Er.

PERUMAL MANIMEKALAI COLLEGE OF

ENGINEERING, HOSUR
DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING
AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT -2 REPORT
ADVANCED JET TRAINER AIRCRAFTS
Submitted by
LOGESH.T 610816101012
KARTHIK.V 610816101009
ALEX.K 610816101002
PRAVEEN KUMAR.C 610816101020
In partial fulfillment of the requirements
For the award of the degree Of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

“ANNA UNIVERSITY CHENNAI 600025 ”

1
 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that this project “ADVANCED JET TRAINER

AIRCRAFTS” is the Bonafide work of ALEX.K (610816101012),
LOGESH.T (610816101012), KARTHIK.V (610816101012) AND
PRAVEEN KUMAR.C (610816101020) who carried out work under my
supervision. Certified further that do the best of my knowledge. The
work reported here is not the part of any thesis or dissertation on the
basis of which a degree or award was conferred on an earlier occasion
on this or by any other candidate.

Signature of HOD, Signature of Guide,

Mr. R. KARTHIKEYAN, M.E., (Ph.D.) Mr. R. JINI RAJ, M.E.,
Head of the Department, Assistant Professor
Aeronautical Department Aeronautical Department
PMC TECH PMC TECH
Hosur – 635117 Hosur -635117

Submitted for the University Examination viva voce held on _____________

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to thank our chairman and founder of PMC TECH group of
Academic institutions Mr.PERUMAL, respected secretary Mr. KUMAR.P
and honorable trustee Mrs. MALAR. P for their excellent contribution
towards the department.

We would also like to thank our kind principal Dr. S. CHITRA, M.E., Ph.D.,
for her extended support and motivation. We would also like to thank our
beloved Head of Department, Mr. R. KARTHIKEYAN, M.E., Ph.D., for
helping us in times of need and guiding us and maintaining the department in
an excellent manner. We would like to thank our guide, Mr. R. JINI RAJ,
M.E., for his contribution towards making this project into a successful one
and guiding and for motivating us. Finally, we would like to thank the staff
members of the department of aeronautical engineering and our beloved
friends who stood by us and helped us in the completion of the project.

3
 CONTENTS

Expt. Date Name of the Experiment Page Guide’s initial

No. of no
Expt.
1 Introduction 4

2 13
V-n Diagram
3 24
Gust V-n diagram
4 Critical loading performance and 27
final V-n diagram
5 Structural design study –theory 29
approach
6 37
Load estimation on wings
7 44
Load estimation on fuselage
8 47
Balancing and maneuvering loads
on tail plane, rudder and aileron
loads plane, rudder and aileron
loads
9 55
Detailed structural layouts
10 62
Design of some components of
wing and fuselage
11 66
Load estimation on wings
12 70
Material selection
13 79
Three view diagram
14
Conclusion
15
References

4
 ABSTRACT

The aim of this design project is to design an advanced jet trainer aircraft by

comparing the data and specification of present aircrafts in this category and to
calculate the performance characteristics. Also necessary graphs for V-n diagram,
gust V-n diagram, to be plotted and diagrams have to be included whenever
needed. The following design requirements and research studies are set for the
project. Design an aircraft that will transport 188 passenger and their baggage over
a design range of 15000km at a cruise speed of about 925km/hr. To operate from
regional and international airports. To use advanced and state of the art
technologies in order to reduce the operating costs.

5
LIST OF FIGURE TITLE PAGE NO.
FIGURE
Figure 2.1 V-n maneuver diagram 9

Figure 2.2 V-n diagram 13

Figure 3.1 V-n gust diagram 16

Figure 4.1 Final V-n diagram 20

Figure 5.1 Structural design of 22

aircraft
Figure 6.1 Variation of lift along 26
wing span
Figure 6.2 Aerofoils of decreasing 27
chord
Figure 6.3 Schrenk’s curve for semi 28
wing span
Figure 6.4 Schrenk’s curve for full 28
wing span
Figure 6.5 Self weight of wing 30

