7

System Grounding

7.1 Study of Grounding Systems

The grounding systems can be studied under three classifications:

1. System grounding
2. Equipment grounding
3. Transients in grounding systems

System grounding refers to the electrical connection between the phase conductors and
the ground and dictates the manner in which the neutral points of wye-connected trans-
formers and generators or artificially derived neutral systems through delta–wye or zig-
zag transformers are grounded.
Equipment grounding refers to the grounding of the exposed metallic parts of the elec-
trical equipment, which can become energized and create a potential to ground—say due
to breakdown of insulation or fault—and can be a potential safety hazard. In the ground-
ing grids for substations, the criteria of safety are limiting the step, touch, and transfer
potentials to safe limits, see Reference [1].
Transients in grounding systems occur under lightning impulse currents, and the
impulse response of the grounding grids must be studied.
In this volume, we will confine to system grounding.
Further aspects of grounding are as follows:

• Grounding in mine distribution systems

• Grounding of portable electrical equipment
• Hybrid grounding
• Grounding of adjustable speed drive (ASD) systems
• Lightning protection of buildings, chimneys and structures, and grounding
• Grounding of surge arresters
• Lightning protection of substations
• Grounding of electronic equipment, data cables, and computers.

All of these aspects are not discussed. The grounding systems are also discussed in
Volume 1. There is some repletion of the concepts presented in Volume 1, which is carried over in
this chapter.

231
232 Power Systems Protective Relaying

7.2 Solidly Grounded Systems

Figure 7.1 from IEEE Standard 142 [2] illustrates various methods of system grounding. In a
solidly grounded system, there is no intentional impedance between the system neutral and
the ground. A power system is solidly grounded when the generator, power transformer,
or grounding transformer neutral is directly connected to the ground. A solidly grounded
system is not a zero impedance circuit due to the sequence impedances of the grounded equipment,
like a generator or transformer itself. These systems, in general, meet the requirements of
an “effectively grounded” system in which the ratio X0/X1 is positive and less than 3.0 and
the ratio R0/X0 is less than 1, where X1, X0, and R0 are the positive-sequence reactance, zero-
sequence reactance, and zero-sequence resistance, respectively.

XGO

Ungrounded 52

XGO

Solidly grounded 52

XGO 3RN

RN

Resistance grounded 52

XGO 3XN

XN
Reactance grounded 52

XGO 3XN

XN
Ground fault
52
neutralizer

XGO = Zero sequence reactance of generator or transformer

XN = Reactance of grounding reactor
RN = Resistance of grounding resistor

FIGURE 7.1
Various methods of system grounding.
System Grounding 233

The coefficient of grounding (COG) is the ratio of ELg/ELL in percentage, where ELg is the
highest rms voltage on an unfaulted phase, at a selected location, during a fault effecting,
one or more phases to ground and ELL is the rms phase-to-phase power frequency voltage
obtained at that location with the fault removed. Solidly grounded systems are, generally,
characterized by COG of 80%. Approximately, a surge arrester with its rated voltage calcu-
lated on the basis of the system voltage multiplied by 0.8 can be applied. See Volume 1 for
further discussions and calculations of COG.
The utility systems at transmission, subtransmission, and distribution levels are solidly
grounded. The main reason for this is that on occurrence of a ground fault, enough ground
fault current should be available to selectively trip the faulty circuit.
The utility generators, connected in step-up configuration to a generator transformer,
are invariably high-resistance grounded. If a generator neutral is left ungrounded, there
is a possibility of generating high voltages through inductive–capacitive couplings.
Ferroresonance can also occur due to the presence of generator PTs.
The utility substations serving large chunks of power at high voltages for industrial plants
through delta–wye transformers have low-resistance grounded secondary wye windings.
The most common voltages of distributions for the industrial plants are 13.8 , 4.16, and 2.4 kV.
The low-voltage systems in industrial power distribution systems used to be solidly
grounded. However, this trend is changing and high-resistance grounding (HRG) is being
adopted.
The solidly grounded systems have an advantage of providing effective control of over-
voltages, which become impressed on or are self-generated in the power system by insu-
lation breakdowns and restriking faults. Yet, these give the highest arc fault current and
consequent damage and require immediate isolation of the faulty section. Single-line-to-
ground fault currents can be higher than the three-phase fault currents. These high mag-
nitudes of fault currents have a twofold effect:

• Higher burning or equipment damage.

• Interruption of the processes, as the faulty section must be selectively isolated
without escalation of the fault to unfaulted sections. This is a major consideration
of transition from solidly grounded to high-resistance grounded systems for the
low-voltage systems.

Yet, some systems according to National Electric Code (NEC) must be solidly grounded.
These include systems below 120 V ac, control systems, lighting systems, and commercial
distributions. Also solidly grounded systems are required where three-phase four-wire
loads are required to be served.
The arc fault damage to the equipment for low-voltage 480 V systems has been investi-
gated using laboratory models [3]. Stanback reported that for single-phase 277 V arcing
fault tests using spacing of 1–4 in from bus bars to ground and for currents from 3000 to
26,000 A, the burning damage can be approximated by the following equation:

Fault damage ∝ (I )1.5t (7.1)

where I is the arc fault current and t is the duration in seconds

VD = K s (I )1.5t (in.)3 (7.2)
234 Power Systems Protective Relaying

where Ks is the burning rate of material in in.3/As1.5, VD is the acceptable damage to mate-
rial in in.3, I is the arc fault current, t is the duration of flow of fault current, and Ks depends
upon the type of material and is given by

K s = 0.72 × 10−6 for copper

= 1.52 × 10−6 for aluminum (7.3)

= 0.66 × 10−6 for steel

The NEMA [4] assumes a practical limit for the ground fault protective devices, so that

(I )1.5t  250I r (7.4)

where Ir is the rated current of the conductor, bus, disconnect, or circuit breaker to be
protected.
Combining these equations, we can write

VD = 250K s I r (7.5)

