Main functions[edit]

The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one direction (called the
diode's forward direction), while blocking current in the opposite direction (the reverse direction). Thus, the diode can be
viewed as an electronic version of a check valve. This unidirectional behavior is called rectification, and is used to
convert alternating current to direct current, including extraction ofmodulation from radio signals in radio receivers—these
diodes are forms of rectifiers.

However, diodes can have more complicated behavior than this simple on–off action, due to their nonlinear current-voltage
characteristics. Semiconductor diodes begin conducting electricity only if a certain threshold voltage or cut-in voltage is
present in the forward direction (a state in which the diode is said to be forward-biased). The voltage drop across a forward-
biased diode varies only a little with the current, and is a function of temperature; this effect can be used as a temperature
sensor or voltage reference.

Semiconductor diodes' current–voltage characteristic can be tailored by varying the semiconductor materials and doping,
introducing impurities into the materials. These techniques are used to create special-purpose diodes that perform many
different functions. For example, diodes are used to regulate voltage (Zener diodes), to protect circuits from high voltage
surges (avalanche diodes), to electronically tune radio and TV receivers (varactor diodes), to generate radio-
frequency oscillations (tunnel diodes, Gunn diodes,IMPATT diodes), and to produce light (light-emitting diodes). Tunnel,
Gunn and IMPATT diodes exhibit negative resistance, which is useful in microwave and switching circuits.

Electronic symbols[edit]
Main article: Electronic symbol

The symbol used for a semiconductor diode in a circuit diagram specifies the type of diode. There are alternative symbols
for some types of diodes, though the differences are minor.

Diode

Light Emitting Diode(LED)

Photodiode
 

Schottky diode

Transient Voltage Suppression (TVS)

Tunnel diode

Varicap

Zener diode

Typical diode packages in same alignment as diode symbol. Thin bar depicts the cathode.

Point-contact diodes[edit]
A point-contact diode works the same as the junction diodes described below, but their construction is simpler. A block of
n-type semiconductor is built, and a conducting sharp-point contact made with some group-3 metal is placed in contact with
the semiconductor. Some metal migrates into the semiconductor to make a small region of p-type semiconductor near the
contact. The long-popular 1N34 germanium version is still used in radio receivers as a detector and occasionally in
specialized analog electronics.

Junction diodes[edit]
p–n junction diode[edit]
Main article: p–n diode

A p–n junction diode is made of a crystal of semiconductor, usually silicon, but germanium and gallium arsenide are also
used. Impurities are added to it to create a region on one side that contains negative charge carriers (electrons), called n-
type semiconductor, and a region on the other side that contains positive charge carriers (holes), called p-type
semiconductor. When two materials i.e. n-type and p-type are attached together, a momentary flow of electrons occur from n
to p side resulting in a third region where no charge carriers are present. This region is called the depletion region due to the
absence of charge carriers (electrons and holes in this case). The diode's terminals are attached to the n-type and p-type
regions. The boundary between these two regions, called a p–n junction, is where the action of the diode takes place. The
crystal allows electrons to flow from the N-type side (called the cathode) to the P-type side (called the anode), but not in the
opposite direction.

Schottky diode[edit]
Main article: Schottky diode

Another type of junction diode, the Schottky diode, is formed from a metal–semiconductor junction rather than a p–n
junction, which reduces capacitance and increases switching speed.

Current–voltage characteristic[edit]

I–V (current vs. voltage) characteristics of a p–n junction diode

A semiconductor diode's behavior in a circuit is given by its current–voltage characteristic, or I–V graph (see graph below).
The shape of the curve is determined by the transport of charge carriers through the so-calleddepletion layer or depletion
region that exists at the p–n junction between differing semiconductors. When a p–n junction is first created, conduction-
band (mobile) electrons from the N-doped region diffuse into the P-doped region where there is a large population of holes
(vacant places for electrons) with which the electrons "recombine". When a mobile electron recombines with a hole, both
hole and electron vanish, leaving behind an immobile positively charged donor (dopant) on the N side and negatively
charged acceptor (dopant) on the P side. The region around the p–n junction becomes depleted of charge carriers and thus
behaves as aninsulator.

