06-09-2019

COMPRESSIBLE FLUID
FLOW
MODULE 2
ISENTROPIC FLOW
ISENTROPIC PROCESS vs ADIABATIC PROCESS
EFFECT OF AREA VARIATION

Reference Books
• S. M. Yahya, Fundamentals of Compressible Flow with Aircraft
and Rocket Propulsion, New Age International Publishers.

• M. J. Zucrow & J. D. Hoffman, Gas Dynamics (Volume I), Wiley

India Pvt. Ltd.

• P. Balachandran, Fundamentals of Compressible Fluid

Dynamics, PHI Pvt. Ltd.

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Isentropic Flow
• Driving potential responsible for changing the state of the flowing
fluid in a steady one dimensional compressible flow:
– Friction  Adiabatic flow – Fanno flow

– Heat transfer  Diabatic flow – Rayleigh flow

– Mass addition

– Area change

• Steady state one dimensional flows where in friction, heat transfer

and body forces are negligible and the sole driving potential
responsible for the variations in the flow properties is area
change of the flow passage  Isentropic flow

Isentropic process
• Representation of thermodynamic
coordinates in h-s plane is called
Mollier diagram.

• The locus of all state points along a

isentropic flow path is called
isentropic locus (vertical line).

• It is specified by the condition;

– s = constant

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Isentropic process
• Consider a process between states 1
& 2 for isentropic process

T01 = T02
P01 = P02

Comparison of Isentropic and

Adiabatic processes
• Consider a process between states 1
& 2 for the same pressure levels p1
and p2.

• By energy equation:
1
h0  h  c 2
2
• For any state (say state 1);
– Upper limit of enthalpy:
» Enthalpy corresponding to
stagnation condition
– Lower limit of enthalpy:
» Zero enthalpy

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Comparison of Isentropic and

Adiabatic processes
• Let 2s be the final state
corresponding to isentropic flow
and 2a be that for adiabatic flow.

T2 a  T2 s
v2 a  v2 s
p02 a  p02 s
1 2 1 2
c2 a  c2 s
2 2

a* γRT * T*
Reference Velocities of a0

γRT0

T0
Compressible Flow T0  T0  γ 1
*
  
T  T  M 1 2
– Dimensionless Velocity (c/a0) in terms
2 γ 1
of M M  *
 M2
 γ 1 2 
2 1  M 
 2 
2 2
*
 c  * 2 a 
    M    
 a0   a0 
γ 1  2 
=M2  
 γ 1 2   γ 1 
2 1  M 
 2 
M2

 γ 1 2 
1  M 
 2 

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Effect of Area variation on Flow

properties
• Consider a control volume in a steady isentropic flow of a fluid
through a passage of varying cross section.

• Let the control volume considered be an infinitesimal one such that

the variation in flow area and the corresponding flow parameters are
of infinitesimal magnitude.

Effect of Area variation on Flow

properties
• By continuity equation;
m  ρAc  cons tant

• Taking logarithms;
ln  ρ   ln  A  ln  c   cons tan t

• Differentiating;
dρ dA dc
  0
ρ A c
 dρ dA 
dc  c    (1)
 ρ A

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Effect of Area variation on Flow

properties
• By isentropic energy equation;
1
h  c 2  h0
2
• Differentiating;
dh  cdc  0 (2)
dp
• As dh  Tds  vdp  Tds  , and ds = 0;
ρ
dp
dh  (3)
ρ

• Substituting (3) in (2);

dp   ρcdc (4)

Effect of Area variation on Flow

properties
• Substituting value for dc in (4) yields;

 dρ dA 
dp  ρc 2    (5)
 ρ A

dp  dρ dA 
  
ρc 2  ρ A
dA dp dρ dp  dρ ρc 2 
   1   
A ρc 2 ρ ρc 2  ρ dp 
dp  dρ  dp  c 2  dA dp
= 2 1  c 2  1    = 2 1  M 2 
ρc  dp  ρc 2  a 2  A ρc

