pammevenmeneememansmnsctnanarenien meets a 2. MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES 2.1 INTRODUCTION. This chapter will serve as a handy but abbre- viated reference and it should be studied with this purpose in mind. We hope that most of the topics have been studied elsewhere in more detail, Since the number of available materials and the quantity of information on. their properties is staggering, one must search for more complete knowledge when designing “for real.” The references given will be helpful. There are many materials of interest to one designer or another that are not men- tioned, for example: glass, asbestos, wood, conerete, cork, and of course a number of “plastics.”” In making a choice of material, past experience is a good guide, so good in fact that engineers too frequently have overlooked possibilities in new materials. The best material is the one that will serve the de: at the lowest cost for the manufacture and operating m: finished part. This best material is not always easy to find, It may involve trial and error, Sometimes the choice of material involves an intensive and expensive search by a group of engineers and scientists, Since the material often “makes or breaks” the machine, a sound decision, which calls for a ‘wide background of knowledge, is important. 2.2 DEFINITIONS. See also § 2.3. For easy reference, we shall define eriefly some of the terms (not elsewhere defined in this book) with which the reader should be familiar.(23.2-2.2.0) aa MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES (Ch.? Age hardening (precipitation hardening) occurs in some metals, notably certain stainless steel, aluminum, and copper alloys, at ambient tempera- ture after solution heat treatment, the process being one of a constituent precipitating from solid solution. Where used, the consequences include increased strength and hardness, decreased ductility. Aging at moderately elevated temperature expedites the process and is called artificial aging. Alley is a substance with metallic properties, composed of two or more elements of which at least one is a metal. Alloying elements in steel are usually considered to be the metallic ele~ ments added for the purpose of modifying the properties. Anisotropy is the characteristic of exhibiting different properties when tested in different directions (as tensile strength “with the grain” or “across the grain”). Brittleness is a tendency to fracture without appreciable deformation. See ductility. Charpy test is one in which a specimen, supported at both ends as a simple beam, is broken by the impact of a falling pendulum. The energy absorbed in breaking the specimen is a measure of the impact strength of the metal. See /zod test. Cold shortness is brittleness of metals at ordinary or low temperatures. Cold working is the process of deforming a metal plastically at a tem- perature below the recrystallization temperature and at a rate to produce strain hardening. Cold-drawn stecl is frequently used because it increases strength and machinability, and improves surface finish. It reduces ductility. Commercial amounts of cold working of stee! are of the order of 10-20%. Damping Capacity is the ability of a material to absorb or damp vibra- tions, which is a process of absorbing kinetic energy of vibration owing to hysteresis. The absorbed energy is eventually dissipated to the surround- ings as heat. At a particular stress level, cust iron is a much better damping material than steel Decarburization is a loss of carbon from the surface of steel, occurring during hot rolling, forging, and heat treating, when the surrounding medium reacts with the carbon (as oxygen and carbon combining). Ductility is that property that permits permanent deformation before fracture in tension. There is no absolute measure of ductility, but the per- centage elongation and the percentage reduction of area are used as indices; the higher these indices, the more ductile the material is said to be. Ductility is the opposite of brittleness, but there is no sharp division line. For purposes of definition, it is frequently assumed that Ductile material + Elongation greater than 5% in 2-in. gage, Brittle material > Elongation less than $% in 2-in. gage. Ductility is frequently a valuable property because, by virture of it, a member may take an occasional exceptionally-high load without breaking. Elasticity is the ability of a material to be deformed and to return to the original shape. Stress is proportional to strain only during an elastic defor- mation (see proportional limit, p. 8).42.2) DEFINITIONS aa Embrittlement involves the loss of ductility because of a physical or chemical change of the material. Free carbon is that part of the carbon content of steel or iron that is in the form of. graphite or temper carbon. Hard drawn is a temper produced in a wire, rod, or tube by cold drawing. See temper and §§ 2.16, 2.17. Homogeneous materials (have homogeneity) have the same structure at all points. (Steel consists of randomly oriented iron crystals of different sizes, with other matter in between and is thus not homogeneous. Isotropic materials have the same properties in all directions. (Wood has a grain; rolled steel is not isotropic.) Ezod test is a test in which a specimen, supported at one end as a canti- lever beam, is broken by the impact of a falling pendulum. The energy absorbed in breaking the specimen is a measure of the impact strength. Impact values in the tables should be considered more qualitative than quantitative because the actual variation of samples from the same uni- verse is quite wide (see Fig. 1.14). See Charpy test. Killed steel is steel that has been deoxidized with a strong deoxidizing agent, such as silicon or aluminum, in order to eliminate a reaction between the carbon and oxygen during solidification. Ingots of killed steel are soun-. der, containing fewer gas holes, and more homogeneous than non-killed or rimmed steel; these are desirable characteristics for forgings and heavy rolled sections. Machinabitity is a somewhat indefinite property that refers to the rela~ tive ease with which a material can be cut. In the case of steels, cold-drawn AISI BII12 being cut with a high-speed tool-steel tool and with a proper cutting oil is usually taken as 100%. Free-cutting brass is a reference for copper alloys. Such data as'in Table AT 7 are roughly relative at best, since the actual conditions of operation vary widely. There are significant production variables, such as the sharpness and shape of the cutting tool, exact nature of the material, the cutting lubricant, and the use of carbide tools. Malleability is a material’s susceptibility to extreme deformation in rolling or hammering. The more malleable the metal, the thinner the sheet into which it can be formed (usually cold). Gold and aluminum are quite malleable. Mechanical properties are those that have to do with stress and strain: ultimate strength and percentage elongation, for example. See physical properties. Percentage elongation is the extension in the vicinity of the fracture of a tensile specimen, expressed as a percentage of the original gage length, as 20% in 2 in. Percentage reduction of area is the smallest area at the point of rupture of a tensile specimen divided by the original area. Physical properties exclude mechanical propetties, and are other physi- cal properties such as density, conductivity, coefficient of thermal“ MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES [Ch.2 expansion. See mechanical properties. Chemical properties include corrosion resistance. Plasticity is the ability of a metal to be deformed considerably without rupture. In a plastic deformation, the material does not return to its original shape. See elasticity. Poisson's ratio is the ratio of the lateral strain (contraction) to the longitudinal strain (extension) when the element is loaded with a longitudi- nal tensile force. Precipitation heat treatment brings about the precipitation of a consti- tuent from a supersaturated solid solution by holding the body at an elevated temperature, also called artificial aging. In some alloys, precipi tation may also occur at ambient temperatures, a process called aging. Proof stress is that stress which causes a specified permanent deforma- tion of a material, usually 0.01% or less. See yield strength, § 1.8. Red shortness is a brittleness in steel when it is red hot. Relaxation, associated with creep, is the decreasing stress at a constant strain; important for metals in high-temperature service. Residual stresses are those not due to applied loads or temperature gradients; they exist for various reasons, as unequal cooling rates, cold working, etc. Rimmed steel is incompletely deoxidized steel. Ingots of this steel have a surface layer quite free of slag inclusions and gas pockets, which results in the optimum surface on rolled sheets. Solution heat treatment is the process of holding an alloy at a suitably high temperature long enough to permit one or more constituents to pass into solid solution and then cooling fast enough to hold the constituents as a supersaturated solution. (Precipitation may occur with time.) ‘Stiffness is the ability to resist deformation. It is measured by the modulus of elasticity in the elastic range; the higher the modulus, the stiffer is the material Strain hardening is increasing the hardness and strength by plastic de- formation at temperatures lower than the recrystallization range. Sce temper. ‘Temper is a condition produced in a non-ferrous metal by mechanical or thermal treatment: for example, annealed temper (soft), hard temper, spring temper. Sce §§ 2.16 and 2.17. Toughness is the capacity of material to withstand a shock load without ‘breaking. The impact strength (see Charpy and Izod tests), though not an absolute measure, evaluates toughness. Formerly, the energy required to pull a standard tensile specimen in two was taken as the toughness, but this quantity is not representative because of the effect of the cold working of the specimen during the slow-speed test. Transverse strength refers to the results of a transverse bead test, the specimen being mounted as a simple beam; also called. rupture modulus. It is frequently applied to brittle materials, especially cast iron, Work hardening is the same as strain hardening.23] HEAT-TREATMENT TERMS as Wrought steel is steel that has been hammered, rolled, or drawn in the process of manufacture; it may be plain carbon or alloy steel. 