General Self-Efficacy and Control in

Relation to Anxiety and Cognitive

Performance
NORMAN S. ENDLER, RACHEL L. SPEER,
JUDITH M. JOHNSON, and GORDON L. FLETT
York University, Toronto

The present investigation employed a general measure of self-efficacy, a measure of

perceived control, and items relating to expectation and evaluation (pre and post). The
purpose was to determine whether general self-efficacy or perceived control best
predicted the criterion variables of state anxiety and performance on a stressful cogni-
tive task (solving anagrams) under conditions of high versus low control. These rela-
tionships were tested under the experimental conditions of high and low objective
control (i.e., the actual control afforded by the situation). Results showed that general
self-efficacy, relative to perceived control was a better predictor of state anxiety in the
high and low control conditions but neither predicted actual performance.
Participants' expectations of task difficulty, their own performance, and their perfor-
mance relative to the performance of others taken before the task were compared with
their evaluations of difficulty and performance after completing the task. Participants
indicated that the task was easier than anticipated, but rated their own performance
more poorly after completion of the task.

Chronic beliefs about the self, control, and outcomes reflect key components of
an individual's view of the world and of his or her ability to function success-
fully in that world and thus should be especially potent in shaping reactions to
stressful life events (Cozzarelli, 1993; p. 1224).

A testing situation is a good example of a stressful life event that for most, is a
manageable stressor. As Cozzarelli (1993) states earlier, beliefs about the self and
control are two facets of an individual's experience that should be "potent" in predict-
ing reactions to a stressful life event. We selected self-efficacy, or a belief in one's
effectiveness, and the perception of control as the major predictors of anxiety and
performance in the [within] study. It was our hope that questions that have been raised
about whether self-efficacy and perceived control are separable constructs (Gerin et
al., 1995; Litt, 1988; Manstead & van-Eekelen, 1998) could be answered. In support of
the separability of constructs, a study by Terry and O'Leary (1995) found that efficacy
predicted behavioural intention but not actual behaviour, whereas perceived control
predicted behaviour, but not intentions. Based on this finding it may be that perceived
control will predict actual performance behavior. If separable, it was also our hope to
determine whether self-efficacy o r perceived control accounted for more of the vari-

C u r r e n t Psychology: D e v e l o p m e n t a l ~ Learning ~ Personality ~ Social Spring 2001, Vol. 20, No. l,

36-52.
Endler et al. 37

ance in anxiety and performance during a stressful cognitive task. All testing was done
under one of two control conditions: high objective vs. low objective (i.e., participants
were, or were not given the opportunity to control the testing situation).

The Multidimensionality of Self-Efficacy

Self-efficacy, a construct which strongly hinges on judgements of personal capabil-

ity, has been defined as the belief in one's ability to perform a task or to execute a
specified behaviour successfully (Bandura, 1997). According to Bandura (1997), self-
efficacy has three components: (1) magnitude, which refers to belief about perfor-
mance in increasingly difficult aspects of the task; (2) strength, or the effort expended
to maintain the behaviour in the face of obstacles; and (3) generality, or the broadness
of the applicability of the belief. Bandura has previously discussed task-specific self-
efficacy, but he has also discussed "domain-linked" (e.g., social skills or achieve-
ment), general, and even collective levels of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1986).
Among the first to measure self-efficacy were Sherer et al. (1982). However, it has
been suggested by Woodruff and Cashman (1993) that the Sherer et al. (1982) scale
measures self-efficacy within the domains of achievement and social skills, a view
which seems to accord with Sherer et al.'s own view (1982). For the purposes of this
article, self-efficacy refers to the component of Sherer et al's (1982) measure dealing
with general/achievement efficacy.

Perceived vs. Objective Control

In the present study, perceived control refers to an individual's appraisal of the

extent to which the situation itself may be brought under the control of the individual
(Conway & Terry, 1992). This is not to be confused with perceived behavioural
control, which refers to the individual's belief in his/her ability to control his/her own
behaviour in context (Ajzen & Madden, 1986).
In contrast, this article is concerned only with the perceived controllability of the
situation external to the individual (Conway & Terry, 1992). It has been asserted that
control does not have to be objective, but merely perceived as such in order to amelio-
rate the effects of stress (Thompson, 1991). The perception of control may differ
markedly from what may, objectively, be controlled (which we have termed "objective
control"). While objective control affects perceptions of control (Thompson, 1991),
objective and perceived control are not identical. For example, in a court of law, a
defendant may falsely believe that the judge has been paid to give a judgement favouring
the defendant. In this example, the defendant would perceive the judge to be under
their control, whereas objectively, the defendant has no control of the situation.
Self-expectation. Performance expectancy, which is the individual's rating of their
expected performance, has not been well researched in the test-anxiety literature (see
Carver & Scheier, 1986). Nonetheless, it is assumed that highly evaluative situations
evoke an unfavourable performance expectancy in the test-anxious person due to prior
38 Current Psychology / Spring 2001