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Effect of Area variation on Flow

properties
• Effect of differential change in area with

– Differential change in pressure;

dA dp
= 2 1  M 2 
A ρc
– Differential change in velocity;

dA dc
=  M 2  1
A c
– Differential change in density;
dA dρ 1  M 2
= 
A ρ M2

Flow Expansion - Nozzle

• Nozzle - A device employed in flow passage to gain velocity increase at
the expense of pressure (implies the pressure should decrease)

 dp  ve
• Case I: Subsonic flow (M< 1)
Negative

dA dp Flow area has to decrease in

=
A ρc 2
1  M 2  Negative
the direction of flow

Positive M
dA Less than 1.0 Greater than 1.0
dA < 0 dM > 0
dA > 0

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Flow Expansion - Nozzle

• Nozzle - A device employed in flow passage to gain velocity increase at
the expense of pressure (implies the pressure should decrease)

 dp  ve
• Case II: Supersonic flow (M > 1)
Negative

dA dp
=
A ρc 2
1  M 2  Positive
Flow area has to increase in
the direction of flow

Negative M
dA Less than 1.0 Greater than 1.0
dA < 0 dM > 0
dA > 0 dM > 0

Flow Compression - Diffuser

• Diffuser - A device employed in flow passage to gain pressure increase
at the expense of velocity (implies the pressure should increase)

 dp   ve
• Case I: Subsonic flow (M< 1)
Positive

dA dp Flow area has to increase in

=
A ρc 2
1  M 2  Positive
the direction of flow

Positive M
dA Less than 1.0 Greater than 1.0
dA < 0 dM > 0
dA > 0 dM < 0 dM > 0

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Flow Compression - Diffuser

• Diffuser - A device employed in flow passage to gain pressure increase
at the expense of velocity (implies the pressure should increase)

 dp   ve
• Case II: Supersonic flow (M > 1)
Positive

dA dp Flow area has to decrease in

= 2 1  M 2  Negative
the direction of flow
A ρc

Negative M
dA Less than 1.0 Greater than 1.0
dA < 0 dM > 0 dM < 0
dA > 0 dM < 0 dM > 0

Flow Expansion - Nozzle

• Nozzle - A device employed in flow passage to gain velocity increase at
the expense of pressure (implies the pressure should decrease)

 dp  ve
• Case II: Sonic (M = 1)
Negative

dA dp
=
A ρc 2
1  M 2  Zero No change in area

Zero

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Flow Compression - Diffuser

• Diffuser - A device employed in flow passage to gain pressure increase
at the expense of velocity (implies the pressure should increase)

 dp   ve
• Case III: Sonic flow (M = 1)
Positive

dA dp
= 2 1  M 2  Zero No change in area
A ρc

Zero

dA dp
Choking =
A ρc 2
1  M 2 

• Can a sonic flow continue in a converging passage?

i. Assuming that M will decrease

» Contradictory

M
dA Less than 1.0 Greater than 1.0
dA < 0 dM > 0 dM < 0
dA > 0 dM < 0 dM > 0

ii. Assuming that M will increase

» Contradictory

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Choking
• For a flow in a converging passage, the Mach number continuously
changes towards the value M = 1 for either a subsonic or a supersonic
flow.
• When the Mach number M = 1, no Throat
further decrease in area is possible
without violating the governing equation
for steady one dimensional isentropic
flow, and the flow is said to be choked.

• If a convergent divergent passage is considered, the Mach number at the

minimum area portion (throat) will have M = 1.

Choking
• To ensure the Mach number at throat is unity, mass flow rate must be
sufficiently high.

• Hence, when the mach number reaches unity at the throat, the device
allows the maximum mass flux it can pass.

• Therefore, a choked flow represents the maximum mass flow rate for a
given set of initial conditions, that can pass through a given throat.

• The flow parameters at the throat under choking condition becomes

critical properties.

• For a compressible flow to expand from subsonic to supersonic speed,

it must pass through a converging diverging duct.

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Problems
1. The pressure, temperature and Mach number at the entry of a flow
passage are 2.45 bar, 26.5°C and 1.4 respectively. If the exit Mach
number is 2.5 determine for adiabatic flow of a perfect gas (γ = 1.3, R =
0.469 kJ/kgK):

(i) Stagnation temperature,

(ii) Temperature and velocity of gas at exit, and

(iii) The flow rate per square per metre of the inlet cross-section.

