by Anton Kuznetsov in 2014, which allowed to find a collision in 11 hours on a computing
cluster.[42]

Preimage vulnerability
In April 2009, an attack against MD5 was published that breaks MD5's preimage resistance. This attack is only
theoretical, with a computational complexity of 2123.4 for full preimage.[43][44]

Applications
MD5 digests have been widely used in the software world to provide some assurance that a transferred file has arrived
intact. For example, file servers often provide a pre-computed MD5 (known as md5sum) checksum for the files, so that
a user can compare the checksum of the downloaded file to it. Most unix-based operating systems include MD5 sum
utilities in their distribution packages; Windows users may use the included PowerShell function "Get-FileHash",
install a Microsoft utility,[45][46] or use third-party applications. Android ROMs also use this type of checksum.

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As it is easy to generate MD5 collisions, it is possible for the person who created the file to create a second file with the
same checksum, so this technique cannot protect against some forms of malicious tampering. In some cases, the
checksum cannot be trusted (for example, if it was obtained over the same channel as the downloaded file), in which
case MD5 can only provide error-checking functionality: it will recognize a corrupt or incomplete download, which
becomes more likely when downloading larger files.

Historically, MD5 has been used to store a one-way hash of a password, often with key stretching.[47][48] NIST does not
include MD5 in their list of recommended hashes for password storage.[49]

MD5 is also used in the field of electronic discovery, in order to provide a unique identifier for each document that is
exchanged during the legal discovery process. This method can be used to replace the Bates stamp numbering system
that has been used for decades during the exchange of paper documents. As above, this usage should be discouraged
due to the ease of collision attacks.

Algorithm
MD5 processes a variable-length message into a fixed-length output of 128 bits. The input message is broken up into
chunks of 512-bit blocks (sixteen 32-bit words); the message is padded so that its length is divisible by 512. The
padding works as follows: first a single bit, 1, is appended to the end of the message. This is followed by as many zeros
as are required to bring the length of the message up to 64 bits fewer than a multiple of 512. The remaining bits are
filled up with 64 bits representing the length of the original message, modulo 264.

The main MD5 algorithm operates on a 128-bit state, divided into four 32-bit words, denoted A, B, C, and D. These are
initialized to certain fixed constants. The main algorithm then uses each 512-bit message block in turn to modify the
state. The processing of a message block consists of four similar stages, termed rounds; each round is composed of 16
similar operations based on a non-linear function F, modular addition, and left rotation. Figure 1 illustrates one
operation within a round. There are four possible functions; a different one is used in each round:

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denote the XOR, AND, OR and NOT operations

respectively.

Pseudocode
The MD5 hash is calculated according to this algorithm. All
values are in little-endian.