2.3 HEAT-TREATMENT TERMS.?92629! Heat treatment is an operation or combination of operations involving the heating and cool- ing of metal or an alloy in the solid state for the purpose of altering the properties of the material. A few of the most common terms have meanings as given below, See § 2.8 for case-hardening processes. ‘Aging (and age hardening) is a change in a metal by which its structure recovers from an unstable or metastable condition that has been pro- duced by quenching or cold working. The change in structure, which proceeds as a function of time and temperature, consists in precipitation often submicroscopic. The result is a change of mechanical and physical properties, a process that may be accelerated by using a temperature slightly higher than room temperature. Annealing, a comprehensive term, is a heating and slow cooling of a solid metal, usually done to soften it. Other purposes of annealing include those of altering the mechanical and physical properties, producing a particular microstructure, removing internal stresses (stress relieving), and removing gases. See normalizing below. Critical range has the same meaning as transformation range (below). Drawing is often used to mean rempering, but this usage conflicts with the meaning of the drawing of a material through a die (< 2.9) and is to be avoided. Graphitizing, and annealing process, causes the combined carbon to transform wholly or in part into graphitic or free carbon; it is applied to cast iron, sometimes to high-carbon steel. Hardening is the heating of certain steels above the transformation range and then quenching, for the purpose of increasing the hardness. In the general case, hardening is any process of increasing the hardness of a metal. See § 2.9. Malleablizing is an annealing process whereby combined carbon in white cast iron is transformed wholly or in part to temper carbon. Temper carbon is free (graphitic) carbon in the form of rounded nodules, charac- teristic forms in graphitizing and malleablizing. See § 2.12 concerning malleable iron. Normalizing is the heating of an iron-base alloy to some 100°F above the transformation range with subsequent cooling to below that range in still air at room temperature. The purpose is to produce a uniform struc- ture. ‘Spheroidizing is any heating and cooling of steel that produces a rounded or globular form of carbide. Typically, it is a prolonged heating at a tem- perature slightly below the transformation range, usually followed by slow cooling; or, for small objects of high-carbon steel, it may be prolonged heating alternately within and slightly below the transformation range.4“ MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES [Ch.2 Stress relieving (thermal) is the heating of a metal body to 2 suitable temperature (generally just below the transformation range for steel, say 1100-1200°F) and holding it at that temperature for a suitable time (1 to 3 hours for steel) for the purpose of reducing internal residual stresses. The internal stresses may be present because the body has been cast, quenched, normalized, machined, cold worked, or welded. Tempering is a reheating of hardened or normalized steel to a tempera- ture below the transformation range, followed by any desired rate of cooling. Quenched steel is tempered in order to reduce internal stresses, to restore a certain amount of ductility, and to improve toughness. The time and temperature of tempering are selected in order to give the steel the desired properties. See Figs. AF 1, AF 2, AF 3, Appendix. If, for example, a particular steel with a particular yield strength is desired, do not specify the tempering temperature. This temperature can be varied slightly to produce closely the desired mechanical property. Transformation range for ferrous metals is the temperature interval during which austenite is formed during heating; it is also the temperature interval during which austenite disappears during cooling. Thus, there are two ranges; these may overlap but never coincide. The range on heating is higher than that on cooling. 2.4 HARDNESS. The hardness of @ material is a measure of its resistance to indentation, and is one of the most significant properties because, properly interpreted, it says much about the condition of the metal. The most common instruments used to determine hardness are the Brinell, Rockwell, Vickers, and Shore scleroscope. increasing hardness numbers indicate increasing hardness. The Brinell hardness number (BHN) is determined by a standard pres- sure (3000 kg. standard, $00 kg. for soft metals) applied to a 10-mm. ball which presses for 10 sec. or more on the surface of the material being tested. The load in kilograms divided by the area of the surface of the indentation in square millimeters is the BHN. This hardness number is closely related to the ultimate tensile stress of steel as follows: Qn 5, % (S00)BHN) psi or (0.5)(BHIN) ksi. (Fon sTret WHEN 200 <9HN <400] The probable range of values is (470) (BHN) < su < (530) (BHN). Use this approximation only when reliable test data are not available, and do not apply it to any other metal. The Rockwell tester, faster than the Brinell and widely used commer- cially, utilizes severai different indenters and, in effect, measures the depth of the penetration by the indenter. Each indenter has an identifying symbol, as follows (always specify the Rockwell scale): Rockwell B (Ra), Ain. ball, 100-kg. load, for medium soft metals, as for many copper alloys and soft steel ee)#25) AIS! AND SAE SPECIFICATION NUMBERS a Rockwell C (Rc), diamond indenter, 150-kg. load, for hard metals, as hard steel. Rockwell A (Rq), diamond indenter, 60-kg. load, for extremely hard metals, such as tungsten carbide. Rockwell D (Rp), diamond indenter, 100-kg. load, sometimes used for case- hardened metal. Rockwell E (Re), tin. ball, 100-kg. load, for soft metals, such as bearing metals and magnesium; F, (y-in. ball); H, K, L, M, P, R, S, V (with different sizes of balls), are all used for soft materials as a substitute for the E scale; scale G (ir in. ball) for phosphor bronze. ‘The Rockwell superficial tester, a different machine, is used for a piece of material too thin for the standard tester. The scales for this ‘«iter are N (for (C-hard materials) and T (for B-hard materials). The N-scale indenter ,is a di mond, and the load may be 15, 30, or 45 kg., designated thus: 15-N, 30-N, 45-N. ‘The T-scale indenter is a -in. ball with loads as before and designated thus: 15-T, 30-T, and 45-T. The Vickers tester has a square-base, diamond pyramid indenter, and the Vickers number is the load in kilograms divided by the impressed area in square millimeters. The Shore scleroscope number is obtained by letting a freely falling hammer with a diamond point strike the object to be tested and measuring the height of rebound. This height is the Shore number; the higher the rebound, the harder is the material. The Shore machine can be used on large parts and is often used as a quick inspection aid, but it is less accurate than the other tests. Conversions from one hardness to another may be made in Fig. AF 4, which gives the approximate relationships for steel. The term file hard, often found in the literature, should be a hardness of perhaps 600 Brinell 2.5 AISI AND SAE SPECIFICATION NUMBERS. — There are numerous "standard"? materials specifications. 7° Many large consuming organizations and nearly all producers have some standards of their own. The armed forces have numerous ones. However, the princi- pal agencies whose specifications are most widely used are the American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM). the Society of Automotive En- gincers (SAE). and the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI). The SAE and AISI specification numbers are alike for steel except that the AIST uses prelixes B,C, D. and E to indicate the method of manufacturing the carbon grades: sce Table 2.1 In a general way for steel, the first digit (or the first two digits) of the number represents type of steel, for example: IXXX is a plain carbon steel, 1{XX is a plain carbon stcel with greater sulfur content for free- cutting, 2XXX is nickel steel. The last two digits in four-digit numbers invariably give the approximate or average carbon content in’ “points” or hundredths of per cent. For example, an SAE 1030 or an AISI C1030 has about 0.30% carbon, spoken of as 30 points of carbon (nominal range“a MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES (Ch. 2 is 0.28-0.34%). Or in 8620, the average carbon content i % (range of 0.18-0.23%). ee TABLE 2.1 SYSTEM OF SPECIFICATION NUMBERS FOR STEEL—AISI AND SAF Im the AISI system, prefixes have the following meanings: ‘\, acid bessemer steel; ©, basic, open-hearth carbon steel; D, acid open-hearth carbon stcel; E, electric-furnace steel (usually alloy). Letters B.or L in the middle of the number indicate that boron or ead, respectively, has been added; as 94 B 40 and 11 L 41 (§ 2.6). An H at the end indicates t that material can be bought on hardenability specification, as 9840H (52.7). STEEL SAE STEEL | sae Plain carbon ma 10Xx |] Molybdenum-chromium-nickel | 47XX. Free cutting 11XX_ || Molybdenum-nickel 48XX Manganese : 13XX || Chromium)... ss | SXXX Boron «| : 14Xx 514xx Boron” = --HISXX |) peat and corrosion resistant 15130 Nickel-chromium 3XXxX || Chromium-vanadium =. [OXXX heat and corrosion resistant }303XX || Nickel-chromium-molybdenum |8XXX Molybdenum 4XXxX || Silicon-manganese +. «- |92XX Molybdebum-chromium 41XX_ || Nickelchromium-molybde- | 9XXX_ i Molybdenum-chromium-nickel |43XX |} num (except 92XX) | Molybdenum-nickel—«- 4oxx, } Examination of Table AT 7, for example, shows that in general the strength of steel increases with carbon content, while the ductility de- creases. A brief suggestion of typical uses of plain carbon wrought steel is as follows. ‘Carbon, 10-20 points, 1OXX group. Used for tubing, forgings, pressed-steel parts, screws, rivets, and for carburized case-hardened parts. Carbon, 10-20 points, 11XX group. Due to higher sulfur content in certain grades, it is free-cutting and good for use in automatic screw machines for miscellaneous parts, including screws; it also may be carburized. For case harden- ing, the open-hearth steels, identified by the symbol C in the AISI number, are to be preferred. Higher carbon-content steels in the I1XX group, as 1141, contain more manganese and are heat treatable for improved mechanical properties. Sce Table AT 9. These steels are not usually welded. Carbon, 20-30 points. General purpose grades, used for forged and machined parts; screws; also for boiler plate and structural steel. Carbon, 30-55 points. With 0.40-0.50% C, frequently used for miscellaneous forged and machined parts; shafts. Frequently heat treated for irhproved mecha- nical properties. Cold finished for shafting and similar parts. ‘Carbon, 60-95 points. May be hardened to a good cutting edge, especially in the higher ranges of carbon; therefore, used for tools. Also for springs. High strength, low ductility. Nearly always heat treated, say, to a Brinell hardness of 375 or higher.