Figure 6.6 Fuel weight in a wing 31

Figure 6.7 Shear force diagram 34

Figure 6.8 Bending moment diagram 35

Figure 9.1 Wing structural member 44

Figure 10.1 Structure of front and rear 52

spar

6
 TABLE OF SYMBOLS

S.NO SYMBOL EXPLANATION

1 AR Aspect ratio

2 B Wing span

3 C Chord of the airfoil

4 Croot Chord at root

5 Ctip Chord at tip

6 Cd,0 Zero lift drag coefficient

7 Cd Drag coefficient

8 Cp Specific fuel consumption

9 CL Lift coefficient

10 D Drag

11 E Endurance

12 E Oswald efficiency factor

13 L Lift

14 (L/D)loiter Lift to drag ratio at loiter

15 (L/D)cruise Lift to drag ratio at cruise

16 M Mach number of aircraft

17 Mff Mission fuel fraction

18 R Range

19 Re Reynolds number

20 S Wing area

21 T Thrust

7
22 Vcruise Velocity at cruise

23 Vstall Velocity at stall

24 Vt Velocity at touch down

25 Wcrew Crew weight

26 Wempty Empty weight of the

aircraft
27 Wfuel Weight of the fuel

28 Wpayload Payload of the aircraft

29 W/S Wing loading

30 𝜌∞ Density of air

31 Astringer Cross sectional area of

stringers
32 A Total cross sectional area

33 Aspar Cross sectional area of

spar
34 at Slope of the CL vs α curve
for a horizontal tail
35 A Distance of the front spar
from the nose of the
aircraft
36 bw Width of the web

37 bf Width of the flange

38 Ixx Second moment of area

about X-axis
39 Izz Second moment of area
about Z-axis
40 K Gust elevation factor

41 nmax Maximum load factor

42 tw Thickness of the web

43 tf Thickness of the flange

8
44 T Torque

45 U Gust velocity

LIST OF TABLES

LIST OF TABLES TITLE PAGE NO.

Table 1.1 Parameters taken from 6

ADP 1
Table 2.1 Positive load factor 12

Table 2.2 Negative load factor 13

Table 4.1 Load factor values 20

Table 6.1 Loads simplified as point 32

loads
Table 7.1 Loads acting on fuselage 38

Table 11.1 Material specification 61

9
EX.NO: 1 DATE:

INTRODUCTION
Airplane Design-Introduction Three
major phases of airplane designs are

1. Conceptual or Preliminary design,

2. Project design,

3. Detailed design.

1. CONCEPTUAL DESIGN:
The preliminary phase (sometimes called the conceptual design stage) starts
with the project brief and ends when the designers have found and refined a
feasible baseline design layout. In some industrial organizations, this phase is
referred to as the „feasibility study‟. At the end of the preliminary design phase,
a document is produced which contains a summary of the technical and
geometric details known about the baseline design. This forms the initial draft
of a document that will be subsequently revised to contain a thorough
description of the aircraft. This is known as the aircraft „Type Specification‟.

2. PROJECT DESIGN:
The next phase (project design) takes the aircraft configuration defined
towards the end of the preliminary design phase and involves conducting
detailed analysis to improve the technical confidence in the design. Wind
tunnel tests and computational fluid dynamic analysis are used to refine the
aerodynamic shape of the aircraft.Finite element analysis is used to understand
the structural integrity. Stability and control analysis and simulations will be
used to appreciate the flying characteristics. Mass and balance estimations will
be performed in increasingly fine detail. Operational factors (cost, maintenance

10
and marketing) and manufacturing processes will be investigated to determine
what effects these may have on the final design layout. All these investigations
will be done so that the company will be able to take a decision to „proceed to
manufacture‟. To do this requires knowledge that the aircraft and its novel
features will perform as expected and will be capable of being manufactured
in the timescales envisaged. The project design phase ends when either this
decision has been taken or when the project is cancelled.

3. DETAILED DESIGN:

The third phase of the design process (detail design) starts when a
decision to build the aircraft has been taken. In this phase, all the details of the
aircraft are translated into drawings, manufacturing instructions and supply
requests (subcontractor agreements and purchase orders).
Progressively, throughout this phase, these instructions are released to the
manufacturers.