However, the width of the depletion region (called the depletion width) cannot grow without limit. For eachelectron–hole
pair that recombines, a positively charged dopant ion is left behind in the N-doped region, and a negatively charged dopant
ion is left behind in the P-doped region. As recombination proceeds more ions are created, an increasing electric field
develops through the depletion zone that acts to slow and then finally stop recombination. At this point, there is a "built-in"
potential across the depletion zone.

If an external voltage is placed across the diode with the same polarity as the built-in potential, the depletion zone continues
to act as an insulator, preventing any significant electric current flow (unless electron–hole pairs are actively being created in
the junction by, for instance, light; see photodiode). This is the reverse bias phenomenon. However, if the polarity of the
external voltage opposes the built-in potential, recombination can once again proceed, resulting in substantial electric
current through the p–n junction (i.e. substantial numbers of electrons and holes recombine at the junction). For silicon
diodes, the built-in potential is approximately 0.7 V (0.3 V for Germanium and 0.2 V for Schottky). Thus, if an external
current passes through the diode, the voltage across the diode increases logarithmic with the current such that the P-doped
region is positive with respect to the N-doped region and the diode is said to be "turned on" as it has a forward bias. The
diode is commonly said to have a forward "threshold" voltage, which it conducts above and is cutoff below. However, this is
only an approximation as the forward characteristic is according to the Shockley equation absolutely smooth (see graph
below).

A diode's I–V characteristic can be approximated by four regions of operation:

1. At very large reverse bias, beyond the peak inverse voltage or PIV, a process called reverse breakdown occurs
that causes a large increase in current (i.e., a large number of electrons and holes are created at, and move away
from the p–n junction) that usually damages the device permanently. The avalanche diode is deliberately
designed for use in the avalanche region. In the Zener diode, the concept of PIV is not applicable. A Zener diode
contains a heavily doped p–n junction allowing electrons to tunnel from the valence band of the p-type material to
the conduction band of the n-type material, such that the reverse voltage is "clamped" to a known value (called
the Zener voltage), and avalanche does not occur. Both devices, however, do have a limit to the maximum current
and power in the clamped reverse-voltage region. Also, following the end of forward conduction in any diode,
there is reverse current for a short time. The device does not attain its full blocking capability until the reverse
current ceases.
2. At reverse biases more positive than the PIV, has only a very small reverse saturation current. In the reverse bias
region for a normal P–N rectifier diode, the current through the device is very low (in the µA range). However, this
is temperature dependent, and at sufficiently high temperatures, a substantial amount of reverse current can be
observed (mA or more).
3. With a small forward bias, where only a small forward current is conducted, the current–voltage curve
is exponential in accordance with the ideal diode equation. There is a definite forward voltage at which the diode
starts to conduct significantly. This is called the knee voltage or cut-in voltage and is equal to the barrier
potential of the p-n junction. This is a feature of the exponential curve, and is seen more prominently on a current
scale more compressed than in the diagram here.
4. At larger forward currents the current-voltage curve starts to be dominated by the ohmic resistance of the bulk
semiconductor. The curve is no longer exponential, it is asymptotic to a straight line whose slope is the bulk
resistance. This region is particularly important for power diodes. The effect can be modelled as an ideal diode in
series with a fixed resistor.
In a small silicon diode at rated currents, the voltage drop is about 0.6 to 0.7 volts. The value is different for other diode
types—Schottky diodes can be rated as low as 0.2 V, Germanium diodes 0.25 to 0.3 V, and red or blue light-emitting
diodes (LEDs) can have values of 1.4 V and 4.0 V respectively. [16]

At higher currents the forward voltage drop of the diode increases. A drop of 1 V to 1.5 V is typical at full rated current for
power diodes.