failure experiences (Blankstein, Toner, & Flea, 1989). In a study by Rich and Woolever
(1988), it was found that an experimentally induced expectancy of success facilitated
performance whereas an experimentally induced expectancy of failure resulted in per-
formance decrements (Rich & Woolever, 1988). The issue of group differences in self-
expectancy/evaluation needs to be further investigated. Accordingly, the present study
examined both pre-test expectancy and post-test evaluation.

Self-efficacy, Perceived Control, and Anxiety

The belief of individuals that they can exert some control over a stressful situation
has been found to vary directly with autonomic arousal and performance (Averill,
1973; Bandura, 1983; Folkman, 1984). It is has been suggested that control does not
have to be real (i.e., objective) but merely perceived as such in order to reduce distress
(Blankstein, 1984). The perception of lack of control has been linked to increased
levels of anxiety (e.g., Endler, Speer, Johnson, & Hett, 2000; Glass et al., 1973; Geer
& Maisel, 1972).
It has also been found that self-efficacy varies inversely with state anxiety during a
stressful situation (Bandura, 1983; Litt, 1988). In fact, it has been found that low self-
efficacy is a characteristic feature of anxiety disorders (Maddux, 1991). Further, in
studies of academic performance, it has been found that self-efficacy and test anxiety
are negatively related (Pintrich & DeGroot, 1990; Smith et al., 1990) and that anxiety
is a significant negative predictor of efficacy strength (Meier et al., 1984).

Self-efficacy, Perceived Control, and Performance

Performance has been found to vary directly with perceived self-efficacy (e.g., Litt,
1988) and to be unrelated to self-efficacy (Gerin et al., 1995). In a study of academic
achievement in adolescents, it was concluded that both perceived control and self-
efficacy were powerful predictors of achievement (Manstead & van Eekelen, 1998). In
contrast, Gerin et al. (1995) found that self-efficacy had no effect on either state
anxiety or performance (defined as the number of errors) during a mathematical test.
There was, however, a main effect for perceived control as more errors were commit-
ted under conditions of low control than high, and physiological arousal (heart rate and
blood pressure) was significantly higher under the low control condition. While these
findings refute previous claims that perceived control and self-efficacy are virtually
identical constructs (Ajzen & Madden, 1986), they underscore the need for further
investigation of the relative roles of self-efficacy and perceived control in the predic-
tion of anxiety and performance.

The Present Investigation

The present study sought to empirically validate the proposition that self-efficacy
predicts lower levels of state anxiety and improved performance during a stressful
Endler et al. 39

cognitive task. Furthermore, this investigation attempted to determine whether self-

efficacy or perceived control is the better predictor of state anxiety and task perfor-
mance in a stressful situation. This investigation attempted to assess these relation-
ships under two experimental conditions, referred to as high objective control and low
objective control.
The differences between perceived and objective control have not been widely
recognised in studies on the effects of control on stress. The difference between the
two types of control is essentially the difference between the objective and the subjec-
tive. As previously stated, perceived control refers to appraisals of the extent to which
the situation is controllable (Conway & Terry, 1992). Mineka and Henderson (1985)
found that the effects of perceived control were sufficient to reduce the effects of
stress. Furthermore, physiological evidence suggests that the perception of control
may be more important in lowering physical indices of distress than objectively avail-
able control (Blankstein, 1984). How perceived and objective control are related is an
outstanding question of interest.
The level of objective control afforded by a specific stressful situation is often
manipulated by making available or eliciting responses that participants can use to
alter the event. Examples of strategies that have been used to give participants control
include allowing participants to self-administer a stressor, to make decisions, or to get
more detailed instructions (Thompson, 1991). As stated by Thompson (1991), "It is
assumed that availability of such options increases perceptions of control, although
that is usually not measured as part of the research" (p. 608). Thus, it is possible to
identify two different kinds of control--subjective (perceived) and objective (actual).
Endler et al. (2000) examined both perceived and objective control and found that
perceived control was negatively related to emotion-oriented coping and positively
related to task-oriented coping, and further, that perceived control was a better predic-
tor of coping than objective control.
A central aim of the present study was to investigate how perceived control and
self-efficacy are related to both state anxiety and anagram task performance (a cogni-
tive task) under two experimental conditions: high objective control and low objective
control. The hypotheses of this investigation were as follows:

1. Self-efficacy and perceived control will make independent contributions to

state anxiety and cognitive performance under conditions of high and low
objective control
2. When control is objectively high, perceptions of control and self-efficacy
will be negatively related to state anxiety and positively related to cognitive
performance
3. When control is objectively low, perceptions of high control will also be
negatively related to state anxiety and positively related to cognitive perfor-
mance
The latter two predictions are based on the belief that the perception of control, and
not the control objectively available to the participant, reduces stress and its conse-
quent anxiety (Mineka & Henderson, 1985).
40 Current Psychology / Spring 2001

METHOD

Research Participants

Participants for the present study were 40 male and 40 female undergraduate psy-
chology students from York University. Racial and ethnic information was not col-
lected; however, study participants were predominantly Caucasian.

Measures

Self-efficacy. Self-efficacy was measured using the Self-efficacy Scale developed

by Sherer et al. (1982). The full scale measures self-efficacy in the 'domains' of social
skills and vocational competence (Bandura, 1997; Sherer et al., 1982; Woodruff &
Cashman, 1993). As there is little of a social nature in the laboratory task selected for
this study, we used only the 17-item General Self-Efficacy subscale dealing with
vocational competence. A re-examination of the Self-Efficacy Scale (Woodruff &
Cashman, 1993) found that the scale captures the essence of Bandura's conception of
self-efficacy. Sample items include: "I avoid trying to learn new things when they look
too difficult for me" (magnitude); "If I can't do a job the first time, I keep trying until I
can" (strength); and "I feel insecure about my ability to do things" (generality). All
responses are measured on a 7-point Likert scale. The obtained Cronbach's alpha for
self-efficacy in the present study was .92. Furthermore, this measure has been shown
to be reliable and valid in a variety of contexts (e.g., Mallinckrodt, 1992).
Perceived control. Perceived control was measured using a scale called the Event
Perception Measure, which assessed the participant's appraisal of the control afforded
by the situation (Jimmieson & Terry, 1997). Sample items include: "How much choice
were you given when performing this activity?" and "How much influence did you
have over the way you completed this activity?" Responses were given on a 5-point
Likert scale, with higher values indicating greater control. The obtained Cronbach's
alpha for perceived control in the present study was .79.
Self expectancy. Before the anagram task, participants answered three questions
(pre--measures) relating to their expectations in relation to the difficulty of the task,
their performance, and their performance in relation to the performance of others. For
example, participants were asked, "How well do you think you will perform on the
anagram test?" Higher values indicate a greater expectation of successful performance.
After the test, they were again asked three questions in order to evaluate the difficulty
of the task, their performance, and their performance in relation to the performance of
others: For example, "Indicate how well you think you performed on the anagram
test." As these were single item measures, no alpha reliabilities were computed. A
variable called expectancy/evaluation was computed, which was the net of the expect-
ancy minus the evaluation.
Anagrams. The presentation of 10 anagrams in the lab comprised the stressful
situation, and the number which the participant completed correctly served as the
measure of performance. The anagrams chosen had median solution times ranging
Endler et al. 41

between 57 and 240 seconds, with 7 of the 10 having a median solution time of less
than 100 seconds. Examples of anagrams presented are A T R Y P (party) with a
median solution time of 65 seconds, and T B O A N (baton) with a median solution
time of 194 seconds (Tresselt & Mayzner, 1966). Anagrams were chosen because they
minimize differences in experience or knowledge, and no gender differences in perfor-
mance have been found (Bourne et al., 1971; Mendelsohn et al., 1966).
Anxiety. State anxiety (anxiety in response to the anagram task as opposed to
general dispositional levels of anxiety) was measured using the Endler Multidimen-
sional Anxiety Scales--State subscale (EMAS-S; Endler, Edwards, & Vitelli, 1991), a
self-report measure of one's present level of anxiety. This 20 item measure uses a 5-
point Likert scale. Sample items include "Distrust myself' and "Feel tense." The
obtained Cronbach's alpha for state anxiety scale was .93.
Objective control. Objective control was manipulated through random assignment
of participants to a high control and a low control condition. According to Thompson
(1991), one way to increase feelings of control is to provide an individual with a
response that can be used to affect an event, for example, giving a self-administered
stressor or making a choice or decision relevant to the stressful event. Availability of
options should therefore increase perceptions of control. Following this line of reason-
ing, the degree of choice of participants completing the anagram task was manipu-
lated. A more complete description of the two conditions follows in the Procedure
section.