//Note: All variables are unsigned 32 bit and wrap

modulo 2^32 when calculating
var int[64] s, K
var int i

//s specifies the per-round shift amounts

s[ 0..15] := { 7, 12, 17, 22, 7, 12, 17, 22, 7, 12, Figure 1. One MD5 operation. MD5 consists of 64
17, 22, 7, 12, 17, 22 } of these operations, grouped in four rounds of 16
s[16..31] := { 5, 9, 14, 20, 5, 9, 14, 20, 5, 9,
14, 20, 5, 9, 14, 20 } operations. F is a nonlinear function; one function
s[32..47] := { 4, 11, 16, 23, 4, 11, 16, 23, 4, 11, is used in each round. Mi denotes a 32-bit block
16, 23, 4, 11, 16, 23 }
s[48..63] := { 6, 10, 15, 21, 6, 10, 15, 21, 6, 10, of the message input, and Ki denotes a 32-bit
15, 21, 6, 10, 15, 21 } constant, different for each operation. <<<s
//Use binary integer part of the sines of integers denotes a left bit rotation by s places; s varies for
(Radians) as constants:
for i from 0 to 63 each operation. denotes addition modulo 232.
K[i] := floor(232 × abs(sin(i + 1)))
end for
//(Or just use the following precomputed table):
K[ 0.. 3] := { 0xd76aa478, 0xe8c7b756, 0x242070db,
0xc1bdceee }
K[ 4.. 7] := { 0xf57c0faf, 0x4787c62a, 0xa8304613,
0xfd469501 }
K[ 8..11] := { 0x698098d8, 0x8b44f7af, 0xffff5bb1,
0x895cd7be }
K[12..15] := { 0x6b901122, 0xfd987193, 0xa679438e,
0x49b40821 }
K[16..19] := { 0xf61e2562, 0xc040b340, 0x265e5a51,
0xe9b6c7aa }
K[20..23] := { 0xd62f105d, 0x02441453, 0xd8a1e681,
0xe7d3fbc8 }
K[24..27] := { 0x21e1cde6, 0xc33707d6, 0xf4d50d87,
0x455a14ed }
K[28..31] := { 0xa9e3e905, 0xfcefa3f8, 0x676f02d9,
0x8d2a4c8a }
K[32..35] := { 0xfffa3942, 0x8771f681, 0x6d9d6122,
0xfde5380c }
K[36..39] := { 0xa4beea44, 0x4bdecfa9, 0xf6bb4b60,
0xbebfbc70 }
K[40..43] := { 0x289b7ec6, 0xeaa127fa, 0xd4ef3085,
0x04881d05 }
K[44..47] := { 0xd9d4d039, 0xe6db99e5, 0x1fa27cf8,
0xc4ac5665 }
K[48..51] := { 0xf4292244, 0x432aff97, 0xab9423a7,
0xfc93a039 }
K[52..55] := { 0x655b59c3, 0x8f0ccc92, 0xffeff47d,
0x85845dd1 }
K[56..59] := { 0x6fa87e4f, 0xfe2ce6e0, 0xa3014314,
0x4e0811a1 }
K[60..63] := { 0xf7537e82, 0xbd3af235, 0x2ad7d2bb,
0xeb86d391 }

//Initialize variables:

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var int a0 := 0x67452301 //A

var int b0 := 0xefcdab89 //B
var int c0 := 0x98badcfe //C
var int d0 := 0x10325476 //D

//Pre-processing: adding a single 1 bit

append "1" bit to message
// Notice: the input bytes are considered as bits strings,
// where the first bit is the most significant bit of the byte.[50]

//Pre-processing: padding with zeros

append "0" bit until message length in bits ≡ 448 (mod 512)
append original length in bits mod 264 to message

//Process the message in successive 512-bit chunks:

for each 512-bit chunk of padded message
break chunk into sixteen 32-bit words M[j], 0 ≤ j ≤ 15
//Initialize hash value for this chunk:
var int A := a0
var int B := b0
var int C := c0
var int D := d0
//Main loop:
for i from 0 to 63
var int F, g
if 0 ≤ i ≤ 15 then
F := (B and C) or ((not B) and D)
g := i
else if 16 ≤ i ≤ 31 then
F := (D and B) or ((not D) and C)
g := (5×i + 1) mod 16
else if 32 ≤ i ≤ 47 then
F := B xor C xor D
g := (3×i + 5) mod 16
else if 48 ≤ i ≤ 63 then
F := C xor (B or (not D))
g := (7×i) mod 16
//Be wary of the below definitions of a,b,c,d
F := F + A + K[i] + M[g]
A := D
D := C
C := B
B := B + leftrotate(F, s[i])
end for
//Add this chunk's hash to result so far:
a0 := a0 + A
b0 := b0 + B
c0 := c0 + C
d0 := d0 + D
end for

var char digest[16] := a0 append b0 append c0 append d0 //(Output is in little-endian)

//leftrotate function definition

leftrotate (x, c)
return (x << c) binary or (x >> (32-c));

Note: Instead of the formulation from the original RFC 1321 shown, the following may be used for improved
efficiency (useful if assembly language is being used – otherwise, the compiler will generally optimize the above
code. Since each computation is dependent on another in these formulations, this is often slower than the above
method where the nand/and can be parallelised):

( 0 ≤ i ≤ 15): F := D xor (B and (C xor D))