Problems
1. The pressure, temperature and Mach number at the entry of a flow
passage are 2.45 bar, 26.5°C and 1.4 respectively. If the exit Mach
number is 2.5 determine for adiabatic flow of a perfect gas (γ = 1.3, R =
0.469 kJ/kgK):

(i) Stagnation temperature,

(ii) Temperature and velocity of gas at exit, and

(iii) The flow rate per square per metre of the inlet cross-section.
T01 = T02 = 387.45 K
T2 = 199.92 K
c2 = 872.82 m/s
m/A1 = 1043.5 kg/s.m2

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Variation of flow parameters in

isentropic flow

Mach Nozzles Diffusers

Number
(M) A p c A p c

M<1 Decreases Decreases Increases Increases Increases Decreases

M=1 A* p* c* = a* A* p* c* = a*

M>1 Increases Decreases Increases Decreases Increases Decreases

Critical states in Isentropic flow

T0 γ 1 2 T* 2
 1 M   0.833
T 2 T0 γ  1
γ γ 1 γ  γ 1
P0  γ  1 2  P*  2 
 1  M    0.528
P  2  P0  γ  1 
1 γ 1 1  γ 1
ρ0  γ  1 2  ρ*  2 
 1  M    0.634
ρ  2  ρ0  γ  1 

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Area Ratio in terms of Mach Number

A
• Area Ratio=
A*
• This dimensionless parameter relates area at any section to the area
at the reference section.

• For a particular fluid, the flow Mach number at any section depends
only on the area ratio.

γ 1
2  γ 1
A 1  2 γ 1 2 
   M 
A* M  γ  1 γ  1 

Area Ratio in terms of Mach Number

γ 1
2  γ 1
• A 1  2 γ 1 2 
   M 
A* M  γ  1 γ  1 

• From Continuity equation;

ρAc  ρ* A* c*
A ρ* c*
 
A* ρ c
1
c* a* 1 1  2 γ 1 2  2
  *    M 
c c M M  γ 1 γ 1 
1
ρ*  2 γ 1 2  γ 1
  M 
ρ  γ 1 γ 1 

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Impulse Function or Wall force

function
• Impulse function of a stream is defined as the sum of pressure force
and the momentum force. p 2
ρc 2  c
RT
F  pA  ρAc 2 =
γp 2
c  γpM 2
F  pA  γpAM 2  pA( 1  γM 2 ) γRT

• The function is highly useful for calculating the thrust force of

propulsive devices.

• In the absence of body forces and shear surface forces, this function
is a constant at any section.

Impulse Function or Wall force

function
• The thrust exerted by the fluid due to its flow between two sections
of a duct can be obtained by the change of the impulse function
between these sections

• By momentum equation, the thrust can be calculated as;

τ  p2 A2 1  γM 22   p1 A1 1  γM 12 

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Impulse Function or Wall force

function
• Relation between non-dimensional impulse function and Mach
number:

• At M = 1, F = F*

 F *  p* A* 1  γ  F  pA  γpAM 2

F pA 1  γM 2  p A 1  γM 
2

 * *  * *
F* p A 1  γ  p A 1  γM 2 
1  γM 2
=
 γ 1 2 
M 2 1  γ  1  M 
 2 

Mass Flow Rate

• Mass Flow per unit Area in terms of Mach Number:

• From Continuity equation;

m  ρAc
m pc γpc
 ρc  
A RT γRT
γpc γ p
=   M
γRT  γRT R T

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Mass Flow Rate

• Mass Flow per unit Area in terms of Mach Number:

• In terms of reference conditions (stagnation conditions);

m γ p γ p T p
  M    0  0 M
A R T R p0 T T0
γ 1
m γ p0  γ 1 2  2 1 γ 
  M  1  M 
A R T0  2 

• For a given local Mach Number, the mass flux is proportional to

stagnation pressure and inversely proportional to square root of
stagnation temperature

γ 1
m γ p0  γ 1 2  2 1 γ 
  M  1  M 
A R T0  2 
Mass Flow Rate
• Mass Flow per unit Area in terms of Mach Number:

• Mass flow per unit area will be maximum at the section where
the flow area is minimum

• Mach number corresponding to Maximum mass flow rate per

unit area:
d  m 
 0  M=  1
dM  A 
γ 1
 m  m γ p0  γ  1  2 1 γ 
   *    
 A max A R T0  2 

• For a given gas, maximum flow per unit area depends only on
the stagnation conditions

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Mass Flow Rate

• Numerical value of the non dimensional maximum mass flow
parameter: γ 1
m γ p0  γ 1 21 γ 
   
A* R T0  2 
γ 1
m T γ  γ 1 21 γ 

*
 0   
A p0 R  2 

• Substituting γ = 1.4 and R = 287 J/kgK;

m T
*
 0  0.0404  Fleigners Equation
A p0

Problems
2. The stagnation pressure and temperature at inlet of a particular nozzle
are 0.7MPa and 77°C. Assuming reversible adiabatic flow through the
nozzle, determine the mass flow rate for a throat area of 4.5cm2. What
should be the outlet area of the nozzle, if the expansion is carried upto
0.1 MPa?