Procedure

Participants came to the lab and on arrival were asked either to seat themselves
wherever they liked (high control condition), or in a specified chair facing one-way
glass (low control condition). They were then given a package of questionnaires. Prior
to the anagram task, the self-efficacy questionnaire was administered along with items
questioning the participants' expectation of: (1) the difficulty of the task; (2) their own
performance; and (3) their performance in relation to the performance of others. The
anagram task followed. In order to make this task seem more stressful, participants in
both conditions were told their performance would be compared with the performance
norms of other undergraduates.
Participants in the high control condition were instructed: "Your job is to complete
as many anagrams as you can in 10 minutes. You can do them in any order you want.
You can skip ones and go back to them later if you have time. Please write down
anything you want to on the paper. You can use the back of the sheet if you need more
writing space. I will stop you when the 10 minutes is up."
Participants in the low control condition were instructed: "There are 10 anagrams to
be solved in 5 minutes. Please do not write anything on the paper except your final
answer. In other words, solve them in your head. You must solve them in the order in
which they appear and to prevent you from looking ahead, you must use the black
sheet of paper we have provided you with to cover up the remainder of the test. Under
no circumstances are you to go back to solve an anagram that has passed. What will
42 Current Psychology I Spring 2001

TABLE 1
Means, standard deviations, and alpha reliabilities

Mean Sample Alpha

Variable Male Female Mean Reliabilites

State anxiety 38.05 38.72 38.29 .93

(12.63) (15.42) (13.97)

General self-efficacy 86.59 89.15 87.88 .92

(16.45) (18.64) (17.53)

Perception of control 19.51 18.92 19.11 .79

(6.10) (5.28) (5.71)

N=80
Note: Standard deviations are bracketed.

happen is I will say 'start anagram 1.' You will move the black paper so that only
anagram 1 is visible. Write your solution in the blank space under the anagram. After
30 seconds, I will say 'start anagram 2.'"
After completing the anagram task, participants completed the EMAS-S, the per-
ceived control measure, and three items relating to their evaluation of:
(1) the difficulty of the task; (2) their performance; and (3) their performance in
relation to the performance of others.

RESULTS

PreliminaryAnalyses

Three concerns were addressed in preliminary analyses: (1) effectiveness of the

manipulation of objective control; (2) stressfulness of the anagram task; and (3) gender
differences.
Upon completion of the anagram task, in order to ascertain whether or not the
manipulation of objective control was effective, participants were asked to "Rate the
degree to which you perceive this situation as one in which you can express some
control; that is, the extent to which you feel you "have a say' in the procedures." A
one-way ANOVA revealed that participants in the "high objective control" condition
scored significantly higher on this question than participants in the "low experimental
control" condition [t (78) =-3.35, p < .001]. Thus, the manipulation of control was effec-
tive.
The stressfulness of the anagram task was ascertained by comparing scores on the
state anxiety measure for participants in this study (M = 37.85 for males; M = 38.72
 en
TABLE 2
Paired samples t-test of difference for self expectancy/evaluation questions

Std
Mean Dev Net Diff.
Difficulty
Pre: How difficult do you expect the anagram test will be? 4.06 1.05
Post: How difficult was the anagram test? 3.16 0.93 -0.90 -5.74**

Performance
Pre: How well do you think you will perform on the
anagram test? 4.54 1.02
Post: Indicate how well you think you performed on the
anagram test. 2.93 1.20 -1.61 -9.04**

Performance in relation to performance of others

Pre: How will your performance on this test compare
to the performance of other students? 4.54 0.86
Post: How did your performance on this test compare
to the performance of other students? 2.73 0.83 -1.81 -12.20"*

**p<.O1
 TABLE 3
C o r r e l a t i o n m a t r i c e s for c o n d i t i o n s of h i g h a n d l o w o b j e c t i v e c o n t r o l