(16 ≤ i ≤ 31): F := C xor (D and (B xor C))

MD5 hashes
The 128-bit (16-byte) MD5 hashes (also termed message digests) are typically represented as a sequence of 32
hexadecimal digits. The following demonstrates a 43-byte ASCII input and the corresponding MD5 hash:

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MD5("The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog") =

9e107d9d372bb6826bd81d3542a419d6

Even a small change in the message will (with overwhelming probability) result in a mostly different hash, due to the
avalanche effect. For example, adding a period to the end of the sentence:

MD5("The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog.") =

e4d909c290d0fb1ca068ffaddf22cbd0

The hash of the zero-length string is:

MD5("") =
d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e

The MD5 algorithm is specified for messages consisting of any number of bits; it is not limited to multiples of eight bits
(octets, bytes). Some MD5 implementations such as md5sum might be limited to octets, or they might not support
streaming for messages of an initially undetermined length.

Implementations
Below is a list of cryptography libraries that support MD5:

Botan
Bouncy Castle
cryptlib
Crypto++
Libgcrypt
Nettle
OpenSSL
wolfSSL

See also
Hash function security summary
Comparison of cryptographic hash functions
HashClash
md5deep
md5sum
MD6
SHA-1
MD5Crypt

References
1. Rivest, R. (April 1992). "Step 4. Process Message in 16-Word Blocks" (https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1321#section-3.
4). The MD5 Message-Digest Algorithm (https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1321). IETF. p. 5. sec. 3.4.
doi:10.17487/RFC1321 (https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC1321). RFC 1321. Retrieved 10 October 2018.
2. Xie Tao; Fanbao Liu & Dengguo Feng (2013). "Fast Collision Attack on MD5" (https://eprint.iacr.org/2013/170.pdf)
(PDF).