Table 1.1 Parameters taken from aircraft design project 1:

11
S.NO SPECIFICATION VALUE UNIT
S
1 Takeoff weight 85130 Kg

2 Range 15000 Km

3 Cruise velocity 925 Km/hr

4 Wing span 40.8 m

5 Max no. of 188 -

passenger
6 Length 35.07 m

7 Empty weight 42493 Kg

8 Engine thrust 166738 lbf

9 Aspect ratio 9.45 -

10 Max speed 946 Km/hr

11 Service ceiling 12497 Ft

12 Fuel capacity 21000 Kg

13 Take off field 2652 m

14 Wing loading 607.06 Kg/m2

15 Maximum weight 280000 Kg

16 Payload weight 3540 Kg

12
17 Crew weight 17000 Kg

18 Cruise altitude 12000 Km

19 Mff 0.32 -

20 Thrust to weight 0.626 KN/Kg

ratio
21 Maximum 2.83 -
coefficient of lift
22 Height 12.57 m

23 Overall weight 120823.53 Kg

24 Stall speed 64.23 m/s

25 Root chord 4.57 m

26 Mean chord 3.58 m

27 Tip chord 2.37 m

28 R/C 3000 fpm

29 Wing area 185.88 m2

13
EX.NO: 2 DATE:

THE V-N DIAGRAM

The flight operating strength of an airplane is presented on a graph whose horizontal

scale is airspeed (V) and vertical scale is load factor (n). The presentation of the
airplane strength is contingent on four factors being known:

 the aircraft gross weight,

 the configuration of the aircraft (clean, external stores, flaps, and landing
gear position, etc.),
 symmetry of loading (since a rolling pullout at high speed can reduce the
structural limits to approximately two-thirds of the symmetrical load
limits), and
 the applicable altitude.

A change in any one of these four factors can cause important changes to operating
limits.
The significance of the V-n diagram

The lines of maximum lift capability are the first points of importance on the V-
n diagram. The subject aircraft is capable of developing no more than one positive
"g" at 100 knots, the wing level stall speed of the airplane. Since the maximum
load factor varies with the square of the airspeed, the maximum positive lift
capability of this airplane is 4 "g' at 200 knots, 9 g at 300 knots, 16 g at 400 knots,
etc. Any load factor above this line is unavailable aerodynamically, i.e., the
subject airplane cannot fly above the line of maximum lift capability.

The limit airspeed (or redline speed) is a design reference point of the airplane

14
the subject airplane is limited to 675 knots.

The airplane must be operated within this "envelope" to prevent structural damage
and ensure that the anticipated service life of the airplane is obtained. The pilot
must appreciate the V-n diagram as describing the allowable combination of
airspeeds and load factors for safe operation.
Point B is the intersection of the negative limit load factor and line of maximum
negative lift capability. Any airspeed greater than point B provides a negative lift
capability sufficient to damage the airplane; any airspeed less than point B does
not provide negative lift capability sufficient to damage the airplane from
excessive flight loads. Point A is the intersection of the positive limit load factor
and the line of maximum positive lift capability. The airspeed at this point is the
minimum airspeed at which the limit load factor can be developed
aerodynamically. Any airspeed greater than point A provides a positive lift
capability sufficient to damage the airplane; any airspeed less than point A does
not provide positive lift capability sufficient to cause damage from excessive
flight loads. The usual term given to speed at point A is the "maneuver speed,"
since consideration of subsonic aerodynamics would predict minimum usable turn
radius to occur at this condition. The maneuver speed is a valuable reference point
since an airplane operating below this point cannot produce a damaging positive
flight load. Any combination of maneuver and gust cannot create damage due to
excess air load when the airplane is below the maneuver speed
There are two types of V-n diagram for commercial aircraft:
 V-n maneuver diagram
 V-n gust diagram

15
V-n MANEUVER DIAGRAM

Figure 2.1

The positive design limit load factor must be selected by the designer, but must
meet the following condition
24000
nlim(po) ≥ 2.1 +
𝑤+10000

24000
≥ 2.1 +
5205+10000
≥ 5.36

The maximum positive limit load factor for fighter aircraft should be in the range
of -3 to +6 for out aircraft we take

nlim(pos) = 5.36

16
The maximum negative limit load factor is given by

nlim(neg) ≤ 0.4 nlim(pos)

nlim(neg) = - 0.4 x 5.36

= - 2.14

There are four important speeds used in the V-n diagram

 Stall speed VS
 Design maneuvering speed Va
 Design cruise speed Vne
 Design diving speed Vd