High Objective Control 1 2 3 4 5

1. Self-efficacy .16 -.42** .12 -.04

2. Perceived control -.34* .05 .00

3. State anxiety - -.10 -.18

4. Anagram performance - - .45**

5. Net of performance expectancy

less performance evaluation

Low Objective Control 1 2 3 4 5

1. Self-efficacy .14 -.35* - .14 -.05

2. Perceived control -.21 .23 .18

3. State anxiety -.03 -.02

4. Anagram performance .74**

5. Net of performance expectancy

less performance evaluation

n = 40, *p<.05, **p<.01

Endler et al. 45

for females) against normative data for Canadian undergraduates (M = 32.41 for
males; M = 29.22 for females) obtained by Endler et al. (1991, p. 6). Thus, state
anxiety levels in this study were significantly higher than the norm for males (t =
15.83,p < .01) and females (t = 10.56,p = < .01).
Means, standard deviations, and alpha reliabilities were computed for measures of
state anxiety, general self-efficacy, and perceived control. These results are contained
in Table 1. A series of t-tests was conducted to determine whether any gender differ-
ences were present. These tests for both the high and low objective control conditions
revealed no gender differences on any of the variables employed in the present study.
Paired sample t-tests were conducted to compare the pre-test expectation with the
post-test evaluation of the difficulty of the task, their performance, and their perfor-
mance in relation to the performance of others. The post-test evaluation items were
significantly lower than their pre-test self expectation on all three items (Results are
presented in Table 2).

Correlational A nalyses

Separate correlation matrices were computed according to condition (high objective

control, low objective control) and are displayed in Table 3. Computed correlation
matrices were very similar for both the high and low objective control groups. There
was a negative relationship between self-efficacy and state anxiety in both the high (r
=-.42, p < .01) and low objective control (r =-.35, p < .01) conditions. Perceived
control had a negative relationship with state anxiety, but only in the high control
condition (r =-.34, p <.05). Finally, there was a positive relationship between the net
performance expectancy/evaluation (i.e., performance expectancy minus performance
evaluation), and anagram performance in both the high objective control (r = .45, p
<.01) and low objective control (r = .74, p < .01) conditions. The relationship of the
net expectancy/evaluation to actual performance was stronger in the low objective
control condition. No other correlations were significant.

Analysis of Variance

A univariate analysis of the general linear model predicting state anxiety was con-
ducted of the entire sample using gender (M/F), and objective control (high vs. low) as
factors, with general self-efficacy, perceived control, and the number of anagrams
solved as covariates. Neither factor, namely, gender or objective control, contributed
to the model. However, both perceived control (F (1, 79) = 4.06, p < .05) and self-
efficacy (F (1, 79) = 10.52, p < .01) were significant in relation to state anxiety (See
Table 4 for results). A second similar analysis was conducted in which the number of
anagrams solved served as the criterion variable. Factors and covariates were the
same, except that state anxiety was added as a covariate. In this second analysis, no
variable was related to anagram task performance.
46 Current Psychology / Spring 2001

TABLE 4
Results of analysis of general linear model of state anxiety by gender, objective control, with
general self-efficacy, perceived control, and number of anagrams solved as covariates

Covariates Sum of Souares d__f Mean Sauare _F

General self efficacy 1695.98 1 1695.98 10.37"*

Perceived control 690.04 1 690.04 4.22*
No. of anagrams solved 28.93 1 28.93 .18

Main Effects

Gender l 4.20 1 14.20 .09

Objective control 18.98 1 18.98 .12

N = 80, *p<.05, **p<.01

Multiple Regression Analyses

Four multiple regression analyses were conducted. Models were constructed for the
conditions of high and low objective control, predicting performance (number of ana-
grams solved) and state anxiety.
Results for high objective control. Two analyses of the high control condition were
performed. In the first, the number of anagrams solved, perceived control, and self-
efficacy were simultaneously entered into the model predicting state anxiety. Self-
efficacy was predictive of state anxiety (13=-0.26, p < .05) and perceived control
approached significance (13=-0.88, p = .06). In the second analysis, perceived control,
self-efficacy, and state anxiety were simultaneously entered into the model predicting
anagram task performance. No variable was predictive of performance. The results of
the regression analysis for the high objective control group are presented in Table 5(a).
Results for low objective control. Two analyses of the low control condition were
also performed. In the first, the number of anagrams solved, perceived control, and
self-efficacy were entered simultaneously into the model predicting state anxiety. Self-
efficacy was predictive of state anxiety ([~=-0.3, p < .05). In the second, perceived
control, self-efficacy, and state anxiety were simultaneously entered into the model
predicting anagram task performance. No variable was predictive of anagram task
performance. The results of the analyses for low objective control are displayed in
Table 5(b).
Endler et al. 47