Example 7.1
As an example, consider a circuit of 4000 A. Then, the NEMA practical limit is 1.0 × 106
(A)1.5 s and the permissible damage to copper, from (7.5), is 0.72 in.3. To limit the arc fault
damage to this value, the maximum fault clearing time can be calculated. Consider that
the arc fault current is 20 kA. Then, the maximum fault clearing time including the relay
operating time and breaker interrupting time is 0.35  s. It is obvious that vaporizing
0.72 in.3 of copper on a ground fault which is cleared according to established standards
is still damaging to the operation of the equipment. A shutdown and repairs will be
needed after the fault incidence.
Due to high arc fault damage and interruption of processes, the solidly grounded
systems are not in much use in the industrial distribution systems. However, ac circuits
of less than 50 V and circuits of 50–1000 V for supplying premises wiring systems and
single-phase 120/240 V control circuits must be solidly grounded according to NEC [5].
Figure 7.2 shows a sustained arc fault current in a 3/16 in. gap in a 480 V three-phase
system [3]. Experimentally, an arc is established between phase c of the bus and ground,
and a current of 1100 A flows. After three-cycle phase a is involved and the arc current
for two-line to enclosure fault is 18,000 A, the arc energy equals 7790 kW cycles.
Approximately 70% of the faults in the electrical systems are line-to-ground faults.
Sometimes, these may be self-clearing and of transient nature (e.g., in over head (OH)
line systems) or may evolve into three-phase faults over a period of time.
Thus, the probability of a worker being subject to arc flash due to ground faults is
much higher. A footnote in NFPA 70E reads as follows:

High resistance grounding of low-voltage and 5 kV (nominal) systems, current limi-
tations, and specifications of covered bus within equipment are techniques available
to reduce the hazard of the system.

Thus, high-resistance systems are recommended, though at medium voltages these

should be carefully evaluated.
System Grounding 235

1-Varc
2-Is
3-Vc

4-Ia
5-Ib
6-Ic

1-387 V/IN
1-in.
2-8.7A/IN
3-431V/IN
4-31800A/IN
6-31750A/IN

FIGURE 7.2
Arcing fault in a 3/16 in. gap, 480 V three-phase system.

Another consideration is selective protective relaying for various systems, see Chapter 8.
It is documented that though the selective ground fault clearance is possible in a solidly
grounded low-voltage system, practically, compromises are made (see Chapter 8).

7.2.1 Hazards in Solidly Grounded Systems

Let us revisit Figure 7.2, which shows that a single line-to-ground fault quickly involves
the other unfaulted phases. Dunki-Jacobs [6] states that the escalation time of a single-
phase fault to three-phase faults is rather small, of the order of—one to two cycles. Further,
single-phase faults are more difficult to sustain than three-phase faults. Dunki-Jacobs
illustrated the arcing line-to-ground faults as a discontinuous sine wave. It seems that the
safest type of 480 V grounded systems will be the ones that are selectively coordinated to
isolate the low-level faults as soon as these occur. However, there are limitations in design-
ing selectively coordinated HRG systems and solidly grounded systems as illustrated in
the examples in Chapter 8.
Lucks [7] contends that the arcs for ground fault can be sustained even at low values of
ground fault current of the order of 800 A, which may not be any more than the load current
and the arcing will continue unless this low-level ground fault current is cleared by the pro-
tective relaying. This is based on the work of Land [8], arcing ground faults on a low-voltage
system with 3.81 cm phase-to-phase spacing and 1.9 cm phase-to-ground spacing.
A significant finding of Land is that the arc started as a line-to-ground fault does not esca-
late into a phase-to-phase arcing fault, but as a phase-to-ground-to phase fault. The mag-
netic fields, surrounding each bus, constrain the arc to jump phase to phase, which results
in more slowly evolving phase-to-phase fault, and for a greater period of time, it remains
as a phase-to-ground fault. A phase-to-ground fault may be initiated with a conductor of
larger cross section, that is, tools or hardware inadvertently left inside the enclosures.
Ground faults are more likely to occur than phase faults. IEEE 493-2007 [9] states that the
ground faults are:

• 2.3 times more than phase faults in bus ducts

• 7.3 times more than phase faults in cables
• 7.8 times more than phase faults in cable joints
236 Power Systems Protective Relaying

The insulation of the bus system impacts the arc transfer to other phases. With insulated
buses, the arcing fault can be expected to remain stationary at the point of fault and it can
easily burn down 480/277 V systems.
Thus, it becomes imperative that low-level ground faults are cleared quickly to prevent
conductor and equipment damage. As the current reduces, the time to clear a fault on
inverse characteristics relays will increase. The problem will be to precisely calculate the
ground fault current as the return path involves a number of factors. Lucks [7] lists the
following factors:

• Metallurgy of enclosure
• Size and type of ground conductor
• Corrosion on pressure contacts
• Rectification from dissimilar materials
• Mutual inductance
• Skin effect
• Phase to neutral voltage
• Earth conductivity

7.3 Low-Resistance Grounded Systems

An impedance grounded system has a resistance or reactance connected in the neutral
circuit to ground, see Figure 7.1. In a low-resistance grounded system, the resistance
in the neutral circuit is so chosen that the ground fault is limited to approximately
full-load current or even lower, typically 200–400 A. The arc fault damage is reduced,
and these systems provide effective control of the overvoltages generated in the system
by resonant capacitive–inductive couplings and restriking ground faults. Though the
ground fault current is much reduced, it cannot be allowed to be sustained and selec-
tive tripping must be provided to isolate the faulty section. For a ground fault current
limited to 400  A, the pick-up sensitivity of modern ground fault devices can be even
lower than 5  A. Considering an available fault current of 400 A and the relay pickup
of 5 A, approximately 98.75% of the transformer or generator windings from the line
terminal to neutral are protected. This assumes a linear distribution of voltage across
the winding. (Practically, the pickup will be higher than the low set point of 5 A.) The
incidence of ground fault occurrence toward the neutral decreases as a square of the
winding turns.
It has been a general practice to limit the ground fault current to 400 A for the grounded
sources such as generators and wye-connected windings of the transformers. With mod-
ern MMPRs that provide greater sensitivity, the trend is to reduce it to 100 A or sometimes
even less.
The low-resistance grounded systems are adopted at medium voltages, 13.8, 4.16, and
2.4  kV, for industrial distribution systems. Also industrial bus-connected generators
are commonly low-resistance grounded. Hybrid grounding systems for industrial bus-
connected generators are a recent trend in industrial bus-connected medium-voltage gen-
erator grounding.
System Grounding 237