Positive stall speed VS

Vs = √ 2𝑊
𝜌𝐶𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑆
CNmax =1.1 x CLmax

= 1.1 x 1.895
CNmax = 2.085

Vs =√
2 𝑋 5205
1.32𝑋0.2845𝑋16.01

Vs = 15.38 m/s

17
 Negative stall speed VS

Vs = √ 2𝑊
𝜌𝐶𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥(𝑛𝑒𝑔)𝑆

CNmax(neg) =1.1 x CLmax(neg)

= 1.1 x 1.895
CNmax(neg) = 0.640

Vs (neg)= √ 2𝑋5205
1.32𝑋0.640𝑋16.01

Vs (neg) = 27.74 m/s

Design maneuvering speed Va for positive load factor

Va = √ 2𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑚(𝑝𝑜𝑠)𝑊
𝜌𝐶𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑆

Va = √ 55797.6
44.06

Va = 35.5 m/s

Design maneuvering speed Vb for negative load

factor

Vb = √ 2𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑚(𝑛𝑒𝑔)𝑊
𝜌𝐶𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥(𝑛𝑒𝑔)𝑆

Vb = 33.68 m/s

18
 Design cruise speed Vne

From aircraft design project 1

VCruise = 950 km/hr

Vn = 260 m/s

Design diving speed Vd

The design diving speed must satisfy the following relationship

Vd ≥ 1.25 Vcruise

= 1.25 x 260

Vd = 325 m/s

The velocity for the positive load factor is given by

Vsn = √ 𝜌𝐶𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑆
2𝑊

𝜌𝐶𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑉 2
N =
2𝑊/𝑆

2.75𝑋𝑉 2
N =
650.2

N = 0.0026 V2

19
 Table 2.1:Positive load factor

Velocity m/s Positive load factor n

0 0
5 0.0066042
10 0.026
15 0.059
20 0.1056
25 0.1651
30 0.377
35.58 0.7151

The velocity for the negative load factor is given by

𝜌𝐶𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥(𝑛𝑒𝑔)𝑉 2
N =
2𝑊/𝑆

1.32𝑋0.640𝑋𝑉 2
N =
10410

N = 0.00008211 V2

20
 Table 2.2:Negative load factor

Velocity m/s Negative load factor n

0 0
5 -0.00202
10 -0.00811
15 -0.018
20 -0.03246
25 -0.1072
30 -0.30
33.68 -0.620

V-n diagram

Figure 2.2

21
EX.NO: 3 DATE:

GUST V-n DIAGRAM

Description:

Gust is a sudden, brief increase in the speed of the wind. Generally, winds

are least gusty over large water surfaces and most gusty over rough land and near

high buildings. With respect to aircraft turbulence, a sharp change in wind speed

relative to the aircraft; a sudden increase in airspeed due to fluctuations in the

airflow, resulting in increased structural stresses upon the aircraft. Sharp-edged

gust (u) is a wind gust that results in an instantaneous change in direction or speed.

Derived gust velocity (Ug or Umax) is the maximum velocity of a sharp-

edged gust that would produce a given acceleration on a particular airplane flown

in level flight at the design cruising speed of the aircraft and at a given air density.

As a result a 25% increase is seen in lift for a longitudinally disturbing gust.

The effect of turbulence gust is to produce a short time change in the effective

angle of attack. These changes produce a variation in lift and thereby load factor.

For VA, a gust velocity of 25.65 m/s is assumed. For VB , a gust velocity of

256.9m/s at sea level is assumed.

Effective gust velocity: The vertical component of the velocity of a sharp-

edged gust that would produce a given acceleration on a particular airplane flown

in level flight at the design cruising speed of the aircraft and at a given air density.