TABLE 5(a)
Results of the multiple regression analyses for the high control experimental condition

Criterion Variables
State Anxiety Performance
(EMAS-S) (no. of anagrams solved)

Standard Standard
Predictors b error t b error t

No. of Anagrams solved -0.22 0.82 -0.27

Perceived control -0.88 0.45 -1.93]" 0.00 0.10 0.09
Self efficacy -0.26 0.10 -2.52* 0.00 0.02 0.50
State Anxiety 0.00 0.03 -0.27

TABLE 5(b)
Multiple regression analyses for low control experimentation condition

Criterion Variables
State Anxiety Performance
(EMAS-S) (no. of anagrams solved)

Standard Standard
Predictors b error _t b error t

No. of Anagrams solved -0.39 0.93 -0.42

Perceived control -0.57 0.54 -1.06 0.12 0.10 1.30
Self efficacy -0.30 0.14 -2.15" 0.00 0.03 -1.15
State Anxiety 0.00 0.03 -0.42

n=40
Note: all degrees of freedom are 1.
*p<.05, t P = .06
48 Current Psychology / Spring 2001

Summary of Results

The main finding of this study is that self-efficacy and perceived control are related
to state anxiety in both the high and low objective control conditions. Regression
analyses indicated that perceived control was more strongly related to state anxiety
when objective control was high, and was unrelated when objective control was low. It
is to be noted that the performance expectancy/evaluation variable was positively
related to the actual performance on the test. There was a greater decrement in the
evaluation of performance in those who performed poorly on the task. Finally, in
contrast to what we had predicted, neither self-efficacy nor perceived control had any
significant effect on anagram task performance.

DISCUSSION

The current study examined the extent to which general self-efficacy and perceived
control were associated with state anxiety and performance when levels of controlla-
bility were manipulated while participants completed a challenging anagram task. Our
analyses showed that self-efficacy was predictive of state anxiety in both the high and
low objective control conditions. As current efficacy beliefs are partially formulated
on the basis of past successes and failures (Bandura, 1997), feelings of self-inefficacy
would be expected to elicit state anxiety. However, the current results show further
that the association between self-inefficacy and anxiety is comparable across situations
that are relatively high versus low in controllability. A goal for future research will be
to examine whether the link between self-inefficacy and state anxiety is still evident
under conditions of moderate control or where levels of control are uncertain.
Although self-efficacy was associated with state anxiety in both experimental con-
ditions, general self-efficacy did not predict performance. This may be an artefact of
the sample chosen, as students must learn to perform in spite of their lack of self-
confidence. Even those with low self-efficacy may still achieve a high level of cogni-
tive performance based on ability and past experience. However, our findings are in
keeping with other research which shows that general self-efficacy is highly correlated
with self-esteem, but self-efficacy is a poor predictor of test performance (see Stanley
& Murphy, 1997). Overall, it seems that general self-efficacy is associated with el-
evated performance expectations but it is not necessarily associated with actual levels
of performance, at least as assessed in the situations included in the current study.

Perceived Control

Additional results showed that the manipulation of perceived controllability was

highly effective; analyses of the Event Perception Measure (Jimmieson & Terry, 1997)
showed that higher levels of controllability were indeed reported by those participants
in the high control condition. Our decision to use the relatively new Event Perception
Measure was supported further by evidence indicating that the scale had an adequate
level of internal consistency in this study.
Endler et al. 49