$2.6] ALLOY STEEL, “a 2.6 ALLOY STEEL Wrought alloy steel is steel that contains signi- ficant quantitites of recognized alloying metals, the most’common being aluminum, chromium, cobalt, copper, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, phosphorus, silicon, titanium, tungsten, and vanadium. Alloys are used to improve the hardenability of steel (§ 2.7), to reduce distortion from heat treatment, to increase toughness, ductility, and tensile strength, and to improve low-temperature or high-temperature properties. See remarks on alloys below. With alloys, steel may be heat treated to the desired hardness with less drastic quenching and therefore with less trouble from distortion and cracking. For small parts, a relatively small amount of alloy is needed. in order for the part to respond in depth to heat treatment. Larger parts should have greater amounts of the alloying elements for hardenability purposes. Alloy steels may be classified as: (a) Low-alloy structural steels (not heat treated). These steels (s, = 50 ksi. as rolled) were developed for structural uses where light weight is important (but not extremely so as in aeronautics), such as in the transportation industry, but they are also used in other structures. Phosphorous (0.03-0.15%<) is an effective strengthener, as is nickel (0.5~2%) and copper (0.2-1.25%). Copper also impatts resistance to atmospheric corrosion. The carbon is typically some 0.15-0.20% ; but more may be used on occasion, Other alloys are manganese, silicon, chro- mium, and molybdenum, but not necessarily all at once. They weld easily and do not air-harden. (b) Low-carbon alloy steels (0.10-0.25%C), AISI steels, used chiefly for carburizing. (©) Medium-carbon alloy steels (0.25-0.50% €), usually quenched and tem- pered to hardnesses between 250 and 400 Brinell. (@), High-carbon alloy steels (0.50-0.70% C or more), ordinarily heat treated to hardnesses between 375 and $00 Brinell, for use as springs, wear resisting parts, ete. (©) High-alloy steels, such as stainless steels. A few brief remarks about the principal alloying clements will suggest other functions of alloys (chemical symbol in parentheses). Aluminum (Al is an efficient deoxidizer, an alloy in nitriding steels (nitralloys), and it promotes fine grain size. Boron (B) in very small amounts (0.001% or less) is an economical harden- ability agent in low- or medium-carbon deoxydized steels. It has no effect on tensile strength. ‘Chromium (Cr) improves hardenability economically, resistance to corrosion (with other alloys), strength at high temperatures, and wearing properties (high carbon). Cobalt (Co) improves red hardness. Columbium (Cb) is often used to “stabilize” stainless steel (that is, it preempts the carbon and forestalls the formation of undesired carbides). Copper (Cu) improves steel’s resistance to atmospheric corrosion; up to 4% Cu, it increases the fluidity of the melt; it improves tensile strength and the yield ratio in the normalized condition. Yield ratio = 5,/s.. With more than 0.75% Cu, steels can be precipitation hardened. Lead (Pb) improves machinability, but affects different alloys differently.MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES (Ch. 2 Manganese (Mn) improves strength and increases hardenability moderately, counteracts brittleness from sulfur. Present in all steels, manganese becomes an alloying element when its amount exceeds about 0.6%, as in the 13XX steels. Medium-carbon manganese sicels are subject to embrittlement at temperatures above 600°F. Austenitic manganese steel (not 13XX) typically contains 1.2% C and 12-13% Mn and responds to work hardening st readily. Molybdenum (Mo) increases hardenability 1 .rkedly and economically (when Mo > Cr), tends to counteract temper brittleness, improving creep strength and red hardness; it improves wear by forming abrasion-resistant par- ticles. It is the most effective alloy for improving strength at high temperatures. (Alloys of molybdenum—not molybdenum alloys of steel—are proving to be very effective at temperatures above about 1500°F. See § 2.21.) Nickel (INi) strengthens unquenched and annealed steels, toughens steel (especially at low temperatures), and simplifies heat treatment by lessening distortion. It is the most effective element for reducing the brittleness of steel at very low temperature; see § 2.22. It is one of the principal alloys for stainless steel (§ 2.15). Phosphorus (P) increases hardenability, strengthens low-carbon steels, improves machinability of free-cutting steels, and improves resistance to corro- sion. Selenium (Se) improves machinability of stainless steel; also added to leaded resulfurized carbon steels for the same purpose. Silicon (Si) strengthens low-alloy steels and improves resistance to high- temperature oxidation; it is a good general-purpose deoxidizer and promotes fine grain. ‘Tantalum (Ta) is a stabilizer (see Columbium). Titanium (Ti) is used for deoxidation and for stabilizing austenitic stainless steels (preventing intergranular corrosion and embrittlement); it increases the hardness and strength of low-carbon steel and improves creep strength. ‘Tungsten (W) increases hardenability markedly in small amounts and im- proves hardness and strength at high temperature. An expensive alloy, it is used only where a particular advantage results, as in high-speed tool steel in which it forms a hard, abrasion-resisting carbide. Vanadium (V) promotes fine-grain structure, improves the ratio of endurance strength to ultimate strength of medium-carbon steels (average about 0.57), increases hardenability strongly when dissolved, and results in retention of strength and hardness at high temperature; it is the most effective element in retarding softening during tempering. Since ailoy steels are more costly than plain carbon steels, an alloy should not be employed unless its use yields some advantage. By properly balancing the alloy and carbon contents, one may obtain a particular strength with higher ductility or a particular desired ductility with higher strength than is possible without alloys. Since alloys generally improve the mechanical properties, their strength/weight ratio is higher, and therefore their use may result in smaller parts which partly offsets the increased cost per pound. It is important to note that the modulus of elasticity, E (and G) is virtually the same for alloy steels as for carbon steels and that therefore if rigidity is the basis of design, there is no advantage in using alloy steel—an alloy steel deflects the same amount per unit stress as does a carbon steci.27 HARDENASILITY su If an alloy steel is used, it should, in general, be heat treated in order to obtain the best properties for the purpose. See tables in the Appendix. Illustrative of the uses of alloy steels, we have: AISI 2330: bolts, studs, tubing subjected to torsional stresses. AISI 23: quenched and tempered shafting, connecting rods, very highly Stressed bolts, forgings. AISI 2350: high-capacity gears, shafts, heavy duty machine parts. AISI 3130; shafts, bolts, steering knuckles. AISI 3140: aircraft- and truck-engine crankshafts, oil-well tool joints, spline shafts, axles, earth moving equipment. AISI 3150: wear-resisting parts in excavating and farm machinery, gears, forgings. AISI 3240: shafts, highly stressed pins and keys, gears. AISI 3300 series: for heavy parts requiring deep penetration of the heat treatment (hardenability) and high fatigue strength per unit of weight. AISI 4063: leaf and coil springs. AISI 4130, 4140: automotive connecting rods and axles, aircraft parts and tub- ing. AISI 4340: crankshafts, axles, gears, landing gear parts; perhaps the best general purpose AISI steel. AISI 4640: gears, splined shafts, hand tools, miscellaneous heavy duty AISI 8630: connecting rod:, bolts, shapes; air hardens after weldiny AISI 8640, 8740: gears, propeller shafts, -knuckles, shapes. Alloys with 10-20 points carbon are widely carburized (§ 2.8) in producing pins, bolts, gears (teeth), shafts (at wearing surfaces), cams, and worm threads. 2.7 HARDENABILITY. Hardenability is the capacity of steel to through-harden when cooled from above its transformation range. It is determined from a standard I-in. round specimen, Fig. 2.1, with the test, called a Jominy test, conducted according to a standard procedure. Flats FIGURE 2.1 End-Quench Harden- ability Test. The specimen is heated to the proper quenching temperature, placed in a fixture as shown in this illustration, after which a spray of water strikes the lower end. The hard- cost part of the specimen will be the end ‘exposed to the jet of water, the most drastic quench. Hardness. will de- crease as the distance fromthe sprayed end is increased, because the rapidity of cooling decreases to prac- tically that of air cooling at the far ‘end. Good hardenability is especially important when the entire section is subjected to high stresses; it Is less important when the high stresses are ‘on or near the surface. (Courtesy U.S. Stee! Corp., Pittsburgh).Rockwell C Hardness esses 2 avivalent Hardness at Center—Water Quenched ! 2 3 4 Equivalent Hardness at Conter—Oi Guenched 1 2 s * Te s 2 is 208 Distance from Quenched End, 16th Inches. FIGURE 2.2 Hardenability Curves. The materials shown were selected to show dif- ferences, Notice that the hardness of AISI 4340 holds up well with depth, that the higher carbon 4063 has the hardest surface, that the same carbon steels, 4340 and 1340, have practically the same surface hardness (at yr in.), and that the low carbon 4620 (actual 0.179% ©) has lower hardness all the way. The individual lines are typical actual test values. The Hi band shown for 4140 is suitable for specifications. The top coordinates are defined by this example: & 2 in., ofl-quenched plece of 4063 has a hardness at its center of R, = 42. (Courtesy Bethichem Steel Co., Pittsburgh). are ground longitudinally on opposite sides of the cooled specimen, after which the Rockwell C hardness is determined at each y-in. interval from the quenched end. The hardness of a quenched surface is largely depen- dent on its carbon content, while the depth hardness, or hardenability, depends on the amount of carbon, the alloy content, and the grain size. ‘The most effective alloys in improving hardenability are boron, vana- dium, manganese, chromium, molybdenum, phosphorus, tungsten, and to a lesser extent, nickel and silicon. Smaller amounts of several elements increase hardenability more than does a larger amount of one alloy. ‘Typical hardenability curves are shown in Fig. 2.2, where it is seen that the hardness at a certain point on the test specimen corresponds to the hardness at the center of a certain size rod. This relationship is worked out experimentally for a particular kind of quench and steel. Although it is easy to harden a light piece all the way through, the material of a heavy piece must be chosen with forethought if through hardness (or nearly through hardness) is desired. Through hardness is not always wanted. A softer core may be an asset. Some steels, frequently designated by H as a suffix to the AISI number (Fable 2.1), may be bought on the basis of hardenability by specifying, for example, the limits of hardness of a Jominy specimen at a certain point along its length. Suppose that a hardness of Re = 40 is desired at a certain depth and that this corresponds to Rc = 45 at 4} in. in the Jominy test; the H band of Fig. 2.2 shows that AISI 4140 would be satisfactory in this respect. cy92.8) CASE HARDENING s3 2.8 CASE HARDENIN' se hardening of iron base alloys is a process of surface hardening whereby the surface or case is substantially harder than the core or inside metal. Case hardening is dene by carburizing, cyaniding, nitriding, carbonitriding, induction hardening, and flame hard- ening.2223.26.2.8) The purpose of case hardening is usually to provide a hard, wear- resistant surface while retaining great toughness in the core. It is also used for increasing the endurance strength of certain machine parts and for other purposes where high strength and hardness on the surface are advantageous. (a) Carburizing. Carburizing is a