7.4 High-Resistance Grounded Systems

High-resistance grounded systems limit the ground fault current to a low value, so that an
immediate disconnection on occurrence of a ground fault is not required. It is well docu-
mented that to control over voltages in the high-resistance grounded systems, the ground-
ing resistor should be so chosen that
Vln
Rn = (7.6)
3I c

where Vln is the line-to-neutral voltage and Ic is the stray capacitance current of each phase
conductor. Figure 7.3 depicts transient voltage in percent of normal line-to-ground crest
voltage versus the resistor kW/charging capacitive kVA [10]. The transients are a minimum
when this ratio is unity. This leads to the requirement of accurately calculating the stray
capacitance currents in the system. These calculations for a high-resistance system are not
documented here. Cables, motors, transformers, OH lines, surge arresters, and genera-
tor windings have distributed stray capacitances to ground—all contribute to the stray
capacitance current. For the purpose of HRG, we can consider all these distributed stray
capacitances lumped together. Surge capacitors connected line-to-ground must be consid-
ered in the calculations. The authors of [11–13] provide charging current (stray capacitance
current) data of electrical system components. Once the system stray capacitance is deter-
mined, then the charging current per phase, Ic, is given by

Vln
Ic = (7.7)
X co

where Xco is the capacitive reactance of each phase, stray capacitance considered lumped
together.
400
normal line -to-ground crest voltage

320
Transient voltage in percent of

Unfaulted phases
240

Neutral to ground
160
Faulted phase

80

0
0 0.4 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.6 2.0
Ratio: resistor KW/charging KVA

FIGURE 7.3
Overvoltage versus ratio of resistor kW/charging kVA. (From Westinghouse, Transmission and Distribution
Handbook, Westinghouse, East Pittsburg, PA, 1964.)
238 Power Systems Protective Relaying

Example 7.2
An HRG system for a wye-connected neutral of a 13.8  kV-0.48 transformer is shown
in Figure 7.4a. This shows that the stray capacitance current per phase of all the dis-
tribution system connected to the secondary of the transformer is 0.21  A per phase.
In a three-phase system, the three phases are symmetrical (though not perfectly) with
respect to each other; we can assume that the charging currents of all three phases are
equal. Figure 7.4b shows that under no-fault condition, the vector sum of three capaci-
tance currents is zero, as these are 90° displaced with respect to each voltage vector and
therefore 120° displaced with respect to each other:
  
Ia + Ib + Ic = 0 (7.8)

Thus, the grounded neutral does not carry any current and the neutral of the system is
held at the ground potential; no capacitance current flows into the ground or in the neutral-
connected grounding resistor.
On occurrence of a ground fault, say in phase a, the situation is depicted in Figure 7.4c
and d. The capacitance of faulted a phase is short circuited to ground, and this phase
does not contribute to any capacitance current. The faulted phase, assuming zero fault
resistance, is at the ground potential (see Figure 7.4d) and the other two phases have
line-to-line voltages with respect to ground. Therefore, the capacitance current of the

(a) (b)

Secondary wye connected

transformer windings

B Vbc C
B C
Vb Vc
Ic
Ic Ib Ground
0.21 A Ia
0.21 A
Vab Ib Va Vac
Grounding
resistor 0
Phase rotation ABC
A
A
0.21 A Ia
Ground

0.21 A
(c) (d) (e)

B C Ic
B C Ib
Ic Ib 0.63A
Ig
0.364 A
0.364 A
Ir
A
1A Ir 1A
A
Ig
Ground

FIGURE 7.4
(a and b) The stray capacitance currents and voltages in a wye-connected HRG system under no-fault condi-
tions, (c) the flow of capacitance and ground currents, phase a faulted to ground, (d) voltages to ground, phase a
grounded, and (e) phasor diagram of summation of capacitive and resistance components of current.
System Grounding 239

B C

Voltage vectors
with varying neutral shift N

N1

Phase rotation ABC

N2

A Ground
N3

FIGURE 7.5
The neutral shift in high-resistance grounded systems, depending on the fault resistance.

unfaulted phases b and c increases proportional to the voltage, that is, 3 × 0.21 = 0.365 A.
Moreover, this current in phase b and c reverses, flows through the transformer wind-
ings, and sums up in the transformer winding of phase a. Figure 7.4e shows that this
vector sum of the capacitance currents in phases b and c is equal to 0.63 A. This is con-
ceptually important. Note that no capacitance current returns to the faulted point through the
grounding resistor, also see Chapter 8.
Now consider that the ground current through the grounding resistor is limited to
1 A only. This is acceptable according to Equation 7.6 as the total stray capacitance current
is 0.63 A. This resistor ground current also flows through transformer phase winding a
to the fault (Figure 7.4e) and the total ground fault current is I g = 12 + 0.632 = 1.182 A.
The above analysis assumes a full neutral shift, ignores the fault impedance, and
assumes that the ground grid resistance and the system zero-sequence impedances are
zero. Practically, the neutral shift will vary, see Figure 7.5.