Shockley diode equation[edit]

The Shockley ideal diode equation or the diode law (named after transistor co-inventor William Bradford Shockley) gives the
I–V characteristic of an ideal diode in either forward or reverse bias (or no bias). The following equation is called
the Shockley ideal diode equation when n, the ideality factor, is set equal to 1 :

where
I is the diode current,
IS is the reverse bias saturation current (or scale current),
VD is the voltage across the diode,
VT is the thermal voltage, and
n is the ideality factor, also known as the quality factor or sometimes emission coefficient. The ideality
factor n typically varies from 1 to 2 (though can in some cases be higher), depending on the fabrication process
and semiconductor material and in many cases is assumed to be approximately equal to 1 (thus the notation n is
omitted). The ideality factor does not form part of the Shockley ideal diode equation, and was added to account for
imperfect junctions as observed in real transistors. The factor is mainly accounting for carrier recombination as the
charge carriers cross the depletion region. By setting n = 1 above, the equation reduces to the Shockley ideal
diode equation.

The thermal voltage VT is approximately 25.85 mV at 300 K, a temperature close to "room

temperature" commonly used in device simulation software. At any temperature it is a known
constant defined by:

where k is the Boltzmann constant, T is the absolute temperature of the p–n junction,
and q is the magnitude of charge of an electron (the elementary charge).

The reverse saturation current, IS, is not constant for a given device, but varies with
temperature; usually more significantly than VT, so that VD typically decreases
as T increases.

The Shockley ideal diode equation or the diode law is derived with the assumption that
the only processes giving rise to the current in the diode are drift (due to electrical field),
diffusion, and thermal recombination–generation (R–G) (this equation is derived by
setting n = 1 above). It also assumes that the R–G current in the depletion region is
insignificant. This means that the Shockley ideal diode equation doesn't account for the
processes involved in reverse breakdown and photon-assisted R–G. Additionally, it
doesn't describe the "leveling off" of the I–V curve at high forward bias due to internal
resistance. Introducing the ideality factor, n, accounts for recombination and generation
of carriers.
Under reverse bias voltages the exponential in the diode equation is negligible, and the
current is a constant (negative) reverse current value of −IS. The reverse breakdown
region is not modeled by the Shockley diode equation.

For even rather small forward bias voltages the exponential is very large, since the
thermal voltage is very small in comparison. The subtracted '1' in the diode equation is
then negligible and the forward diode current can be approximated by

The use of the diode equation in circuit problems is illustrated in the article on diode
modeling.

Small-signal behavior[edit]
For circuit design, a small-signal model of the diode behavior often proves useful. A
specific example of diode modeling is discussed in the article on small-signal
circuits.

Reverse-recovery effect[edit]
Following the end of forward conduction in a p–n type diode, a reverse current can
flow for a short time. The device does not attain its blocking capability until the
mobile charge in the junction is depleted.

The effect can be significant when switching large currents very quickly. [17] A certain
amount of "reverse recovery time" tr (on the order of tens of nanoseconds to a few
microseconds) may be required to remove the reverse recovery charge Q r from the
diode. During this recovery time, the diode can actually conduct in the reverse
direction. This might give rise to a large constant current in the reverse direction for
a short period of time and while the diode is reverse biased. The magnitude of such
reverse current is determined by the operating circuit (i.e., the series resistance)
and the diode is called to be in the storage-phase.[18] In certain real-world cases it
can be important to consider the losses incurred by this non-ideal diode
effect.[19] However, when the slew rate of the current is not so severe (e.g. Line
frequency) the effect can be safely ignored. For most applications, the effect is also
negligible for Schottky diodes.

The reverse current ceases abruptly when the stored charge is depleted; this
abrupt stop is exploited in step recovery diodes for generation of extremely short
pulses.

Types of semiconductor diode[edit]

Several types of diodes. The scale is centimeters.

Typical datasheet drawing showing the dimensions of a DO-41 diode package

There are several types of p–n junction diodes, which emphasize either a different
physical aspect of a diode often by geometric scaling, doping level, choosing the
right electrodes, are just an application of a diode in a special circuit, or are really
different devices like the Gunn and laser diode and the MOSFET:
 Normal (p–n) diodes, which operate as described above, are usually made of
doped silicon or, more rarely, germanium. Before the development of silicon power
rectifier diodes, cuprous oxide and later selenium was used; its low efficiency gave
it a much higher forward voltage drop (typically 1.4 to 1.7 V per "cell", with multiple
cells stacked to increase the peak inverse voltage rating in high voltage rectifiers),
and required a large heat sink (often an extension of the diode's metal substrate),
much larger than a silicon diode of the same current ratings would require. The vast
majority of all diodes are the p–n diodes found in CMOS integrated circuits, which
include two diodes per pin and many other internal diodes.