process of adding carbon to the surface of steel by exposing it to hot carbonaceous solids, liquids, or gases—above the transformation temperature. Quenching, and usually tempering at 300-450°F for the purpose of relieving residual stresses induced by quenching, follow carburizing. The common methods of adding carbon are pack (or box) carburizing and gas carburizing. In pack carburizing, the part is heated in contact with solid carburizing com- pounds of various constituents, including charcoal, burned bone, charred leather, tar, and barium, sodium, and calcium carbonates, especially barium. carbonate and charcoal. The depth of the case and the rapidity of the pr depend in part on the soaking temperature, which is of the order of 1650-1750°F. In gas carburizing, which has been developed to an efficient and economic procedure, especially for large quantities, the part is heated in carburizing gases, such as methane, ethane, propane, and CO. The temperatures of operation and case thicknesses obtained are much the same as those in pack carburizing. After 4 hr. at 1700°F, the thickness of the case should range between 0.04 to 0.05 in. In figquid carburizing the part is immersed in 2 molten salt bath that imparts a case similar to that obtained with gas or pack carburizing except that the case is thinner, usually not in excess of about 0.025 in. For heavy duty, as in some gear teeth, a case thickness of 0.06 to 0.09 in. may be desired. It would seem that a safe design vaiue of the surface hard- ness of carburized steel would be about 600 BHN. The hardness should generally fall between the limits 55 < Re < 65 or 560 < BHN < 730. Carburizing steels are low carbon steels, say 0.15-0.25 % carbon. (b) Cyaniding. As in liquid carcarizing, cyaniding is accomplished by immersing the part in a hot (about 1550°F) liquid salt bath, sodium cyanide (NaCN) being a common medium in both processes. The difference in the processes lies largely in the use of a catalyst in liquid carburizing that results in a more rapid penetration of carbon and a relatively smail amount of nitrogen in the case. Thus, the so-called cyanided case has more nitrogen, which is also a hardening agent. Whereas the thickness of the case of liquid- carburized parts may be somewhat g-cater than 0.02 in., the cyanided case“ MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES [Ch.2 is seldom thicker than 0.010 in. Low- and medium-carbon steels are usually used for cyaniding, and the case hardness may be of the order of that obtained by carburizing. (©) Nitriding. In surface hardening by nitriding, the machined and heat-treated part is placed in a nitrogenous environment, commonly am- monia gas, at temperatures much lower than those used in the previously described processes, say 1000°F or somewhat less. Since a nitrided part does not need to be quenched rapidly, this process avoids the distortion that accompanies quenching, sometimes a big advantage, especially for com- plicated shapes. The hardening is the result of a reaction of the nitrogen, dissociated from the ammonia, with the alloying elements in the steel to form nitrides, For maximum hardness of the case, special steels, called nitra- alloys and containing aluminum as an alloy, are used; yet other steels, notably AISI 4340, are frequently nitrided. The case hardness of AISI 4340, tempered at 1025°F, anid nitrided at 975°F for about 40 hr., may be over 600 Vickers (560 BHN) and the case depth some 0.025-0.030 in. In other situations, the nitriding time may be upwards of 90 hr., which together with the contro! problem, accounts in part for its high cost. ‘The carbon content of the nitralloys falls within the approximate range of 0.20 to 0.40% carbon. The case hardness of Nitralloy N, for example, nitrided at 975°F for 48 hr. should be above Vickers 900 (equivalent Brinell of about 780), or better than Ro = 67. The case thickness may be from 0.010 to 0.020 in. The case is quite strong for a body subjected to bending or tension, so that failures that result from repeated stresses usually originate in the transition region between the case and core. (@) Carbonitriding is a process of case hardening steel by the simul- taneous absorption of carbon and nitrogen from a surrounding hot gaseous atmosphere, followed by either quenching or slow cooling, as required. It is used for both batch and continuous processes. With a sufficient percentage (ap to 15%) of ammonia in the carburizing gas, carbon steel! parts may emerge file-hard without quenching. (See nitriding.) Very small amounts of ammonia (less than 1%) in the carburizing gas are sufficient to permit attainment of maximum hardness with an oil quench. The use of small quantitics of ammonia in combination with quenching is cheaper than using a larger amount of ammonia. In continuous furnaces at 1500-1550°F, the case depth may range from 0.003 to 0.010 in., depending on time and temperature.'?) This process is used as a low-cost substitute for cyaniding and produces a product of good quality. Some hard cases produced by this method have been reported to wear many times longer than the best cyanided or carburized cases previously used. (©) Induction Hardening. Induction hardening consists of heating a thin surface layer, preferably of annealed or normalized steel, above the transformation range by electrical induction and then cooling, as required, in water, oil, air, or gas. Since this process rapidly heats a thin layer of the surface, leaving the core relatively cool, the process is widely used for2.9] CASE HAROENING ss surface hardening of steels whose carbon content is in the range of 0.35 to 0.55%, the carbon content with which steel readily responds to heat treat- ment. The depth of the hard case may be regulated so that, for example, the Rockwell hardness is C 50 or greater to depths of 0.02 to 0.17 in. The surface hardness may be of the order of Re = "50 to 55 or higher (BHN = $00 seems to be a reasonable design value); the core is of the order of Ro = 30 to 35. See Fig. 2.3. After quench hardening of the heated surface, the part is preferably tempered at some 400-450°F. Surface hardening through induction heating is used also for cast iron and malleable iron. Since FIGURE 2.3 Hardness of a Gear Tooth, Inductiog ‘Hardened. Observe the hardness close to the surface ‘and near the middie of the base of the tooth (where the lower hardness indicates a tough core). Hardness readings are Rockwell C. (Courtesy Ohio Crankshaft Co., Cleveland). FIGURE 2.4 Induction-hardened Gear Teoth. If fear teeth are heated in an induction hardealng machine, the heating follows the contour of the teeth as suggested by this illustration and Fig. 2.3. The lighter areas were rapidly heated, after which the ‘gear was quenched. Besides being advantageous fer as in gear teeth and cams, this spted to some selective hardentag journal surfaces while leaving the rest of a shaft unaffected. induction heating follows well the contour of the part being: heated, it i appropriate for cams, gears (Figs. 2.3 and 2.4), and other irregular sur- faces to be hardened. (© Flame Hardening. Flame hardening, like induction hardening, is a process of heating the surface of an iron-base alloy, which is preferably annealed or normalized, and then quenching it. Typically, neutral acetylene flames are played upon the surface to be hardened, followed closely by Jets of water for cooling. While the. process can be carried on manually, more consistent results are obtained by using especially designed machines. ‘This method is applicable to the same metals as is induction hardening (say 0.45% C for steel), and while it is used for both small and large parts, it has particular advantages for very large parts where selected surfacesFIGURE 2.5 Machine for Flame-hardening Gear Teeth, An example of a vpecial flaine- hardening machine. This machine flame-hardens the surfaces of bevel-gear teeth on gears up to 24-In. The hardening operation is clectroniclly controll ed and automatic; adaptabic {to spur, helical, and herringbone gears, and to straight, spiral and Zerol bevel gears. Flame iaardening in general, which is especially well adapted to hardening selected surfaces on large parts, may also be manually controlled. (Courtesy Gieason Works, Rochester, N.¥.) are hardened—such as the ways of a lathe or the surface of the teeth on large gears (Fig. 2.5). The resulting surface hardness should be of the order of 500 Brinell for 0.45% C steel, and the distortion may be negligible under controlled conditions. 2.9 WORK HARDENING. — Work hardening is the result of a metal being stressed at some point into its plastic range, usually ordinary tem- peratures (certainly below recrystallization temperature) ; metal cold worked in this manner becomes stronger and more brittle. “Cold-finished” ma- terial* has had its cross section significantly reduced by cold rolling (usually used for flat products) or cold drawing through a die (usually employed to produce cold-finished rods). By 10% cold work, for example, is meant that the cross-sectional area is reduced 10% during the process. Typically for steel, the dimensional reduction per pass is zy or ye in., with a total reduction of 20% to 12% or less. A 125% reduction of steel (whose s, < 110 ksi) results in an increase of about 20% in ultimate strength (closely a straight-line variation to this point), an increase of about 70% in yield strength (values to this point are all greater than the straight-line variation), and a decrease of about 35% in percentage elongation." The toughness also decreases, and machineability increases. Cold drawing improves * Cold finished is a term also applied to rounds that are turned or ground, but our use of the term will be as defined. 56yield strengths of 1 in. round bars, from 25 heats and 2 vendors. After Ref. (2.1). FIGURE 2.6 Coid-Drawa AISI 1117, Scatter of | 8 a 7 2 50 ‘Yield Strength, kai the strength of carbon steel enough that it is sometimes used instead of a more expensive heat treatment, However, the natural spread of mechanical properties is likely to be greater than for heat treated parts, suggesting caution. See Fig. 2.6, Cold drawing leaves residual tensile stresses that may be deleterious to fatigue strength; see § 4.30. Steel is also drawn at elevated temperatures, with an even greater it crease in strength (up to a material temperature of about 1000°F during drawing) as compared to cold-drawn material, stress relieved at the same temperature. Maximum strength for AISI 1144 bars, I-im diameter, is obtained when the material is drawn at about 600°F (a proprietary process* called elevated-temperature drawing, ETD) and no stress relieving is needed'?»)but a higher drawing temperature may be needed for im- proved ductility. The benefits of this method of finishing will in some cases ¢liminate heat treating operations and avoid the need for alloy, For com- parison purposes (see Tables AT 7 and AT 10), some properties of AISI 1144 processed in this manner are: 5, = 140 ksi min. (150 ksi typical), Sy = 125 ksi min., BHN = 280, elongation s 10%; and it has a good machinability rating of 80. Additional remarks concerning cold working of other metals are found below. The cold working of surfaces (plastic deformation limited to a thin surface layer) by pecning and rolling is taken up in Chapter 4. 