7.5 Ungrounded Systems
In an ungrounded system, there is no intentional connection to ground except through
potential transformers or metering devices of high impedance. In reality, an ungrounded
system is coupled to ground through distributed phase capacitances. It is difficult to assign
X0/X1 and R0/X0 values for ungrounded systems. The ratio X0/X1 is negative and may vary
from low to high values and COG may approach 120%. These systems provide no effec-
tive control of transient and steady-state voltages above ground. A possibility of resonance
with high voltage generation, approaching five times or more of the system voltage, exists
for values of X0/X1 between 0 and −40. For the first phase-to-ground fault, the continuity
of operations can be sustained, though unfaulted phases have 3 times the normal line-
to-ground voltage. All unremoved faults, thus, put greater than normal voltage on system
insulation, and an increased level of conductor and motor insulation may be required. The
grounding practices in the industry are withdrawing from this method of grounding.
If an inductor of certain size gets connected to ground, then the possibility of high volt-
ages exist, as the overvoltage is given by:

XL
Vov = Vt (7.9)
(X co / 3) − X L
240 Power Systems Protective Relaying

Broken line
grounded

Blown
fuse

Inductive winding
grounded

Case 1 Case 2 Case 3

An inductive winding accidentally A blown fuse in one phase on Broken OH line grounded on load
connected between phase and ground fault side of the break
ground

FIGURE 7.6
Connections of an inductance to ground for faults in ungrounded systems.

where Vt is the applied terminal voltage and XL is the inductance of the grounded induc-
tor. Figure 7.6 shows three possible cases of a high inductance that may get connected to a
phase, and give rise to resonant voltages.

1. The coil of a motor starter may be inadvertently connected between phase and
ground due to a ground fault.
2. A fuse can operate in one phase due to a ground fault, which connects reactances
of the other two phases in parallel between phases and ground.
3. A broken conductor on the load side of the transformer connects reactances of two
phases in parallel between phase and ground.

The phenomena of arcing grounds and resulting overvoltages which may escalate to five
to six times the normal rated voltage can be explained with reference to Figure 7.7. It is
somewhat similar to restrikes in circuit breakers discussed in Volume 1. Intermittent
ground faults can give rise to these phenomena.
Figure 7.7a shows normal voltage vectors rotating counterclockwise. Consider that phase
a is grounded, see Figure 7.7b. The current in a capacitor is zero when the voltage is at its
peak and therefore at the instant shown in Figure 7.7b, the capacitance is charged to the
line voltage and the current is zero; thus, the arc tends to extinguish. During the next half
cycle, as the voltage vectors rotate, the phase a charges from zero (at the neutral point)
to twice the line voltage, which is denoted by dotted lines. This value of line-to-ground
potential of phase a may be sufficient to break down the gap in the ground fault circuit,
which got extinguished a half cycle before. Thus, a pulse current flows and the phase a
voltage may swing between plus and minus two times the rated voltage at a frequency of
20–100 times the fundamental, due to the presence of reactance in the circuit. If there were
a solid metallic connection between the phase a and the ground, it would leave the phase
System Grounding 241

V΄΄΄b V΄΄΄c

(a) (b)

V΄΄΄a
½ Cycle

Vb Vc V΄a

Vb Vc

V΄c V΄b Ground

Va
Current pulse

(c)
Va V΄΄b V΄΄c
V΄΄a

V΄΄c V΄΄b V΄΄a

FIGURE 7.7
(a–c) Illustration of arcing faults in ungrounded systems and consequent escalation of voltages.

a conductor at ground potential. Associated with the transitory oscillation of the voltage,
there will be a corresponding oscillatory charge current. This transient charging current
or restrike current will again reach zero when the system voltage angle is at its maximum
excursion in the negative direction, see the lower part of Figure 7.7c. In the next half cycle
as the voltage vectors rotate further, the phase a voltage will escalate from –2 to –4, as
indicated in the lower part of Figure 7.7c. This increased voltage across the gap, which may
again result in a restrike.

7.6 Reactance Grounding
In reactance grounding, a reactor is connected between the system neutral and the ground;
the magnitude of the ground fault current that will flow depends upon the size of the reac-
tor. The ground fault current should be at least 25% and preferably 60% of the three-phase
fault current to prevent serious transient overvoltages (X0 < 10X1). This current is consid-
erably higher than that in a resistance grounded system and the reactance grounding is
not an alternative to resistance grounding. The system is generally used for grounding of
242 Power Systems Protective Relaying

small generators, so that the generator ground fault current does not exceed three-phase
fault current and three-phase four-wire loads could be served. Reactance grounded sys-
tems are not common in the United States.
Up to around the 1940s, the utility left their generators ungrounded to limit the internal
ground fault currents in the generator to very low values. However, when these genera-
tors were connected to transmission lines many insulation failures occurred, due to high-
voltage transients as discussed in ungrounded systems.
The next step was to ground the generator neutral through primary of a potential
transformer, the secondary connected to a voltage relay—the actuation of voltage relay
will trip the generator. Practically, it increased the generator failures due to arcing
grounds.
Examine circuit of a generator shown in Figure 7.1; the generator grounded through a
high reactance Xn, with a line-to-ground fault near one terminal. The small arcing current
through Xn tries to extinguish and reignite with increasingly high voltages. The high-
reactance grounded systems are no longer in use.

7.7 Resonant Grounding
Figure 7.1 also shows a resonant grounding system, with ground fault neutralizer. A
reactor can be connected between the neutral of a system and the ground and tuned to
the system charging current so that the resulting current is resistive and of low mag-
nitude. This current is in phase with the line-to-neutral voltage, so that the current
and voltage zeros occur simultaneously. The system is used for voltages above 15 kV,
consisting of overhead transmission or distribution lines. The system is rarely used for
industrial and commercial establishments. A disadvantage of the system is that the
resonant tuning can change due to switching conditions, that is, when a part of the
system may be out of service or when the system expansion takes place. This ground-
ing method is not common in the United States, though sometimes used in Europe and
Russia.

7.8  C
 orner of Delta Grounded Systems
Low-voltage systems which in the past were supplied from delta-connected secondary were
inherently ungrounded. These were grounded by connecting one corner of the secondary
delta windings to ground, through an adequate connection and there was no additional
impedance inserted in this connection to obtain a grounded system (see Figure 7.8a). These
are no longer in use. It is necessary to positively identify the grounded phase throughout
the system to avoid connecting meters, instruments, and fuses in the grounded phase. A
higher line-to-neutral voltage will occur on two phases than in a neutral grounded system.
There is a possibility of exceeding the interrupting ratings of marginally applied circuit
breakers, because for a ground fault, the interrupting duty on the affected circuit breaker
pole may exceed the three-phase fault duty. There is a high probability of sustaining arc-
ing for 480 V or higher phase-to-phase, single-phase circuit extension without escalating
to a three-phase fault.
System Grounding 243

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 7.8
(a) Corner delta grounded system and (b) midpoint grounded delta grounded system.