Avalanche diodes
These are diodes that conduct in the reverse direction when the reverse bias voltage exceeds the breakdown
voltage. These are electrically very similar to Zener diodes (and are often mistakenly called Zener diodes), but
break down by a different mechanism: theavalanche effect. This occurs when the reverse electric field across the
p–n junction causes a wave of ionization, reminiscent of an avalanche, leading to a large current. Avalanche
diodes are designed to break down at a well-defined reverse voltage without being destroyed. The difference
between the avalanche diode (which has a reverse breakdown above about 6.2 V) and the Zener is that the
channel length of the former exceeds the mean free path of the electrons, so there are collisions between them on
the way out. The only practical difference is that the two types have temperature coefficients of opposite polarities.

Cat's whisker or crystal diodes

These are a type of point-contact diode. The cat's whisker diode consists of a thin or sharpened metal wire
pressed against a semiconducting crystal, typically galena or a piece of coal. The wire forms the anode and the
crystal forms the cathode. Cat's whisker diodes were also called crystal diodes and found application in crystal
radio receivers. Cat's whisker diodes are generally obsolete, but may be available from a few manufacturers. [citation
needed]

Constant current diodes

These are actually JFETs with the gate shorted to the source, and function like a two-terminal current-limiting
[20]

analog to the voltage-limiting Zener diode. They allow a current through them to rise to a certain value, and then
level off at a specific value. Also called CLDs, constant-current diodes, diode-connected transistors, or current-
regulating diodes.

Esaki or tunnel diodes

These have a region of operation showing negative resistance caused by quantum tunneling,[21] allowing
amplification of signals and very simple bistable circuits. Due to the high carrier concentration, tunnel diodes are
very fast, may be used at low (mK) temperatures, high magnetic fields, and in high radiation
environments.[22] Because of these properties, they are often used in spacecraft.

Gunn diodes
These are similar to tunnel diodes in that they are made of materials such as GaAs or InP that exhibit a region
of negative differential resistance. With appropriate biasing, dipole domains form and travel across the diode,
allowing high frequency microwave oscillators to be built.

Light-emitting diodes (LEDs)

In a diode formed from a direct band-gap semiconductor, such as gallium arsenide, carriers that cross the junction
emit photons when they recombine with the majority carrier on the other side. Depending on the
material, wavelengths (or colors)[23] from the infrared to the near ultraviolet may be produced.[24] The forward
potential of these diodes depends on the wavelength of the emitted photons: 2.1 V corresponds to red, 4.0 V to
violet. The first LEDs were red and yellow, and higher-frequency diodes have been developed over time. All LEDs
produce incoherent, narrow-spectrum light; "white" LEDs are actually combinations of three LEDs of a different
color, or a blue LED with a yellow scintillator coating. LEDs can also be used as low-efficiency photodiodes in
signal applications. An LED may be paired with a photodiode or phototransistor in the same package, to form
an opto-isolator.
 Laser diodes
When an LED-like structure is contained in a resonant cavity formed by polishing the parallel end faces,
a laser can be formed. Laser diodes are commonly used in optical storage devices and for high speed optical
communication.

Thermal diodes
This term is used both for conventional p–n diodes used to monitor temperature due to their varying forward
voltage with temperature, and for Peltier heat pumps forthermoelectric heating and cooling. Peltier heat pumps
may be made from semiconductor, though they do not have any rectifying junctions, they use the differing
behaviour of charge carriers in N and P type semiconductor to move heat.

Photodiodes
All semiconductors are subject to optical charge carrier generation. This is typically an undesired effect, so most
semiconductors are packaged in light blocking material. Photodiodes are intended to sense light(photodetector), so
they are packaged in materials that allow light to pass, and are usually PIN (the kind of diode most sensitive to
light).[25] A photodiode can be used in solar cells, in photometry, or in optical communications. Multiple photodiodes
may be packaged in a single device, either as a linear array or as a two-dimensional array. These arrays should
not be confused with charge-coupled devices.