2.10 WROUGHT IRON. — Wrought iron is made by burning the car- bon from molten iron and then putting the product through hammering and rolling operations. The product contains some 1-3% stag and less than 0.1% carbon. The material is very soft and ductile and is easily forge welded. itis used principally for rivets, welded steam and watér pipes, and for general forging purposes. Its most advantageous properties are its ductility and resistance to corrosion as compared to steel. 2.41 CAST IRON. — Cast iron in a general sense includes white cast iron, malleable iron, and nodular cast iron, but when cast iron is used without a qualifying adjective, gray cast iron, spoken of as gray iron is meant. In general, gray iron contains so much carbon (2.6-3.6% usually) that it is not malleable at any temperature. In gray iron, the excess carbon is uncombined, and a fracture is gray. * La Salle Steel Co. 7‘Set Specimens se MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES (Cs. 2 The ASTM, in specification A 48-46, has classified gray iron according to minimum tensile strength.-* See Table AT 6. Thus, a ‘30 gray iron” will have a standard test strength of not less than 30,000 psi (30 ksi). Strength is increased by reducing the carbon content (about 3.7% for class 20, 2.8% for class 60), and the higher-strength cast irons contain typical alloys.(24.2.14.2.15) Cast iron is sometimes given a heat treatment, but ordinarily it is cheaper to improve strength and other properties by reducing silicon and/or carb. or by increasing alloy content than by heat treating. The histogram of Fig, 2.7 shows a typical distribution of tensile strength as obtained from say 60 tests. Rigidly inspected, this lot would classify as class 35. Gray iron has excellent wearing properties that are improved by certain alloys and by heat treatment (including flame and induction hardening). FIGURE 2.7 Tensile Strength of Cast Iron. Thus, it is widely used for cylinder blocks, brake drums, gears, machine tool ways, and in general where there is metal-to-metal contact and relative motion. The lower-strength varieties and all grades in the annealed state are easily machined. Gray iron is more resistant to many kinds of corrosion than are ordinary or low-alloy steels.) It has much greater damping capacity (for vibrations) than steel, which suggests its use under some vibrating conditions. It is successfully used in crankshafts, as in automobile engines. See Fig. 2.14. Being the cheapest of metals, ordinary (low-strength) gray iron is the most widely used of all cast metals. Its principal disad- vantages are its brittleness and lack of toughness, but these properties are often not significant. Cost tends upward with specification numbers, es- pecially above ASTM 35; the cost of melted metal for good castings from class 60 iron runs about 2.3 times that for class 30 iron,'®) assuming large production; and there are other sources of increased cost. Cast iron loses strength with increase of the minimum section dimen- sion. A j-in., class-20 bar has a tensile strength of 28 ksi; a 4-in. bar has 54 © IL ksi, no longer class 20. For a 1-in., class-60 bar, 5, © 65 ksi; for a 4in, bar, s, © 44 ksi.) Hooke’s law is not too well approximated by cast iron, so that one must be careful of the values of the modulus of12.13] MODULAR CAST IRON ” elasticity E used when the operating stress is high. Sce Fig. 1.3. Typical quoted values of E would be the slope of a straight line from the origin of the s-e diagram to a point on the curve at s,/4. In white cast iron (the fracture is “white"), most of the carbon is com- bined chemically with the iron, and as a result, the metal is very hard. If the combined carbon is as much as 1.5%, the cast iron may be difficult or impossible to machine. When an extremely hard surface is desired, white cast iron, called chilled iron, is intentionally produced by using an iron plate in the mold to cause rapid cooling of the surface. The rapid cooling does not allow time enough for the carbon to be released as free carbon. Such a surface may be finished only by grinding and is suitable for car wheels, rolls, etc. 2.12 MALLEABLE IRON. Malleable iron is heat-treated white cast iron. 4217 The white cast iron is obtained not by chilling, as men- tioned above, but by using the proper composition in the melt. The heat treatment of the white cast iron, in which substantially all of the carbon is combined in the form of iron carbide, is an annealing, called malleablizing, during which the white iron changes to ferrite and free (or temper) carbon. Malleable iron. produces strong, ductile, and easily machined castings at low cost in quantity. Best results are obtained on relatively thin sections. See Fig. 2.15. If the part is thicker than about 3 in., there will be difficulty in producing a white-iron casting devoid of uncombined primary graphite. Since it is necessary that all the carbon in the original casting be combined carbon for the best results, malleable castings are generally produced in sections of from 4 to 2 in. thick. See grades 32510 and 35018 in Table AT 6. Induction hardening, as for gear teeth, may produce a surface hardness of Re © 55. A special form, pearlitic malleable iron differs from normal malleable iron in that there is a significant amount of combined carbon in the finished product. The difference is achieved by adding alloys, changing the heat treatment, or both. 2.13 NODULAR CAST IRON. Nodular cast iron, also called ductile iron, has the castability (for complex forms), machinability, and wearability of gray iron, but higher strength and ductility, It thus has good toughness (shock resistance). Instead of flakes as in gray iron, the graphite has a spheroidal shape, obtained by the addition of certain alloys, usually both magnesium (a few hundredths of 1%) and cerium (a few thousandths of 1%), both because they are helpful to each other. See Table AT 6, but there are other standard specifications.(22) Nodular iron is used for a wide variety of items, including casings,o MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES (Ch. 2 crankshafts, hubs, rolls, forming dies. It has a good resistance to thermal shock, and its “growth” at high temperature is less than that of gray iron, The as-cast 80-60-03, Table AT 6, is pearlitic and harder than the annealed 60-45-10, which is ferritic, and therefore the pearlitic has better wear pro- perties. In general, nodular iron has wear properties comparable to those of gray iron of the same hardness, which is good. Nodular iron (pearlitic) responds well to flame or induction hardening, perhaps with Rc > 55, but residual casting stresses should be relieved before treatment to avoid possible cracks, and after treatment, a stress relief at 300-400°F may be desirable. 2.14 CAST STEEL. The combination of highest strength and highest ductility in a cast ferrous metal is obtained in cast steel.!212 18) ‘When steel castings are, heat treated, the carbon content generally falls within the range of 0.25 to 0.50%. However, many steel castings with carbon less than 0.20% are used in the as-cast condition. Steel castings may be plain carbon or alloy steels, Among the ASTM grades of plain carbon steel castings in Table AT 6 are (ASTM A27-58): 60-30, 65-35, and 70-36, where the first number, say 60, represents the minimum tensile strength and the second number, say 30, represents the minimum yield strength at 0.2% offset, each in ksi, There are: several high-strength cast steels in Table AT 6 (ASTM A148-58) that are often referred to in a similar manner, as 80-35, where the numbers have the meanings explained above. To obtain the high strength, the foundryman regulates the carbon and alloy content (manganese, silicon, and other alloys) in such a way as to produce the mechanical properties stated in the specifications. A minimum heat treatment is annealing or normalizing. Alloy cast steels respond to heat treatment in much the same way as similar wrought alloy steels do. Not all grades of cast stecl are adapted to welding, but usually there is no trouble in this respect. Special alloys for corrosion resistance, heat resistance, and for other particular purposes are common, 2.18 STAINLESS STEEL. Table AT 4 gives the mechanical pro- perties of some of the “standard” stainless steel specifications. Stainless steel is relatively expensive, but where the environment is significantly corrosive or at high or quite low temperatures, it provides an economical answer for many problems. There are three classes: austenitic steels (200 and 300 series—that include 3.5 to 22% nickel for its stabilizing of auste- nite), martensitic stecls (usually with no nickel, but some types have 2.5% maximum), and ferritic steels (no nickel) that do not harden by quenching and tempering. All classes contain chromium (4 to 26%). Methods of hardening are:W215} STAINLESS STRaL “ (a) Cold working, § 2.9, which is the usual way of hardening the austenitic types because of their potent response to this treatment. Quench- ing these steels from about 1850°F avoids austenite transformation and leaves the steel soft, an effect opposite to that for ordinary steel. Cold- worked austenitic steels ‘are classified according to temper.as } hard (for which minimum s, = 125, s, = 75 ksi), $ hard (minimums, s, Sy = 110 ksi), } hard (minimums, s, = 175, s, = 135 ksi), full hard ( mums, s, = 185, s, = 140 ksi). Austenitic stainless is the best stainless steel for high-temperature service; its corrosion resistance is better in the annealed than in the work-hardened state, Uses of some types include: 301—hardware, utensils, structural; 302—strong at elevated temperature, decorative and corrosive applications, widely used; 303—free machining 18-8; 321—carbon stabilized by titanium, which makes it good for welding without subsequent annealing; 347—columbium (Cb) and tantalum (Ta) stabilized for welding without annealing. (b) Age hardening, usually termed precipitation hardening with reference to stainless, which occurs because of the precipitation of a consti- tuent from a supersaturated solid solution. It is generally conducted at elevated temperatures in order to increase the rate of precipitation. The stainless steels 302, 303, 304 and 316 are subject to precipitation hardening at 800-1650°F. The 17-7PH (17% Cr, 7% Ni), Table AT 4, which contains considerably less carbon, manganese, and silicon than 301, is precipitation hardened when mill annealed at 1950°F, air cooled and reheated to 1400°F for 90 min., air cooled and, to accelerate precipitation of carbides, re- heated to 1050°F for 90 min. Carbide precipitation is a migration of carbon to the grain boundaries where it combines with the chromium to form chramium carbide. The depletion of the chromium, the element that makes the steel stainless, adjacent to the’grain boundaries results in the boundary material of some grades being susceptible to highly corrosive media. Corrosion of this sort is called intergranular corrosion. The lower the carbon content, the less carbide precipitation there is; hence, these special grades of stainless steels are made with carbon content less than 0.08% (versus a normal 0.15~0.25%), to be used, for example, where a body is to