The NEC Table 430–37 requires that for a three-phase system three overloads are used,
one in each phase for motor protection. The control circuit for motor starting has to be
carefully designed, so that a ground fault in it does not automatically start or stop a motor.
Some advantages of the system are low cost of establishing a grounded system, the
effective control of transient overvoltages, though a maximum of 1.73 times the normal
phase-to-ground voltage can exist between two conductors and ground, and a fault from
phase-to-ground can be easily detected.
One phase of a delta system can be grounded at the midpoint, see Figure 7.8b. The sys-
tem is not recommended for voltages above 240 V. Serious arc flash hazard from a phase-
to-ground fault can exist because of high fault levels [2]. Grounding of one phase of a delta
system at midpoint of that phase for three-phase systems with phase-to-phase voltages
over 240 V has little application. The shock hazard of the high phase leg to ground is 1.73
times the voltage from the other two phases. These systems are no longer in use.
Note that mostly molded case circuit breakers (MCCBs) are suitable for high-resistance
grounded systems, but all MCCBs may not be suitable for corner-grounded systems.

7.9 Artificially Derived Neutrals

Many times, it is required to ground delta-connected transformer windings and other
ungrounded separately derived systems. A neutral can be artificially derived in a delta-
connected system with zigzag transformer or a wye–delta connected grounding trans-
former. Figure 7.9a shows a zigzag transformer. Windings a1 and a2 are on the same limb and
have the same number of turns, but are wound in opposite directions. The zero-sequence
currents in the two windings on the same limb have, therefore, canceling ampere-turn
effect. The impedance to the zero-sequence currents is due to leakage flux of the windings.
For the positive- and negative-sequence currents, neglecting magnetizing currents, the con-
nection has infinite impedance. Figure 7.9b shows the distribution of zero-sequence cur-
rents on a ground fault ahead of a zigzag transformer. A wye–delta grounding transformer
244 Power Systems Protective Relaying

(a)

a1 b1 C1

Current

a2 mmf
b2 C2

(b) H1 X1
l0
Load
H2
0 H3 X3 X2 3l0

2I0

l0
l0 l0
3l0

R
3l0

FIGURE 7.9
(a) Flow of ground fault current in the windings of a zigzag transformer. (b) Application of a zigzag transformer
to derive an artificial neutral and current flows for a downstream fault.

circuit can be similarly drawn. The neutrals of large utility generators directly connected to
the step-up transformers generator step up (GSUs) are not directly connected to the ground
through a high resistance but through a distribution transformer which is loaded on the
secondary windings with a grounding resistor. An example will clarify the calculations.

Example 7.3
See Example 5.3 in Volume 1. This conveys important concepts for sizing of the ground-
ing resistor in HRG or low-resistance grounded (LRG) systems.
This example showed that all the sequence impedances, including that of the ground-
ing transformer, can be ignored without an appreciable error in sizing the grounding
resistor. The reason is that all system sequence impedances are much lower than the
grounding resistor zero-sequence impedance.
System Grounding 245

7.10 Multiple Grounded Systems

Figure 7.10 shows typical grounding practice for wye service entrance served by a wye
multiple grounded medium-voltage system in North America. Note the multiple grounds
of the neutral conductor (PEN—protected neutral). The practice of grounding of com-
mercial and residential facilities in the United States requires that the neutral conductor
is bonded to the ground conductor at the service entrance, and both are bonded to the
building ground. There cannot be N-G surge at the service entrance. However, L-N surges
within the building can produce N-G surges at the end of a branch circuit.
Further implications of multiple grounded distribution systems are shown in Figure
7.11. The National Electric Safety Code (NESC) [14] requires that the neutral on multiple
grounded-wye distribution systems have a minimum of four earth connections per mile.

Facility
Transformer case Transformer case Meter service entrance
3-Phase
4-wire loads
MV LV
HV

PEN PEN N
PE
Neutral to PE bond
NEC bonding jumper

Only one per site

Multiple grounds when co-located

FIGURE 7.10
Typical grounding practice for a wye-service entrance, served by a multiple grounded system in North America.

L Consumer load

L
L
Utility transformer
L–CG–UG4–UG3–UG2 L–CG–UG4–UG3 L–CG–UG4 L–CG

CG
UG1 UG2
UG3 UG4

CG+UG2+UG3+UG4

Substation ground

FIGURE 7.11
Distribution of load currents in phase and neutral/ground conductor in multiple grounded system; the ground/
neutral conductor develops differential voltages.
246 Power Systems Protective Relaying

Facility
Transformer case Meter service entrance
3-phase
4-wire loads
HV MV

N
Insulated neutral
carried only for 4-wire service
(low-voltage)

Utility ground grid Facility ground grid

Ground connections
see text

FIGURE 7.12
Typical grounding practice in industrial distribution systems; the transformer neutral is grounded only at the
source in North American systems.

This also applies to direct buried underground cables. The voltage between neutral and
earth can originate from variety of sources. A 60 Hz voltage can exist between objects con-
nected to neutral and earth. A short-duration transient can exist, when the lightning cur-
rent is dissipated into the earth. A differential voltage between the neutral and the ground
is more likely to occur when the same service transformer feeds two or more consumers.
Figure 7.12 illustrates the grounding practice for industrial establishments. Here, the
neutral is grounded only at one point, which is at the source. This figure shows that
the neutral from the utility transformer is not required to be run for industrial plant
medium-voltage three-phase loads. In case the industrial plant needs some loads like
lighting and controls to be served from low-voltage grounded systems, these lower volt-
ages are served from a separate transformer with artificially derived neutral. In case
the service is at low voltage, a neutral may be run to supply phase-to-neutral loads, but
it is not grounded anywhere in the plant except at the service transformer. There is no
bonding of neutral conductor with the ground at the service entrance, a practice which
is invariably followed for industrial medium- or high-voltage grounded systems or sepa-
rately derived industrial systems.