PIN diodes
A PIN diode has a central un-doped, or intrinsic, layer, forming a p-type/intrinsic/n-type structure.[26] They are used
as radio frequency switches and attenuators. They are also used as large-volume, ionizing-radiation detectors and
as photodetectors. PIN diodes are also used in power electronics, as their central layer can withstand high
voltages. Furthermore, the PIN structure can be found in many power semiconductor devices, such as IGBTs,
power MOSFETs, and thyristors.

Schottky diodes
Schottky diodes are constructed from a metal to semiconductor contact. They have a lower forward voltage drop
than p–n junction diodes. Their forward voltage drop at forward currents of about 1 mA is in the range 0.15 V to
0.45 V, which makes them useful in voltage clamping applications and prevention of transistor saturation. They can
also be used as low loss rectifiers, although their reverse leakage current is in general higher than that of other
diodes. Schottky diodes are majority carrier devices and so do not suffer from minority carrier storage problems
that slow down many other diodes—so they have a faster reverse recovery than p–n junction diodes. They also
tend to have much lower junction capacitance than p–n diodes, which provides for high switching speeds and their
use in high-speed circuitry and RF devices such as switched-mode power supply, mixers, and detectors.

Super barrier diodes

Super barrier diodes are rectifier diodes that incorporate the low forward voltage drop of the Schottky diode with
the surge-handling capability and low reverse leakage current of a normal p–n junction diode.

Gold-doped diodes
As a dopant, gold (or platinum) acts as recombination centers, which helps a fast recombination of minority
carriers. This allows the diode to operate at signal frequencies, at the expense of a higher forward voltage drop.
Gold-doped diodes are faster than other p–n diodes (but not as fast as Schottky diodes). They also have less
reverse-current leakage than Schottky diodes (but not as good as other p–n diodes).[27][28] A typical example is the
1N914.

Snap-off or Step
recovery diodes
The term step recovery relates to the form of the reverse recovery characteristic of these devices. After a forward
current has been passing in an SRD and the current is interrupted or reversed, the reverse conduction will cease
very abruptly (as in a step waveform). SRDs can, therefore, provide very fast voltage transitions by the very
sudden disappearance of the charge carriers.
 Stabistors o
r Forward
Reference
Diodes
The term stabistor refers to a special type of diodes featuring extremely stable forward voltage characteristics.
These devices are specially designed for low-voltage stabilization applications requiring a guaranteed voltage over
a wide current range and highly stable over temperature.

Transi
ent
voltag
e
suppre
ssion
diode (
TVS)
These are avalanche diodes designed specifically to protect other semiconductor devices from high-
voltage transients.[29] Their p–n junctions have a much larger cross-sectional area than those of a normal diode,
allowing them to conduct large currents to ground without sustaining damage.

V
a
ri
c
a
p
o
r
v
a
r
a
ct
o
r
di
o
d
e
s
These are used as voltage-controlled capacitors. These are important in PLL (phase-locked loop) and FLL
(frequency-locked loop) circuits, allowing tuning circuits, such as those in television receivers, to lock quickly. They
also enabled tunable oscillators in early discrete tuning of radios, where a cheap and stable, but fixed-frequency,
crystal oscillator provided the reference frequency for a voltage-controlled oscillator.

Z
e
n
e
 r

d
i
o
d
e
s

These can be made to conduct in reverse bias (backward), and are correctly termed reverse breakdown diodes.
This effect, called Zener breakdown, occurs at a precisely defined voltage, allowing the diode to be used as a
precision voltage reference. The term Zener diode is colloquially applied to several types of breakdown diodes, but
strictly speaking Zener diodes have a breakdown voltage of below 5 volts, whilst those above that value are
usually avalanche diodes. In practical voltage reference circuits, Zener and switching diodes are connected in
series and opposite directions to balance the temperature coefficient to near-zero. Some devices labeled as high-
voltage Zener diodes are actually avalanche diodes (see above). Two (equivalent) Zeners in series and in reverse
order, in the same package, constitute a transient absorber (or Transorb, a registered trademark). The Zener diode
is named for Dr. Clarence Melvin Zener of Carnegie Mellon University, inventor of the dev