be welded without subsequent annealing—as in the case of a body in the field or too large for available annealing furnaces. Other grades of austenitic stainless steels have the stabilizing elements columbium plus (maybe) tantalum or titanium added. These stabilizers combine with the carbon, thus preventing it from combining with the chromium. The 347 grade is stabilized with columbium and, moreover, contains less than 0.08 carbon. Another treatment for precipitation hardening stainless steels involves cooling to some — 100°F to transform the austenite to martensite; annealing at this stage results in a very high yield strength. Some types of austenitic manganese steels are capable of being precipitation hardened, as well as many nonferrous alloys.a MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES (Ch. 2 (©) Quenching and tempering, as for usual steels, except that trans- formations are so slow that the quenching is by air cooling for maximum hardness. This is the common way of hardening the martensitic types (although they respond in varying degrees to cold working). The type 410 is perhaps the least expensive, and its response to heat treatment is less than that of the 431 and some other types. The 403 is used for forged tur- bine blades; 410 is a general purpose type (screws, rods, shafts, rivets, pistons, knife blades) and can be successfully cold formed; 431 is a high strength stainless. _ The ferritic stainless steels do not harden significantly by heat treatment, nor do they work harden excessively. Cold working these steels raises their yield strength 30% or more, but the increase of ultimate strength is much less. Type 430 is widely used in the annealed state for auto trim, restaurant fixtures, heat exchanger flues, chemical equipment, etc. 2.16 COPPER ALLOYS. Since copper is one of the oldest known metals, it has been the base of many alloys, as well as being used in a relatively pure form.'?+-2.® Originally, the words brass and bronze, which have been used for hundreds of years, had fairly distinct meanings: brass being an alloy of copper and zinc; bronze being an alloy of copper and tin. However, the names have become so confused that the only safe way to know an alloy is to know its actual composition, Frequently copper-zine alloys contain some tin or copper-tin alloys contain zinc. Moreover, many other alloys for copper have come into use, notably aluminum, silicon, beryllium, and cadmium. The tendency is to call the newer copper alloys + bronze, even though there is little or no'tin present, as in aluminum bronze and silicon bronze. Manganese bronze ig really a high-strength brass, the improved mechanical properties being obtained by including small amounts of aluminum, iron, manganese, and tin. Phosphor bronze is a bronze, but the finished product may have only a trace of the phosphor that was added primarily to deoxidize the melt, a treatment that improves the mechanical Properties. See Table AT 3 for a few common copper alloys; the composi~ tions given are approximate. Copper and its alloys have characteristics that determine the advisability of their use; among these may be mentioned: electrical and thermal con- ductivity, resistance to corrosion, malleability and formability, ductility, strength, excellent machinability (especially with lead added), nonmagne- tic, pleasing finish, case of being plated, and castability (sand castings, permanent-mold castings, die castings, and others). Quenching does not harden copper alloys (except beryllium copper), so the usual manner of increasing strength and hardness is by cold work. Strip and sheet are cold worked by rolling; rods, bars, shapes are cold worked by drawing through a die. The percentage reduction of area byBI7]) ALUMINUM ALLOYS a cold work determines the temper; the softest grade is annealed. Reductions for other tempers are approximately as follows:(23) TEMPER, srr WIRE TEMPER hard Hard ghar Extra hard phard Spring hard Extra spring hard Copper alloys high in zinc (over say 35%; .g., naval brass) cannot take the extreme cold working because. they become excessively brittle. A few uses of some of the copper alloys follow. Admiralty metal: condenser and other heat-exchanger tubes and plates. Aluminum bronze: corrosion-resistant parts; marine pumps, shafts, valves; parts where high strength, toughness, wearability, low coefficient of friction, and damping are important, as some bearings, gears, worm wheels, cam rollers; also a decorative metal, as in statues and costume jewelry. Beryllium copper (also called beryllium bronze): parts where high formability, high yield, fatigue, and creep strengths, and also good corto’ advantageous; springs, bolts and screws, firing pins, dies, surgical instruments, spark resistant tools. It is solution annealed by holding at 1450°F for about 1 hr. per in. or fraction of inch; quench rapidly in water.(*1 It is precipitation har- dened by starting with solution-annealed metal and then for say 4 hard, heat for 2 hr. at 600°F. The properties of beryllium bronze are quite attractive, but it is some 5 times as expensive as brasses.(?:11 Cartridge brass: electrical parts, automotive .radiator cores, pins, rivets, springs, ammunition components, tubes. Manganese bronze: clutch disks, pump rods, shafts, valve stems, welding rod. ‘Naval brass: condenser plates, marine hardware, propeller shafts, piston rods, valve stems, welding rod, balls, nuts, bolts, rivets. Phosphor bronze: bellows, diaphragms, clutch disks, cotter pins, lock washers, bushings, springs, wire, welding rod, chemical hardware, wire brushes. Silicon bronze: hydraulic pressure lines, hardware, bolts, nuts, rivets, screws, electrical conduits, heat-exchanger tubes, welding rod. ‘Yellow brass: electrical fixtures, plumbing, wire, pins, architectural grillwork, radiator cores. ivets, screws, springs, 2.17. ALUMINUM ALLOYS. The lighter alloys are especially adap- ted for use where it is desired to reduce the inertia forces of moving parts and where, in general, reduced weight is an inherent advantage, as in air- plane construction and in some parts of trucks, trains, and other vehicles. Other characteristics of aluminum alloys that suggest their use include high electrical and thermal, conductivity; resistance to some corrosive effects (imparted by a film of oxide that forms on the surface); ease of“ MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES [Ch.2 casting, working (hot and cold), and joining by most manufacturing methods; and high mechanical properties in certain alloys. Various rolled shapes are obtainable, including structural shapes.{?-7.222.2.19) Temper designations have been standardized and are briefly defined as follows. The softest (annealed) temper is designated by 0, as 2014-0, The symbol F designates as-fabricated, as 360-F, 3003-F. The symbol H desig- nates strain (work) hardening and is followed by iwo digits, the second (last) digit indicates the amount of cold work, 8 being the maximum practical temper; H14 is strain hardened only, half hard (4 is half of 8). The symbol H2x indicates strain hardening plus partial annealing (to reduce hardness a little); the symbol H3x indicates strain hardening and then stabilized (used when magnesium is present, and consists of low-temperature heating to hasten a transformation that takes much longer at ambient temperature); thus H34 is half hard and stabilized. The symbol T indicatgs other treat- ment: T2, annealed cast products; T3, solution heat treated, cold worked, naturally aged to a stable state; T4, solution heat treated and naturally aged to a stable state; TS, artificially aged only; T6, solution heat treated and artificially aged; T7, solution heat treated and stabilized; T8, solution heat treated, cold worked, artificially aged; T9, solution heat treated, arti- ficially aged, then cold worked. Typical uses for some aluminum alloys are as follows (the first digit indicates by code the principal alloying element— given in parentheses after the identification number below). 3003 (Mn):—formerly 3S: vessels, tanks, tubing, cooking utensils, chem- ical equipment; in general, where good formability, weldability, and resistance to corrosion are desired. 2014 (Cu)—formerly 14S: aircraft fittings, truck frames, heavy duty forgings; in general, for high strength, high hardness, good formability, low weight. 2024 (Cu)—formerly 24S: aircraft structures, truck wheels, sctew machine products, rivets, hardware, miscellaneous structures. 6061 (Mg and Si)—formerly 61S: aircraft landing mats, canoes, marine applications, piping, welded parts, transportation equipment good strength, formability, weldability, and resistance to corrosion. 7075 (Zn)—formerly 75S: structural applications, aircraft structures in parti« cular. 360: thin-wall and intricate castings; has excellent castability and resistance to corrosion. 355: fuel pump bodies, ait-compressor pistons, liquid-cooled cylinder heads, crankcases, and various housings; good castability, weldability, and pressure tightness. . Aluminum takes a wide variety of pleasing finishes and colors, in- cluding anodized surfaces that additionally protect the base metal from corrosion, Aluminum bonded to steel (steel ingot or slab) and subsequently rolled comes out as steel with an integrated layer of aluminum, called aluminized steel; also obtained by hot dipping. furniture, general, 2.18 MAGNESIUM ALLOYS. Since magnesium alloys are about two-thirds as heavy as aluminum, lightness is one of the most significant2.19) TITANIUM 6 charecteristics of this metal. The relative weights of steel, aluminum, and magnesium, in that order are: 1, 0.35, 0.23. Other characteristics of mag- nesium include: nonsparking and nonmagnetic, good machinability, and low modulus of elasticity. Because of its light weight, it is often found in portable devices, pneumatic tools, sewing machines, typewriters; as parts where light weight is important, as in aircraft for blowers, nose pieces, housings, wheels, levers, brackets, etc.; and in accelerating parts where it is desired to reduce the inertia forces. Magnesium is cast as sand cast- ings,?1222) permanent mold and die castings; it is a good material for extrusion. The system of designating magnesium alloys is defined briefly as follows. The first two letters indicate the principal alloying elements (as AZ = alu- minum and zinc); the second part indicates the rounded-off amounts of these elements (as AZ61 = 6% Al and 1% Zn); the third part is a letter designating the order in which the compositions became standard (as AZG6IA is the first of this principal composition to be standardized); the Inst part indicates the temper, for which the symbols defined for aluminum apply (as AZ61A-T4 means that the alloy has been solution heat treated). ‘There are already a large number of more or less standard alloys. For the ones in Table AT 3, AZ61A: good for extrusions and press forgings (forging is generally done at slow speed). AZ80A: also used for forgings and extrusions; can be heat treated. ‘Two characteristics should be noted particularly: magnesium alloys are highly notch sensitive (important when a part changes section and is subjected to a varying load) and, contrary to usual expectation, the com- pressive yield strength of the wrought form is less than the tensile yield strength, each taken at an offset of 0.2%. The following comparisons of the strength/mass and stiffness/mass ratios will prove interesting; p Ib./in.? is the density. In drawing conclusions from these index numbers, keep in mind the particular alloys being compared. STRENGTH AND STIFFNESS COMPARISONS su(ksi) Ex 10° suki) MATERIAL ° MATERIAL, > ‘Magnesium (AZ61 A-F Gray iron, ASTM 40.. 