7.10.1 Equivalent Circuit of Multiple Grounded Systems

Figure 7.11 of a multiple grounded system shows that the grounds at various points can-
not be at the same potential. This figure shows the current flow in the multiple grounded
neutral under normal operation. The load current flows through line-to-neutral, but as the
neutral is grounded at the consumer premises (ground CG) and also at multiple points the
neutral current returns to the utility transformer through multiple paths, and the sharing
of current depends upon the relative impedances on the grounding circuit. An equivalent
impedance diagram is shown in Figure 7.13. The system may be analyzed using symmetri-
cal components or equivalent circuit concepts. The line may pass through a region of high
soil resistivity; each grounding point can be modeled individually along with the section
of the feeder separating it from the adjacent grounds.
System Grounding 247

IF

IN

4 6 8 10 n–4 n–2 Ref. Node

2 ZN1 ZN2 ZN3 ZN4 ZN (n–4)/2 ZN (n–2)/2

RS RG1 RG2 RG3 RG4 RG (n–6)/2 RG (n–4)/2 RG (n–2)/2 ZT

ZE (n-2)/2
n–1
1 ZE1 ZE2 ZE3 ZE4 ZE (n–4)/2 ZE (n–2)/2
3 5 7 9 n–5 n–3

IE

FIGURE 7.13
An equivalent circuit diagram of a multiple grounded system for a line-to-ground fault at remote node.

7.11 NEC and NESC Requirements

The NEC [5] article 250.106 requires that lightning protection system ground terminals
shall be bonded to the building or structure electrode system (so that the potential dif-
ferential between these is minimized). Further NEC articles mandate that electrical
equipment is bonded and connected in a manner to establish a path of sufficiently low
impedance. Where the ground resistance of a single ground electrode exceeds 25 Ω, addi-
tional ground rods are mandated to lower the resistance to 25 Ω. This value of 25 Ω in the
NEC is too high; an ideal ground should provide a near zero resistance between bonded
components and the ground electrode of the facility to limit ground potential rise on a
surge current. With the grounding resistance of 25  Ω allowed by the NEC, high surge
currents will produce high ground potential rise, which can damage the surge protection
devices.
Consider the dissipation of a lightning surge near the distribution system. If the light-
ning current is not effectively dissipated through the arrester, the result can be flashover
of the insulation and impinging the surge on the consumer apparatus. A surge voltage
will appear on the neutral conductor and the consumer premises as the neutral is bonded
to the consumer ground. This surge voltage will depend upon a number of factors—the
downward lead length, the resistance of the grounding electrodes, and the surge imped-
ances of the various paths. Generally, it may not be detrimental to the premises, especially
when the recommendations of surge protection of low-voltage systems and the category
of installations are followed; however, a possibility of flashover cannot be ruled out. The
grounding of underground cable distribution is more important, in the sense that lightning
surges and wave fronts may double on cables. The voltage is reduced by close ­connection
of the surge arrester to the cable terminations.
It may be necessary to state here the grounding and bonding requirements laid down in
the NESC and the NEC.
248 Power Systems Protective Relaying

• The NESC requires grounded items on joint poles (e.g., for power and communi-
cation) to be bonded together either using single grounding conductor or bond-
ing the supply grounding conductor to the communication grounding conductor,
except where a certain separation is maintained (Rule 97A), in which case there
should be insulation between the grounding conductors. A hazardous potential
difference can exist between the two conductors. Rule 215C3 requires bonding
between messengers at typically four times per mile.
• It is required that a common ground electrode system should be created by the
two utilities for the communication and power supply systems. If separate elec-
trode systems are used, these should be bonded together with a minimum #6
AWG conductor. This is to ensure that dangerous potentials do not exist between
the two grounding systems. A user of computer modem, fax machine, answering
machines, and other communication equipment could be exposed to an electrical
shock apart from damage to the equipment.
• The NEC (250.24(A)(5)) prohibits bonding of the equipment grounding conductor
and neutral inside the premises. Note that the neutral will carry a current and a
difference of potential exists between the neutral and the ground conductor. Again,
bonding is required to metal water pipes, which limits the possibility of a potential
difference between the water system and other noncurrent carrying parts within
the building. (A coupling can occur through soil resistivity.) It is prohibited using
interior metal water piping system located more than 5 in. from the entrance to the
building from being used to interconnect grounding electrodes within the building.

7.12 Hybrid Grounding System for Industrial

Bus-Connected Generators
Louie Powell [15] investigated a number of industrial bus-connected generator failures.
He considered the basic configuration as shown in Figure 7.14. The generator operates in
synchronism with the utility source through a transformer. Consider a fault in the stator
windings. The energy released into the fault can be written as

E= ∫ i dt
k
(7.10)

The value of k varies from 1 to 2, and for a purely resistive circuit, this value is 2.
Note that the source and the generator are both grounded through 400 A resistors which
have been a common industrial practice.
Considering fast relaying, the source current of 400 A is interrupted in six cycles, which
is the sum of relay operating time of one cycle (assumption) and interrupting time of
breaker which is equal to five cycles.
The curves in Figure 7.15 show the damage indices. Figure 7.15a shows the energy with
respect to the magnitude of the fault current and Figure 7.15b shows the energy accumula-
tion. These figures show the energy associated with the source current.
In six cycles, the generator breaker is tripped; however, the energy to the fault is not inter-
rupted. It continues to be fed for a relatively higher time as the generator current decays
slowly in about 0.8–1 s, depending on the generator single-line-to-ground fault constant.
System Grounding 249

400 A

400 A
52 52

13.8 kV bus

FIGURE 7.14
A typical grounding system, the transformer and generator are each grounded through a 400 A resistor.