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3. Kleppmann, Martin (2 April 2017). Designing Data-Intensive Applications: The Big Ideas Behind Reliable,
Scalable, and Maintainable Systems (1 ed.). O'Reilly Media. p. 203. ISBN 978-1449373320.
4. Ciampa, Mark (2009). CompTIA Security+ 2008 in depth (https://books.google.com/books?id=PfkLAAAAQBAJ&p
g=PA290). Australia ; United States: Course Technology/Cengage Learning. p. 290. ISBN 978-1-59863-913-1.
5. Chad R, Dougherty (31 December 2008). "Vulnerability Note VU#836068 MD5 vulnerable to collision attacks" (htt
ps://www.kb.cert.org/vuls/id/836068). Vulnerability notes database. CERT Carnegie Mellon University Software
Engineering Institute. Retrieved 3 February 2017.
6. Cimpanu, Catalin. "A quarter of major CMSs use outdated MD5 as the default password hashing scheme" (https://
www.zdnet.com/article/a-quarter-of-major-cmss-use-outdated-md5-as-the-default-password-hashing-scheme/).
ZDNet. Retrieved 17 June 2019.
7. J. Black, M. Cochran, T. Highland: A Study of the MD5 Attacks: Insights and Improvements (http://www.cs.colorad
o.edu/~jrblack/papers/md5e-full.pdf), 3 March 2006. Retrieved 27 July 2008.
8. Hawkes, Philip; Paddon, Michael; Rose, Gregory G. (13 October 2004). "Musings on the Wang et al. MD5
Collision" (https://eprint.iacr.org/2004/264). Cryptology ePrint Archive. Retrieved 10 October 2018.
9. Bishop Fox (26 September 2013). "Fast MD5 and MD4 Collision Generators" (http://www.bishopfox.com/resource
s/tools/other-free-tools/md4md5-collision-code/). Retrieved 10 February 2014. "Faster implementation of
techniques in How to Break MD5 and Other Hash Functions (http://www.infosec.sdu.edu.cn/uploadfile/papers/Ho
w%20to%20Break%20MD5%20and%20Other%20Hash%20Functions.pdf), by Xiaoyun Wang, et al. Old (2006)
average run time on IBM P690 supercomputer: 1 hour. New average run time on P4 1.6ghz PC: 45 minutes."
10. Lenstra, Arjen; Wang, Xiaoyun; Weger, Benne de (1 March 2005). "Colliding X.509 Certificates" (http://eprint.iacr.o
rg/2005/067). Cryptology ePrint Archive. Retrieved 10 October 2018.
11. Klíma, Vlastimil (5 March 2005). "Finding MD5 Collisions – a Toy For a Notebook" (http://eprint.iacr.org/2005/075).
Cryptology ePrint Archive. Retrieved 10 October 2018.
12. Vlastimil Klima: Tunnels in Hash Functions: MD5 Collisions Within a Minute (http://eprint.iacr.org/2006/105),
Cryptology ePrint Archive Report 2006/105, 18 March 2006, revised 17 April 2006. Retrieved 27 July 2008.
13. "Code Cracked! Cyber Command Logo Mystery Solved" (https://www.wired.com/dangerroom/2010/07/code-crack
ed-cyber-command-logos-mystery-solved/). USCYBERCOM. Wired News. 8 July 2010. Retrieved 29 July 2011.
14. Tao Xie; Dengguo Feng (2010). "Construct MD5 Collisions Using Just A Single Block Of Message" (http://eprint.ia
cr.org/2010/643) (PDF). Retrieved 28 July 2011.
15. "Marc Stevens – Research – Single-block collision attack on MD5" (http://marc-stevens.nl/research/md5-1block-co
llision/). Marc-stevens.nl. 2012. Retrieved 10 April 2014.
16. "RFC 6151 – Updated Security Considerations for the MD5 Message-Digest and the HMAC-MD5 Algorithms" (http
s://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6151). Internet Engineering Task Force. March 2011. Retrieved 11 November 2013.
17. "RFC 1321 – The MD5 Message-Digest Algorithm" (https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1321). Internet Engineering Task
Force. April 1992. Retrieved 5 October 2013.
18. "RFC 2104 – HMAC: Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication" (https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2104). Internet
Engineering Task Force. February 1997. Retrieved 5 October 2013.
19. M.M.J. Stevens (June 2007). "On Collisions for MD5" (http://www.win.tue.nl/hashclash/On%20Collisions%20for%2
0MD5%20-%20M.M.J.%20Stevens.pdf) (PDF). "[...] we are able to find collisions for MD5 in about 224.1
compressions for recommended IHV's which takes approx. 6 seconds on a 2.6GHz Pentium 4."
20. Marc Stevens; Arjen Lenstra; Benne de Weger (16 June 2009). "Chosen-prefix Collisions for MD5 and
Applications" (https://documents.epfl.ch/users/l/le/lenstra/public/papers/lat.pdf) (PDF).
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Further reading

Berson, Thomas A. (1992). "Differential Cryptanalysis Mod 232 with Applications to MD5". EUROCRYPT.
pp. 71–80. ISBN 3-540-56413-6.
Bert den Boer; Antoon Bosselaers (1993). Collisions for the Compression Function of MD5. Berlin; London:
Springer. pp. 293–304. ISBN 978-3-540-57600-6.
Hans Dobbertin, Cryptanalysis of MD5 compress. Announcement on Internet, May 1996. "CiteSeerX" (http://citese
er.ist.psu.edu/dobbertin96cryptanalysis.html). Citeseer.ist.psu.edu. Retrieved 9 August 2010.
Dobbertin, Hans (1996). "The Status of MD5 After a Recent Attack" (ftp://ftp.arnes.si/packages/crypto-tools/rsa.co
m/cryptobytes/crypto2n2.pdf.gz). CryptoBytes. 2 (2).
Xiaoyun Wang; Hongbo Yu (2005). "How to Break MD5 and Other Hash Functions" (http://www.infosec.sdu.edu.c
n/uploadfile/papers/How%20to%20Break%20MD5%20and%20Other%20Hash%20Functions.pdf) (PDF).
EUROCRYPT. ISBN 3-540-25910-4.

External links
W3C recommendation on MD5 (http://www.w3.org/TR/1998/REC-DSig-label/MD5-1_0)

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