Construction of gust load factor lines

22
The gust load factor lines are defined by the following equations
𝐾𝑔𝑈𝑔 𝑣 𝑉𝐶𝐿𝛼ῥ
nlim = 1 ± 𝑊
2( )
𝑆

0.88µg
Kg =
5.3+µg

Where,

Kg = Gust alleviation factor

Ug = Derived gust velocity

VB =Design speed for maximum gust intensity

VC =Design cruise velocity

VD =Design diving velocity

CLα = Overall lift curve slope rad-1

C =Wing mean geometric chord

𝑊
= 325 kg/m2
𝑆

ῥ = 1.32 kg/m3

β = √1 − M 2 = 0.75
CLα
k=
2π/β

CLα = 1.3314

Cg= 2.458

Construction of gust factor for speed VA= 25.65m/s (take Ug = 26.11 m/s)

+nlim = 2.54

- nlim = -0.54
23
Construction of gust factor for speed VC = 256.9 m/s (take Ug = 34.36 m/s)

+nlim = 20.50

- nlim = -19.50

Figure 3.1 V-n gust diagram

24
EX.NO: 4 DATE:

CRITICAL LOADING PERFORANCE AND FINAL V-n

DIAGRAM CRITICAL LOADING PERFORMANCE:
The greatest air loads on an aircraft usually comes from the generation of lift during
high-g maneuvers. Even the fuselage is almost always structurally sized by the lift
of the wings rather than by the pressures produced directly on the fuselage. Aircraft
load factor (n) expresses the maneuvering of an aircraft as a standard acceleration
due to gravity.

At lower speeds the highest load factor of an aircraft may experience is limited by
the maximum lift available. At higher speeds the maximum load factor is limited to
some arbitrary value based upon the expected use of the aircraft. The maximum lift
load factor equals 1.0 at levels flight stall speed. This is the slowest speed at which
the maximum load can be reached without stalling.

The aircraft maximum speed, or dive speed at right of the V-n diagram represents
the maximum dynamic pressure and maximum load factor is clearly important for
structural sizing. At this condition, the aircraft is at fairly low angle of attack because
of the high dynamic pressure, so the load is approximately vertical in the body axis.
The most common maneuvers that we focused are,

 Level turn

 Pull up

 Pull down

 Climb

Level turn: The value of minimum radius of turn is given by the formula,

25
 𝑊
4𝑘( )
𝑆
Rmin = 𝑇 𝑇
𝑔𝑝( )√1−4kcD,0( )
𝑊 𝑊

Substituting the known values,

𝑊
( ) = 325 kg/m2
𝑆

g = 9.81

CD,0 = 0.09

4 X 1 X 325
Rmin = 𝑇
9.81X1.293X√1−4kcD,0( )
𝑊

CD,0 = 0.09

Rmin = 1.3218

The load factor at minimum radius of turn is given by,

4𝑘𝑐D,0
nRmin =√ 2 − 𝑇
(𝑊)2

Substituting the known values,

4𝑘𝑐D,0
nRmin =√ 2 − 𝑇
(𝑊)2

nRmin = 1.462

26
Pull up maneuver

𝑉∝2
R=
𝑔(𝑛−1)

Substituting the known values and R = 15000

n = 7.08

Pull down maneuver

n = 5.08

Since the range for pull down is same as that of the pull up maneuver, the load factor
for pull down maneuver is found to be,

n = 5.08

27
Table 4.1:Load factor

Figure 4.1 Final V-n diagram

28
EX.NO: 5 DATE:

STRUCTURAL DESIGN STUDY – THEORY APPROACH

Aircraft loads are those forces and loadings applied to the airplanes structural
components to establish the strength level of the complete airplane. These loadings
may be caused by air pressure, inertia forces, or ground reactions during landing.
In more specialized cases, design loadings may be imposed during other operations
such as catapulted take-offs, arrested landings, or landings in water.
The determination of design loads involves a study of the air pressures and inertia
forces during certain prescribed maneuvers, either in the air or on the ground.
Since the primary objective is an airplane with a satisfactory strength level, the
means by which this result is obtained is sometimes unimportant. Some of the
prescribed maneuvers are therefore arbitrary and empirical which is indicated by a
careful examination of some of the criteria.

Important consideration in determining the extent of the load analysis is the

amount of structural weight involved. A fairly detailed analysis may be necessary
when computing operating loads on such items as movable surfaces, doors, landing
gears, etc. proper operation of the system requires an accurate prediction of the
loads. Aircraft loads is the science of determining the loads that an aircraft
structure must be designed to withstand. A large part of the forces that make up
design loads are the forces resulting from the flow of air about the airplane’s
surfaces- the same forces that enable flight and control of the aircraft.