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Problems
2. The stagnation pressure and temperature at inlet of a particular nozzle
are 0.7MPa and 77°C.Assuming reversible adiabatic flow through the
nozzle, determine the mass flow rate for a throat area of 4.5cm2. What
should be the outlet area of the nozzle, if the expansion is carried upto
0.1 MPa?

A2 = 7.17 x 10-4 m2
m = 0.68 kg/s

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Homework
• Mass Flow per unit Area in terms of Pressure Ratio

Mass Flow Rate

• Mass Flow per unit Area in terms of Pressure Ratio:

• From Continuity equation;

m
 ρc
A

• Steady flow energy equation;

c2
h0  h 
2
c 2  2  h0  h   2C p T0  T 
γ γ  T 
=2 R T0  T   2 RT0 1  
γ 1 γ 1  T0 

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Mass Flow Rate

• Mass Flow per unit Area in terms of Pressure Ratio:
γ
2 γ  T  T0  p0  γ 1
c 2 RT0 1    
γ 1  T0  T  p 
1
γ 1 2
  γ 
 γ   p 
c 2 RT0 1    
 γ  1
  p0   
 
1
γ 1 2
  
m  γ   p 
γ

 ρ 2 RT0 1    
A  γ  1
  p0   
 

Mass Flow Rate

• Mass Flow per unit Area in terms of Pressure Ratio:

m
 ρc
A

m ρ
 ρ0 c
A ρ0
1
γ 1 2
1
γ   γ 
p  p   γ   p  
 0    2 RT0 1    
RT0  p0   γ  1
  p0   
 

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Mass Flow Rate

• Mass Flow per unit Area in terms of Pressure Ratio:

1
γ 1 2
 2  
m p0  γ  p  γ   p
γ

  2   1    
A RT0  γ  1  p0    p0   
 
1
γ 1 2
  2 
m p0  γ  p  γ  p  γ 
=  2       
A RT0  γ  1  p0   p0   
  

Flow characteristics in a Convergent

Nozzle

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Flow characteristics in a De-Laval

Nozzle

15
12

11

10

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Problems
3. The pressure, velocity and temperature of the air at the entry to a nozzle
are 200kPa, 145m/s and 330K.The exit pressure is 150kPa. What is the
shape of the nozzle? Determine the Mach number at the entry and exit,
the flow rate per unit area and the maximum possible flow per unit area,
assuming the flow to be isentropic.

Problems
3. The pressure, velocity and temperature of the air at the entry to a nozzle
are 200kPa, 145m/s and 330K.The exit pressure is 150kPa. What is the
shape of the nozzle? Determine the Mach number at the entry and exit,
the flow rate per unit area and the maximum possible flow per unit area,
assuming the flow to be isentropic.

Convergent
M1 = 0.4
M2 = 0.78
m/A = 306.2 kg/s.m2
m/A* = 488.41 kg/s.m2

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Problems
4. A conical diffuser has entry and exit dimensions of 15 cm and 30 cm
respectively. The pressure, temperature and velocity of air at entry are
0.69 bar, 340 K and 180 m/s respectively. Determine:

- Exit pressure

- Exit velocity

- Force exerted on the diffuser walls.

Assume isentropic flow, γ = 1.4, cp = 1.00 kJ/kgK

Problems
4. A conical diffuser has entry and exit dimensions of 15 cm and 30 cm
respectively. The pressure, temperature and velocity of air at entry are
0.69 bar, 340 K and 180 m/s respectively. Determine:

- Exit pressure

- Exit velocity

- Force exerted on the diffuser walls.

Assume isentropic flow, γ = 1.4, cp = 1.00 kJ/kgK

p2 = 0.807 bar
c2 = 40.36 m/s
τ = 4186.22 N

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