150 extruded). Stainless 303, annealed 314 Aluminum (2024-14) .. Aluminum bronze * Steel C1020, annealed -. > (B148, cast) 290 ‘Yellow brass, f hard .. 200 [Steel 9255, OQT 1000 .- Titenium (8265, hard.) 1060 2.89 TITANIUM. Since titanium is expensive, it is not used except where its properties are important—in particular in extreme-temperature‘of Production p—Mean = 1307 FIGURE Yield Strength of ‘TI 6 Ai 4 V, annealed. After Ref. (2.1) 0 0 130 140 150 ‘Yield Strenath, lest situations where strength is needed, especially for aeronautical purposes. It is also gradually finding other uses; for example, for tubes in a condenser handling 60% nitric acid. Where stainless steel needed replacement every 6-8 months, titanium paid for itself in the first year and is expected to last for 10 years. The 6 Al 4 ¥ alloy given in Table AT 3 has high strength to above 600°F and is used for aircraft turbine blades and disks, air-frame fittings, sheet metal, and extrusions. Figure 2.8 shows a typical distribution ield strengths of annealed Ti 6 Al 4 V with the + 2¢ spread in- dicated (see § 3.9). 2.20 LEAD, TIN, AND MISCELLANEOUS ALLOYS. There is a host of other alloys, but we shali comment on only a few. The babbitt B23-46T, grade 8, in Table AT 3 has a lead base and is a suitable bearing material for light and moderate service in various ma- chines. The tin babbitt B23-49, grade 1, has a tin base and is a general purpose bearing material, also used for die-castings. Tin base alloys are particularly easy to bond, have excellent anti-seizure qualities, and they resist corrosion better than lead base babbitts. Hastelloy B is an expensive alloy of nickel, molybdenum, and iron (5%) that is very useful in the chemical industry because it resists certain cor- rosion admirably—for example, hydrdchloric acid up to its boiling point, Phosphoric acid, suifuric acid up to 50% concentration, cuprous chloride, and other corroding substances. Since it holds its strength well at high temperature (e.g., 60 ksi at 1500°F), it classifies as a superalloy (§ 2.21). ‘There are several other grades of hestelloy, some containing considerable chromium. Monel is primarily an alloy of nickel and copper (67 Ni, 30 Cu), the different “‘kinds” of mone! having smail amounts of other alloys. The K monel is used where a combination of high strength and good corrosion resistance is needed. It is also used for nonmagnetic aircraft parts such as pump rods, springs, valve stems, shafts. Despite monel’s resistance to corrosion, its fatigue strength in adverse environments is sharply reduced, to about 20 ksi at 10° cycles in fresh water. oo(221) HIGH-TEMPERATURE SERVICE o The zinc alloy in Table AT 3, which has the trade name Zemak-5, may be used for either die castings or sand castings for such articles as automo- tive parts, building hardware, padlocks, toys, and novelties. 2.21 HIGH-TEMPERATURE SERVICE. Ordinary steel begins to lose strength (and elasticity) significantly at about 600-700°F, which was formerly an approximate widespread boundary condition. However, modern requirements for much higher operating temperatures in petroleum refining, chemical processing industries, steam power plants, gas turbines, and now rocket engines and objects travelling at supersonic speeds in the atmosphere, lead to the development of materials that retain significant strength at higher temperature levels (and also that have good corrosion resistance). The most advanced alloys in this respect are called superalloys or superstrength alloys; these alloys are some combination of nickel, cobalt, chromium, iron, molybdenum, tungsten, columbium, titanium, and aluminum, but never containing all of these. With the advent of space exploration, the search for and development of superalioys has been in- tensified and new knowledge is available every day. Any material begins to lose strength rapidly at some temperature; as the temperature increases, the deformations cease to be elastic and become more and more plastic. When plastic deformations are involved, the cri- terion for design at a particular operating temperature is the creep strength or the rupture stress at a specified length of time. Creep results in a per- manent deformation, and for a given material and stress, this deformation in a particular time is greater for a higher than for a lower temperature. When constant dimensions must be maintained, measurable creep cannot. of course be tolerated; but there are many cases where small permanent changes have negligible effect. Creep strengths at a particular temperature are variously defined, and much of the data is so iiew that these strengths are not always presented in a consistent and orderly manner. A common definition of creep strength is that stress that produces a creep rate of 0.0001 % per hr. This is mathematically the same as 1% in 10,000 hr., but it does not mean that the material can maintain this rate for 10,000 hr. without rupture unless it is known from other data that it can. Because of the time it takes to conduct an experiment (100,000 hr. = 11.5 yr.), test data are most frequently found for 1000 hr. and less. If one must design for 10-20 yr. or longer life with a material for which test data at said life is unavailable, the only thing to do is to extrapolate courageously.* The dangers of extrapolation are shown by the typical behavior curve of Fig. 2.9(a). Upon application of a creep producing load (some materials creep measurably at ordinary and low temperatures—as you know from. * Do not confuse # courageous extrapolation, which is done with as much knowledge es vailable (unless you have this knowledge now, you will not have time to obtain it in this course), with a foolhardy extrapolation, which may be a thoughtless jump to a con- clusion.Strain 45.Ni,15 Cr, A Mo. W, 3Ti1 AL 17-7Mo PH Stainless Modulus of Elasticity B10 & Permanent Strain, Tnitial Plastic Strain _ Load Released at Alloy Steel (5 Cr-Mo-V) 0 0 3001200 Time - ) FIGURE 2.9 Strain-time Curve Illustrating General Characteristics of Creep and Decrease of E with Temperature, The steels in (b) are for higher-temperature service; A is a nickel- base alloy. personal experience with wax), there is, as Finnie and Heller?-2®) point out, first an initial strain, Fig. 2.9(a), partly plastic and partly elastic; then the initial rate of increase of strain is generally high for a while, after which there may be a period during which the creep proceeds at a more-or- less constant rate, called secondary creep. If the load is high enough and if the time is long enough, there is a tertiary creep at an accelerating rate leading eventually to fracture. Thus, a steady rate of creep as between B and C is not necessarily a safe basis of design. The time of life must be in- cluded. Not only the strength falls off, but the modulus of elasticity de- creases as the temperature goes up, as seen in Fig. 2.9(b). A proper design stress, as usual, depends on the circumstances. The life of a missile may be measured in minutes; so, accumulating experimental data to fit this case is not too time consuming. On the other hand,a suitable life of a steam power plant would be nearer 200,000 hr., in which event, some extrapolation of data will be necessary. (There are of course some long-time data available.) Where relatively frequent inspection is certain; one can take bigger chances. Except where life or valuable property is threatened, the basis of decision as to what material to use is largely an economic one, and’ costs seem amazingly high to one accustomed only to ordinary steel; for example, the superalloy M 252 (Ni, Cr, Co, Mo, Ti, ete.) costs about 170 times more than carbon steel plate. Frequent compli- cating factors include repeated loading, thermal shock (quick temperature changes), cycling thermal stresses (especially detrimental for brittle ma- terials). For their suggestive value: the ASME Code allows a design stress where the creep is 0.01% per 1000 hr. in unfired pressure vessels and 80% of this in fired pressure vessels; furnace tubes in the oil industry have been designed for the stress at 1% creep in 10,000 hr.; military jet engines for 1000 hr. of life; stationary gas turbine plants, 100,000 hr. Fairly long life should be obtained at a particular operating temperature if the design stress is two-thirds of the 1% in 10,000 hr. creep. Some typical creep data are pictured in Fig. 2,10. Since so many of the superalloys are, patented, |$2.22] LOW-TEMPERATURE PROPERTIES o the designer should be in touch with the manufacturers for the best ma+ terial and its best treatment.-Because so much specialized knowledge is required for intelligent design for creep conditions, we shall leave it largely for another study. 2.22 LOW-TEMPERATURE PROPERTIES. Modern sciehce and engineering are going to extremes in both directions of temperature, what with the very low temperatures involved in cryogenic-studies, in shipping and using liquified gases, etc. Although the standard test tensile strength, hardness, and modulus of elasticity of steels and other metals increases as the temperature decreases, ductility and toughness decrease. Over the years, there have been many mysterious (at the time) brittle failures of tanks, bridges, and other structures, but the significance of the loss of toughness, as measured by an Izod or Charpy test, did not become general engineering knowledge until World War II experiences of vessels cracking in two. Sometimes the weather was heavy, sometimes not, but invariably the air and water were cold (say less than 40°F). Investigation showed that the low-carbon steel had a transition temperature (also true of low alloy steels), below which it failed by a (tensile) brittle failure (typically sudden and complete) and above which the failure is ductile (typically a shear rupture). Usually, the fracture starts at a point of high stress, a point of FIGURE 2.10 Creep Strength and Rupture Stress. Solid curves give ereep strength for a rate of 0.1°; in 1000 hr. at exch temperature. Dotted curves give the stress at repture at each temperature. Casting alloy HT Is a nominal 35° Ni, 15", Cr alloy of irons Incoloy Is principally » Ni (32",)-Cr(20.5%) alloy of iron; Ni-Resist D2 is a ductile iron casting, 20%; Ni, 2 Cry treated mith Mg to produce the spheroidal graphite; Greek Ascoloy, © steel alloy with 13% Cr, 25, Ni, 3% W. Data from Refs. (2-1, 40 1 Greek Atcoloy Stress, ksi Alloy 2 SRCasting Ss ed aT 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 ‘Temperature, "F 2000109 70 MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES [Ch.2 stress concentration (Chapter 4). The fracture for complete brittle failure of stecl has a bright faceted appearance; the ductile fracture has a silky fibrous appearance. The transition, except in pure iron, does not occur instantane- ously at a particular temperature, but rather over a temperature range within which the failures are partly brittle and partly ductile (Fig. 2.11). In genet it is dangerous to use a matefial below its transition temperature because it has lost so much of its capacity to absorb energy without rupture. A few materials show increasing impact strength with decreasing temperature, notably nickel, copper, and aluminum. Nickel is the most effective alloy in increasing toughness of steel. Peening (§ 4.28) lowers the transition tem- perature for the steels. ‘The impact test, Charpy or Izod, is currently most used as a measure of the low-temperature suitability of steel, but we have no way of using the data quantitatively in design. Comparing the two curves given for the 9% Ni steel in Fig. 2.11, we observe that the V-notch Charpy test may indicate the transition more distinctly than the keyhole Charpy. You ¢ of course that the measured energies from a group of test speci- mens do not fall on a single.curve as shown in Fig. 2.11, but within some band. These curves are therefore merely typical and should not be used in actual design unless it is known that they apply. Prior treatment signi- ficantly affects the:transition band and the Charpy energy (different types of specimens do not give correlated quantitative data). The 9% Ni alloy and stainless steel 304L shown have been used successfully for storing and transporting liquid Nz (about —320°F); aluminum and titanium alloys (to about —300°F) are used for similar service. 