Load factors

In normal straight and level flight the wing lift supports the weight of the airplane.
During maneuvers or flight through turbulent (gusty) air, however, additional loads
are imposed which will increase or decrease the net loads on the airplane structure.
29
The amount of additional loads depends on the severity of the maneuvers or the
turbulence, and its magnitude is measured in terms of load factor.
The maximum maneuvering load factor to which an airplane is designed depends
on its intended usage.

For a typical two spar layout, the ribs are usually formed in three parts from
sheet metal by the use of presses and dies. Flanges are incorporated around the
edges so that they can be riveted to the skin and the spar webs Cut-outs are
necessary around the edges to allow for the stringers to pass through Lightening
holes are usually cut into the rib bodies to reduce the rib weight and also allow for
passage of control runs fuel electrics etc.

Figure 5.1

30
STRUCTURAL DESIGN CRITERIA

The structural criteria define the types of maneuvers, speed, useful loads, and gross
weights which are to be considered for structural design analysis. These are items
which are under the control of the airplane operator. In addition, the structural
criteria must consider such items as inadvertent maneuvers, effects of turbulent air,
and severity of ground contact during landing. The basic structural design criteria,
from which the loadings are determined, are based largely on the type of the
airplane and its intended use.

31
EX.NO: 6 DATE:

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF WINGS

WING STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS:

The structural design of the wing requires a complete quantitative knowledge of

the different loads it will be subjected to during its flight regime. These loads can
be briefly classified as1.

Distributed loads -

Loads such as aerodynamic loads, weight of the wing and weight of fuel.2.

Concentrated loads–

Loads such as thrust , engine weight, landing gear weight and armament weight.

LOADS ACTING ON WING:

As both the wings are symmetric, let us consider the starboard wing at first. There are

three primary loads acting on the wing structure in transverse direction which can cause

considerable shear forces and bending moments on it. They are as follows:

 Lift force (given by schrenk’s curve)

 Self-weight of the wing

 Weight of the power plant

 Weight of the fuel in the wing

SCHRENK’SCURVE:

Lift is a component of the resultant aerodynamic force acting at the center of

pressure of an aerodynamic chord, along a direction perpendicular to the direction

32
of the relative wind. At a particular altitude and at a specific angle of attack, Lift

varies along the wing span due to the variation in chord length along the span.

Schrenk’s curve defines this lift distribution over the wing span of an aircraft.

𝑦1+𝑦2
𝑌=
2

Where,

Y1 = linear variation of lift along the wing semi-span

Y2 = equivalent elliptic lift distribution along the wing semi-span

TO FIND Y1:

Lift force is found along the line joining the aerodynamic centers of chords along

the wing span. Hence, the wing is rotated about the wing root so that the line

joining the aerodynamic centers becomes the horizontal line.

Linear lift distribution (trapezium):

Lroot =552013.4 N/m

Lift at tip

=286174.8N/m

33
By representing this lift at sections of root and tip we can get the equation for the

wing. Equation of linear lift distribution for starboard wing

y1= -1590.589x + 6585.515

Equation of linear lift distribution for port wing we have to replace x by –x in

general,

y1 = 1590.589x + 6585.515

For the Schrenk‟s curve we only consider half of the linear distribution of lift and

hence we derive

Variation of lift along wing span Fig6.1

34
Elliptic Lift Distribution:

Twice the area under the curve or line will give the lift which will be required to
overcome weight

Considering an elliptic lift distribution

Where b is actual lift at root and a is

wing semi span Aerofoils of decreasing chord
Lift at tip,

b = 2656.64 N/m

Equation of elliptic lift,

35
 Figure 6.2

Construction of schrenk’s curve:

36
Substituting the different values for x we get the lift distribution for the wing semi
Span

Figure 6.3

Self-weight of wing (y):

37
 Figure 6.4

Self-weight of wing (y):

38
Assuming parabolic weight distribution

Where b – wing span

When we integrate from x=0 (root location) to x =b (tip location) we get the net
weight of port wing

Fuel weight in the wing:

This design has fuel in the wing so we have to consider the weight of the fuel in

one wing.