Figure 7.15c shows this energy accumulation. Therefore, in 1 s, the energy into the fault is
approximately six times the energy released by the source fault current.
In this scenario, no neutral breaker is considered. A neutral breaker is often provided and tripped
simultaneously with the line breaker for faults such as differential phase and ground and also ground
faults. If the neutral breaker is present, it will limit the energy into the fault to a much lower value.
This has been studied by other authors.
The IEEE/IAS working group published four papers in IEEE Transactions on Industry
Applications, which are referenced in [16].
The concept of hybrid grounding is illustrated in Figure 7.16. For industrial bus-
connected generators, selective ground fault protection is required, and the generators
cannot be simply grounded through a 10 or 8 A resistor. The generators are generally the
last to trip on an external ground fault and the other system protection must operate faster
to clear the fault. This cannot be achieved if the industrial generators are high-resistance
grounded like the utility unit-connected generators.
In Figure 7.16, the low-resistance section of 400 A is connected through a neutral breaker.
The neutral breaker is tripped simultaneously with the main line breaker. After the neutral
breaker is tripped, the high-resistance ground section through 8 A remains connected and
limits the fault energy. The low-resistance grounded section provides ground fault coordi-
nation with the rest of the system. See Chapter 8 for an example of ground fault relaying.

7.13 Grounding of ASDs
A brief reference can be made to the grounding of variable speed drives (VSD) systems,
where special considerations apply. Consider a three-phase six-pulse bridge rectifier circuit
in Figure 7.17. Only two phases conduct at a time, and the dc plus and negative voltages
to midpoint are shown. These voltages do not add to zero and the midpoint oscillates at
thrice the ac supply system frequency. The dc positive and negative buses have common-
mode voltages and its magnitude changes with the firing angle. The peak of the voltage is
approximately 0.5 Vln, where Vln is the peak line-to-neutral point input voltage.
Consider common-mode voltages on the motor isolated neutral to ground of a 4160 V drive
system gate turn-off (GTO) inverter. The peak line-to-ground Vl−g voltage is 4100 V and the
250 Power Systems Protective Relaying

(a)

1000

750

Fault energy W s
500

250

0 100 200 300 400

Current (A)

(b)
1000

750
Fault energy W s

500

250

0
0.01 0.1 1.0 10
Current (A)

(c)
10,000

7,500

5,000
Fault energy W s

2,500

0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1.0 10
Current (A)

FIGURE 7.15
(a and b) Fault energy for the system source fault and (c) fault energy for the generator fault through the neutral
connection.
System Grounding 251

400 A
52

8A

400 A
52 52

13.8 kV bus

FIGURE 7.16
Hybrid grounding system for the generator, see the text.

DC+

C
C
M2
R
A N
M M1 A

R M3
B
B

DC–

DC+
V1n peak

DC–

1 2
Cycles

FIGURE 7.17
Generation of common-mode voltages in a six-pulse converter.
252 Power Systems Protective Relaying

waveform has a frequency of 60 Hz. The peak neutral-to-ground voltage is 2500 V and has
a frequency of 180 Hz. The operation of the output bridge creates a common-mode voltage
by exactly the same mechanism as the input bridge does, where the back EMF of the motor
is analogous to the line voltage.
Thus, the worst case condition for the common-mode voltage is no-load, full-speed
­operation, as the phase-back angle is 90° for both the converters, and the motor volt-
age is essentially equal to the line voltage. The sum of both common-mode voltages is
approximately Vln at six times the input frequency. Since the input and output frequencies
are generally different, the motor experiences a waveform with beat frequencies of both
input and output frequencies and there will be instances when twice the rated voltage is
­experienced, see Reference [17].
The grounding must assure that the motor insulation system is not stressed beyond its
design level. Figure 7.18 shows three possible methods. Figure 7.18a shows an output drive
isolation transformer with its secondary grounded. The transformer primary winding
insulation can tolerate the common-mode voltage swings better than the motor insulation.
This option is tricky as the drive isolation transformer is subjected to residual dc offset in
the drive and high harmonic content passing through the transformer windings. A better
location for the drive isolation transformer will be at the input line end (Figure 7.18b), and
the secondary winding is left ungrounded. The neutral of the filter capacitors on the out-
put of the inverter provides a convenient place to ground the load side of the inverter and
a small resistor rated 1 A or so is enough to do it. The line-to-neutral voltages must, then,
be taken into account for the insulation of the secondary of the transformer. Also the cables
forming the transformer secondary to the input rectifier bridge must be rated for higher
voltage to ground, for example, for a 4.16 kV drive system, cables with 173% insulation level
will be required; alternatively, 8 kV cables can be used.
An input or output drive transformer increases the cost and reduces the efficiency of the
drive system. In a transformerless GTO drive system, a line reactor may be used on the
input side to affect commutation notches, but the motor insulation must withstand twice
the normal voltage stress to ground, see Figure 7.18c.
(a)
M

Grounded Grounded transformers sec.

source Common mode voltage across
transformer primary
(b)
M

Drive isolation
transformer Common mode voltage across
transformers sec.

(c)
M
Common mode voltage
Liner reactor across motor

FIGURE 7.18
(a) Isolation transformer with grounded secondary to withstand common-mode voltage. (b) Drive transformer
at input, common-mode voltage across secondary of the transformer. (c) Input line reactor, common-mode volt-
age across drive motor windings.
System Grounding 253

7.14 Grounding in Mine Installations

Figure 7.19 is extracted from IEEE Standard 141, and illustrated the general features of
grounding in mine installations. Adequate grounding has been a difficult problem [2] in
the mining industries. Hazards associated with ground faults are amplified by the portable
and mobile nature of the equipment, and system and equipment grounding are interrelated.