Analyses of the more substantive findings involving the Event Perception Measure
indicated that perceived control was associated significantly with state anxiety in the
high control condition, but this association did not attain conventional levels of signifi-
cance in the low control condition. Clearly, the replicability of these finding needs to
be determined in subsequent research. There are many possible explanations for this
pattern of findings. Although it is speculative, perhaps the most parsimonious explana-
tion is that the lack of control evident in the low control condition led most individuals
to attribute their performance to the task characteristics and the test situation rather
than to themselves, while those in the high control condition were more likely to
emphasise their personal role in determining the performance outcome. If so, then the
stronger association between low perceived control and anxiety reflects the higher ego
threat involved in the high control condition.
Three additional points about perceived control need to be mentioned. First, per-
ceived control was not associated with performance in either the high or low control
conditions. Although it might be expected that higher perceived control will translate
into higher levels of performance, it is often the case that the controllability of a task
and levels of performance are unrelated in achievement situations (for a discussion,
see Mikulincer, 1989). Mikulincer (1989) notes that anxiety is often a better predictor
of performance, but neither anxiety nor perceived control predicted performance in the
current study.
Second, findings regarding the relationship of perceived control and self-efficacy
have been equivocal, with some studies indicating that the constructs overlap, while
other studies suggest that they are relatively independent (see Ajzen & Madden, 1986;
Chwalisz et al., 1992; Cozzarelli, 1993; Gerin et al., 1995; Litt, 1988; Manstead &
van-Eekelin, 1998). Our findings suggest that general self-efficacy (Sherer et al., 1982)
and perceived control (Conway & Terry, 1992) are separable constructs, which seems
to be the case when the focus is on general self-efficacy as a personality style rather
than situation-specific efficacy beliefs. For instance, Smith (1989) showed that general
levels of self-efficacy were affected by coping skills training, whereas, levels of con-
trol were not affected. Smith (1989) suggested that efficacy and control are influenced
by different "parameters of experience" (p. 228) and our results are in keeping with
this observation.
Finally, it has been suggested that the perception of control, rather than the objec-
tively available control is sufficient to ameliorate the effects of stress (Thompson,
1991). The results of the current study support this view. It was the perception of
control that was found to be significant in the model predicting state anxiety, whereas
the objective control condition was not significantly related to state anxiety.

Expectancy and Evaluation

It is informative that although the task was rated as easier than expected after it was
attempted, self-evaluations of performance became lower after performing the task,
according to analyses conducted on the pre-task estimates and post-task evaluations. In
50 Current Psychology / Spring 2001

the case of the expectation/evaluation of performance on the task, the fact that it had a
strong relationship with the actual number of anagrams solved in the low objective
control condition, and only a moderate relationship for those in the high objective
control condition suggests that participants were able to retain a more positive view in
the high objective control condition.
Past research on self-efficacy and performance has shown that most students feel
quite efficacious and tend to overestimate their actual task performance when asked to
make prior estimates (see Meier et al., 1984). Even though our data suggest that there
was a general tendency for most participants to evaluate themselves more negatively
after the task, it is important to reiterate that higher state anxiety was reported prima-
rily by the subset of individuals characterised by low levels of general self-efficacy.
Taken together, then, the results of this study suggest that self-efficacy beliefs and, to a
lesser extent, the perception of control may act as a buffer against stress (in this case,
state anxiety). Further, although the result only approached conventional levels of
significance (p = .06, see Table 5a), the data suggest that perceptions of control must
be authentic in order to be predictive of state anxiety (i.e., actual control of the
situation must be available to the participant).

Future Directions

The present investigation indicates that self-efficacy may be of importance in pre-

dicting state anxiety during a stressful cognitive task. While this finding is important,
future investigations should attempt to employ a greater variety of stressful situations,
including in vivo situations. It remains to be seen whether the relationship between
generalised self-efficacy and state anxiety will hold in other stressful situations. It is
also possible that appraisal of personal efficacy can change throughout the course of
an enduring stressful situation (Litt, 1988) and studies that involve a joint examination
of generalised efficacy and situation-specific efficacy may be especially informative.
Given the results of the present study which showed that an effect was suggested for
perceived control only where objective control was high, future research is needed to
test this effect. It may be that objective control, mediated by the perception of control,
is actually related to anxiety.

NOTES

Acceptedfor publication: 1! January2000.

Address correspondence to: Norman S. Endler, Department of Psychology, York University, 4700
Keele St., North York, Ontario,Canada,M3J 1P3.
Norman S. Endler, Judith M. Johnson,and Gordon L. Flett, Departmentof Psychology,York Univer-
sity, Rachel L. Speer, now at CompusearchMicromarketingData & Systems,Toronto. The study reported
in this article was supported,in part, by Social Sciences and HumanitiesResearch Council Grant No. 410-
94-1473 to Norman S. Endler.
Endler et al. 51

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