39
 Figure 6.5

Again by using general formula for straight line y= mx + c we get

Yf = 115x – 600

Figure 6.6
40
Power plant weight:

Wpp=6772.1 kg = 66434.3 N

Table 6.1:Loads simplified as point loads:

Curve / component Area enclosed / structural Centroid

weight (N) (from wing root)
y1/2 206134.32 3m

y2/2 206196.28 3.5m

Wing 104390.6 3.7m

Fuel 206010 4.2m

Power plant 66434.3 6m

Reaction force and Bending moment calculations:

The wing is fixed at one end and free at other end.

Σv = 0, 33

Then,

VA-206134.32-206196.28+104390.6+206010+66434.3=0

VA =35495.7 N

ΣM = 0,

Then,

41
 MA=310000.86 N/m

Now we know VA and MA,using this we can find out shear force and bending

moment.

SHEAR FORCE

42
By using the corresponding values of x in appropriate equations we get the plot of

shear force.

Figure 6.7

43
BENDING MOMENT

By substituting the values of x for the above equations of bending moments obtained

we can get a continuous bending moment curve for the port wing.

44
Figure 6.8

45
EX.NO: 7 DATE:

LOAD ESTIMATION ON FUSELAGE

Fuselage contributes very little to lift and produces more drag but it is an
important structural member/component. It is the connecting member to all load
producing components such as wing, horizontal tail, vertical tail, landing gear etc.
and thus redistributes the load. It also serves the purpose of housing or
accommodating practically all the equipments, accessories and systems in addition
to carrying the payload. Because of large amount of equipment inside the fuselage,
it is necessary to provide sufficient number of cutouts in the fuselage for access and
inspection purposes. These cutouts and discontinuities result in fuselage design
being more complicated, less precise and often less efficient in design. As a common
member to which other components are attached, thereby transmitting the loads,
fuselage can be considered as a long hollow beam. The reactions produced by the
wing, tail or landing gear may be considered as concentrated loads at the respective
attachment points. The balancing reactions are provided by the inertia forces
contributed by the weight of the fuselage structure and the various components inside
the fuselage. These reaction forces are distributed all along the length of the fuselage,
though need not be uniformly .Unlike the wing, which is subjected to mainly
unsymmetrical load, the fuselage is much simpler for structural analysis due to its
symmetrical cross-section and symmetrical loading. The main load in the case of
fuselage

is the shear load because the load acting on the wing is transferred to the fuselage
skin in the form of shear only. The structural design of both wing and fuselage begin
with shear force and bending moment diagrams for the respective members

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To find out the loads and their distribution, consider the different cases. The main
components of the fuselage loading diagram are:

 Weight of the fuselage

 Engine weight

 Weight of the horizontal and vertical stabilizers

 Tail lift

 Weight of crew, payload and landing gear

 Systems, equipment, accessories

Symmetric flight condition, steady and level flight: (Downward forces negative)
Values for the different component weights are obtained from aerodynamic design
calculations.

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Table 7.1:Loads acting on fuselage

Condition Full Payload

Fuselage alone analysis

S.No Componen Distance Mass (kg) Weight Moment

ts from (N) (Nm)
reference
line (m)
1 Crew 0.5 720 7063.2 3531.6

2 Nose 4.47 6082 59664.42 266699.95

Landing
Gear
3 Pay Load 5.5 8000 78480 433290
Bay 1
4 Fuselage 1.5 84033 824363.7 123654.5
mass
5 Main 17.45 18123.52 1066750 18614787.
Landing 5
Gear 1
6 Horizontal 30.68 2576.6 25277 775498.36
stabilizer
7 Vertical 31.53 1288.39 12639 398507.67
Stabilizer
TOTAL 91.63 120823..51 2074237.3 2061596.13
2

C.G from nose = 10.09

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EX.NO: 8 DATE:

BALANCING AND MANEUVERING LOADS ON TAIL

PLANE,RUDDER AND AILERON
Maneuvering loads:

Each horizontal surface and its supporting structure, and the main wing of a canard
or tandem wing configuration, if that surface has pitch control, must be designed for
the maneuvering loads imposed by the following conditions:

 A sudden movement of the pitching control, at the speed VA, to the maximum
aft movement, and the maximum forward movement, as limited by the control
stops, or pilot effort, whichever is critical.