Substation
Ground-fault
protection
Power 51 G Outgoing circuit
transformer to mine
52
Surge
Incoming arresters
Power conductors
power
conductors To station Pilot conductor
Surge Control ground
arresters Y Grounding conductor
transformer
95
Grounding Ground
59N
resistor check
Backup
monitoring
To fencing ground-
and fault
Protection Portable switchhouse Incoming
substation
metal Grounding conductor coupler
structures Station
ground Pilot conductor
Frame
ground Surge
Ground beds separated arresters

Control
trans-
former 52 52
50 G or
Ground- 50 G 51 G
check
monitoring
Ground-
95 fault
Portable power center protection
95
Ground-fault Control
protection transformer
Out-going 50 G To control
couplers circuitry Outgoing
52 couplers
To other Power
portable As transformer
equipment below Incoming
50 G
coupler To other
Portable power cable
switch houses
To other 52 52
or power centers
portable As Surge
equipment below ∆ arresters
50 G
Grounding conductor

52
Pilot conductor

Grounding
Ground- resistor
check
monitoring
95

Frame ground

Equipment
training Mobile mining equipment
cable
To machine power circuits
Pilot conductor
Grounding conductor

Frame ground

FIGURE 7.19
A simplified mine power distribution system with a safety grounded system, see the text. (IEEE Standard 142,
IEEE Recommended Practice for Grounding of Industrial and Commercial Power Systems, 1991.)
254 Power Systems Protective Relaying

A surface mining can have a substantial power demand of 18,000 hp or more, at potentials up

to 25 kV or greater. The power demand of an underground mining machine can exceed 1100
hp at potentials up to 4160 V. In Figure 7.19, substations transform the incoming utility power
to distribution level. In surface mines, large utilization equipment, such as continuous min-
ers, longwalls, load hauling-dump units, etc., are powered at distribution voltage, and a trail-
ing cable completes the power circuit from switch house to the machine. Mine distribution is
always radial and OH lies or cables are used to supply power houses (portable switchgear).
The recommended grounding techniques for these portable or mobile equipment are
a safety ground system that employs resistance grounding. The substation contains two
separate beds maintained some distance apart. Substation surge arresters, fencing, and
equipment frames are tied to the system ground bed under the substation area. The sub-
station transformer is either delta–wye, wye–delta, or delta–delta connected, wye–wye
connection is not recommended. The secondary neutral direct or derived is connected to
safety ground bed through neutral grounding resistor.
Separation between safety and system ground is needed to isolate high ground volt-
age rise (a temporary rise of 5 kV or more is not unusual). A resistance of 5 Ω or less is
recommended. A much larger separation is required to provide the required isolation, the
design of these ground beds is complex, and many variables must be examined to obtain
an acceptable configuration.
Note that the two ground systems will be coupled together through the soil, depending
upon soil resistivity and the separation between the beds. IEEE Standard 367 [18] contains
important information about ground bed separation.
At each transformation step, within the distribution system, such as in a portable power
center, an additional neutral is established at the transformer secondary, and tied through
a grounding resistor to the equipment frame and, thus, via the grounding conductors to
the safety ground bed.
Because of considerable cable lengths, the stray capacitance current to ground is higher
than in HR grounded systems. Most substations serving mines use a 25 A ground current
limit, but typical practice is 15 A.
Correct selection and coordination of the protective circuitry are essential to the safety
ground system. In Figure 7.19 all phase overcurrent devices are omitted for clarity. In order
that the safety ground system is effective, grounding conductors must be continuous and
ground-check monitors (relays) are used to verify continuity. Pilot conductors are shown
with monitoring, but these are not needed when pilotless relays are employed. All the sen-
sors operate to trip the associated circuit breaker and remove power on the effected segment.

References
1. ANSI/IEEE Std. 80. IEEE Guide for Safety in Substation Grounding, 2000.
2. IEEE Standard 142. IEEE Recommended Practice for Grounding of Industrial and Commercial
Power Systems, 1991.
3. HI Stanback. Predicting damage from 277 volt single phase to ground arcing faults. IEEE
Transactions on Industry Applications vol. IA-13, no. 4, pp. 307–314, July/August, 1977.
4. NEMA PB1-2. Application Guide for Ground Fault Protective Devices for Equipment, 1977.
5. NEC National Electrical Code, NFPA 70, 2017.
6. JR Dunki-Jacobs. The escalating arcing ground fault phenomenon. IEEE Transaction on Industry
Applications vol. 22, no. 6, pp. 1156–1161, November 1986.
System Grounding 255

7. DG Lucks. Calculating incident energy released with varying ground fault magnitudes on
solidly grounded systems. IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications vol. 46, no. 2, pp. 761–769,
March/April 2010.
8. HB Land, III. The behavior of arcing faults in low-voltage switchboards. IEEE Transactions on
Industry Applications vol. 44, no. 2, pp. 437–444, March/April, 2008.
9. IEEE Std. 493 (Gold Book). Recommended Practice for Design of Reliable Industrial and
Commercial Power System, 2007.
10. Westinghouse. Transmission and Distribution Handbook. Westinghouse, East Pittsburg, PA, 1964.
11. DS Baker. Charging current data for guess-free design of high-resistance grounded systems.
IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 136–140, March/April 1979.
12. GE Industrial Power Systems Data Book, GE, Schenectady, New York.
13. JR Dunki-Jacobs. The reality of high-resistance grounding. IEEE Transactions on Industry
Applications vol. 13, pp. 469–475, September/October 1977.
14. National Electrical Safety Code, C-2.
15. LJ Powell. The impact of system grounding practices on generator fault damage. IEEE
Transactions on Industry Applications vol. 34, no. 5, pp. 923–927, September/October 1998.
16. IEEE/IAS Working Group Report. Grounding and ground fault protection of multiple genera-
tor installations on medium voltage industrial and commercial power systems. Parts I, II, III and
IV, IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications vol. 40, no. 1, pp. 11–28, January/February 2004.
17. JC Das, H Osman. Grounding of AC and DC low-voltage and medium-voltage drive systems.
IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications vol. 34, no. 1. pp. 295–216, January/February 1998.
18. ANSI/IEEE Std. 367-1987. IEEE Recommended Practice for Determining the Electrical Power
Station Ground Potential Rise and Induced Voltages form a Power Fault.