 A sudden aft movement of the pitching control at speeds above VA, followed
by a forward movement of the pitching control resulting in the following
combinations of normal and angular acceleration. At speeds up to VA, the
vertical surfaces must be designed to withstand the following conditions. In
computing the loads, the yawing velocity may be assumed to be zero:

 With the airplane in unaccelerated flight at zero yaw, it is assumed that the
rudder control is suddenly displaced to the maximum deflection, as limited by
the control stops or by limit pilot forces.

 With the rudder deflected, it is assumed that the airplane yaws to the over
swing sideslip angle. In lieu of a rational analysis, an over swing angle equal
to 1.5 times the static sideslip angle may be assumed.

 A yaw angle of 15 degrees with the rudder control maintained in the neutral

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 position (except as limited by pilot strength)

 The airplane must be yawed to the largest attainable steady state sideslip
angle, with the rudder at maximum deflection caused by any one of the
following:

 Control surface stops

 Maximum available booster effort

 Maximum pilot rudder force

 The rudder must be suddenly displaced from the maximum deflection to the
neutral position.

 The yaw angles may be reduced if the yaw angle chosen for a particular speed
cannot be exceeded in:

 Steady slip conditions

 Uncoordinated rolls from steep banks or

 Sudden failure of the critical engine with delayed corrective action.

 The ailerons must be designed for the loads to which they are subjected:

 In the neutral position during symmetrical flight conditions; and

 By the following deflections (except as limited by pilot effort), during

unsymmetrical flight conditions
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  Sudden maximum displacement of the aileron control at VA. Suitable
allowance may be made for control system deflections.

 Sufficient deflection at VC, where VC is more than VA, to produce a rate of

roll not less than obtained

 Sufficient deflection at VC to produce a rate of roll not less than one-third of

that obtained

(a)Symmetric maneuvering conditions:

Where sudden displacement of a control is specified, the assumed rate of control
surface displacement may not be less than the rate that could be applied by the pilot
through the control system. In determining elevator angles and chord wise load
distribution in the maneuvering conditions, the effect of corresponding pitching
velocities must be taken into account. The in-trim and out-of-trim flight conditions
must be considered.
(b)Maneuvering balanced conditions:

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Assuming the airplane to be in equilibrium with zero pitching acceleration, the
maneuvering conditions on the maneuvering envelope must be investigated.
(c)Pitch maneuver conditions:
The movement of the pitch control surfaces may be adjusted to take into account
limitations imposed by the maximum pilot effort, control system stops and any
indirect effect imposed by limitations in the output side of the control system (for
example, stalling torque or maximum rate obtainable by a power control system.
Maximum pitch control displacement at VA:
The airplane is assumed to be flying in steady level flight and the cockpit pitch
control is suddenly moved to obtain extreme nose up pitching acceleration. In
defining the tail load, the response of the airplane must be taken into account.
Airplane loads that occur subsequent to the time when normal acceleration at the c.g.
exceeds the positive limit maneuvering load or the resulting tail plane normal load
reaches its maximum, whichever occurs first, need not be considered.
Specified control displacement:
A checked maneuver, based on a rational pitching control motion vs. time profile,
must be established in which the design limit load factor will not be exceeded. Unless
lesser values cannot be exceeded, the airplane response must result in pitching
accelerations not less than the following:
A positive pitching acceleration (nose up) is assumed to be reached concurrently
with the airplane load factor of 1.0. The positive acceleration must be equal to at
least 39n(n-1)/v, (rad/sec )

Where „n‟ is the positive load factor at the speed under consideration; and V is the
airplane equivalent speed in knots.

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A negative pitching acceleration (nose down) is assumed to be reached on currently
with the positive maneuvering load factor. This negative pitching acceleration must
be equal to at least -26n(n-1)/v, (rad/sec )

Where „n‟ is the positive load factor at the speed under consideration; and V is the
airplane equivalent speed in knots.
Balancing loads:

 A horizontal surface balancing load is a load necessary to maintain

equilibrium in any specified flight condition with no pitching acceleration.

 Horizontal balancing surfaces must be designed for the balancing loads

occurring at any point on the limit maneuvering envelope and in the flap
conditions

 It is not required to balance the rudder because it will not deflect due to
gravity.

 Aileron will defect in vice versa direction so it is doesn’t require balancing

load.

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