11 is not uncommon for the specifications to state a minimum impact strength (as 15 ft-lb.. Charpy keyhole) at a particular temperature, but experience suggests that this sort of specification does not necessarily eliminate brittle failure. However, when the magnitude of the energy is To 12) Feri FIGURE 2.11 Low-Temperature Toughness. ‘The symbol V indicates = V-notch specimen; SRNL the symbol K, a keyhole notch, The 9% N AISI 304 LK contains about 0.1%, C; it is double normalized and stress relieved; now available in rolled structural shapes. The stainless steel 304L (he same as 304 except 0.03%, C vs. 0.082; C) does not have a horizontal curve for the V-notch P28 Steal K Crecimen. The AISI 347 Is cold drawn, § hard. The 0.2% steel was normalized. ‘The nodular iron shown has higher energy properties than many others. The gray iron or cast Iron (C.l.) would qualify as approximately ASTM 30. Hastelloy B =3%00 —200 -100 0 100 20 300 ‘Temperature, *F223] PLASTICS n related to a material whose properties are well known, the purpose may be well served. The exploration into the very-low-temperature region is so recent that engineers are still looking for suitably simple ways of specifying the desired material properties. In general, one does not use a material better than required for the service; for example, 2.5% Ni steel is good to —7S°F, 3.5% Ni steel to —150°F, 5% Ni steel to —200°F, and 9% Ni steel to ~320°F. In general, alloys with high-nickel content retain toughness to quite low temperatures. Nickel alloy benefits cast steel similarly, especially if it is quenched and tempered. Stainless steel with nickel (as the 18-8 variety) has good low-temperature properties, but the non-nickel bearing stainless is not 0 good. Copper and copper alloys are also used at teinperatures below —150°F. ‘Work hardening steels (§ 2.9) at low temperatures often produces eco- nomic benefits. For example, 301 stainless steel vessels have had their ultimate tensile strength increased to 260 ksi (contrast with Table AT 4) by stretching them 13% with cold nitrogen inside at temperatures to — 300°F. s have come into use not only as deco: 2.20,2.21,2,27.2.90) 2.23 PLASTICS. Pla: and unstressed parts but also as load carrying members. ‘They may be divided into two main classes—thermosetting, which undergo ~ chemical change and harden on being heated, usually under pressure; and thermoplastic, which soften as the temperature rises and remain soft in the heated state. The thermoplastics may be reshaped on heating, whereas the thermosetting variety cannot be. ‘The phenolics, Table AT 5, constituting one of the largest, least expen- sive, and most useful groups, are available in forms for molding and casting and in laminated forms. They are made from formaldehyde and phenolic bodies such as phenols (carbolic acid), cresols, or cresylic acid. Laminated phenolic materials machine readily, have good wearing properties, and are used for gears, gaskets, seals, compressor-valve plates, tubing, bearings, insulators, etc. Grade X has a paper base, comes in sheet, tube, and molded forms, and is used primarily for mechanical applications. Grade XX has a paper base, comes in sheet, tube, rod, and molded forms; it has good machinability, greater moisture resistance than Grade X, and is suitable for electrical (insulating) applications. Grade C has a fabric base, comes in sheets, tubes, and rods, and is used for gears. Grade A has an asbestos base, comes in sheets, tubes, and rods; it is more resistant to heat than are those previously mentioned. There are several other groups of thermosetting plastics, including the urea-formaldehyde, the melamine-formaldehyde, and ‘the polyester plastics. Many thermoplastics are lely used in unloaded forms, such as handles, knobs, containers, grills, covers. Polyethylene, a relatively inex- pensive thermoplastic, is used. widely for bottles and other containers. Nylon (polyamide), while relatively expensive, has load carrying capacityn MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES [Ch.2 up to 200-250°F; it has a low coefficient of friction, 0.05 to 0.20!?-27) and good wear resistance—hence, its use for bearings, dry or lubricated; it is machined or molded. Nylon is used for gears (quietness) and balls (valves, lightly loaded bearings for quietness). A trade name for nylon resins for molding is Zytel.® Tefion® (polytetrafluoroethylene—also called tetrafluoroethylene TFE) has uses similar to those of nylon, but is more expensive and would there- fore be used in more exacting situations; it is not molded in the conventional manner, but more as in powder metallurgy; it makes a tough bearing with a dry coefficient of friction of 0.1-0.2!°"), Teflon, a very inert plastic, solves many obdurate problems of gaskets and seals because of its ability to tolerate a continuous temperature of 500°F, higher for short periods, and because it retains some flexibility to a low temperature of —300°F. A new relative of the original Teflon, fluorinated ethylene-propylene, de- signated FEP, has a distinct advantage in that it can be processed in a more conventional manner. Engineering data on these Teflons are found in Ref. (2.33, 2.35). Thin filrns of Teflon provide excellent corrosion resistance and make the surface nonsticking (as in cooking utensils and many indus- trial uses). One of its recent uses is for piston rings in air compressors, eliminating the need of oil lubricant, the accompanying danger of explosion, and in some cases, product contamination by lubricant. ‘There are a number of rubbers or elastomers (buna-S, butyl, neoprene, buna-N, natural rubber) of engineering interest, but space does not permit a discussion here. All problems involving plastics and rubbers should be solved in the presence of more information than contained herein, which is intended to be suggestive only. A “newer and better” plastic may be available tomorrow. The mechanical properties of these materials not only have a normal manufacturing variation, but they also vary with temperature and moisture content; there is dimensional change with time; the modulus of elasticity is not a constant; many will creep measurably under load at ambient temperature. Such characteristics, if not accounted for in the design, may lead to an unnecessary failure. 2.24 DESIGN HINTS. The basic dimensions of a part with known loads on it are ‘computed by the designer, but these dimensions and the details of other dimensions depend to some degree on the method of manvfacture. Is the part machined from milled or extruded stock; is it forged or pressed; is it cast; is it welded; is it sintered? If it is to be forged'?*4) it may be a smith forging done with flat dies (manually or by machine); it may be a drop forging, Fig. 2.12, in which the part is formed between shaped dies attached to the anvil cap and the rai it may be an upset forging, Fig. 2.13, done in a machine that can form a solid- piece into a desired shape by pushing the piece into dies; or it may be a press forging, which squeezes the metal into shape between dies. DropGURE 2.12 Forged Crankshaft. A drop forging, made in impression dies, of @ large internal-combustion-engine _crank- shaft, ready for machining. (Courtesy Drop Forging Association, Cleveland.) FIGURE2.13 Upset Forging. The original bar is shown in (a); (b) and (c) are the two steps in the forging; (4) is the finished machined part. (Courtesy M. H. Harper Co., Morton Grove, Ill.) forging is a hammering process, while upset and press forging are done by exerting pressures adequate to cause plastic metal flow into the required shapes. In forgings shaped in dies, several steps are required to produce the final form; for instance, the forging of a 3-ft. connecting rod for a Diesel engine is done in seven steps, including the final step of trimming off the flash. To facilitate removing the forging from the die, the sides of the die are tapered. This taper is called the draft and is about 7° for outside, and 10° for inside, surfaces, although more or less draft may be used. Fillets and radii joining different parts of a forging should be as large as possible (see Chapter 4), because small fillets increase the tendency toward forging defects, such as unfilled structure, and they increase die wear. Corner radii should also be as large as possible. Keep rib heights'as small as possible and rib sections as thick as possible because of the difficulty of forcing the plastic metal into thin, deep pockets. Metal may be distributed in a forging in a manner that will take advantage of the “grain flow,” inasmuch wrought metals are stronger under impact in the direction of the “grai (direction of the rolling) than in the transverse direction. This factor may need to be considered in the design phase of the job. If the part is to be cast, there are many alternative materials some one of which may or may not be clearly indicated by the nature of the part, There are cast iron (Fig. 2.14), malleable iron (Fig. 2.15), cast steel (Fig. 2.17), nodular iron, nonferrous metals; any one of which may be sand castings, permanent mold castings, die «castings (Fig. 2.18), centrifugal castings, or precision investment castings (a lost-wax process). Perhaps the most important policy in the design of castings is to make the carious sections of the casting as nearly as possible the same thickness. nFIGURE 2.14 (Above) Cast-iron Crankshaft. A machined cast-iron crankshaft, 11 ft. 4 in. long, 1750 Ib.; for a S-cylinder, 2000-hp. Diesel engine. Cast of iron from an electric furnace, the shaft vas annealed at a low temperature before machining in order to relieve stresses and avoid distortion after machining, and to improve the mechanical properties. ‘Test coupons from such shafts suggest average properties as follows: 5, =68 ksl, E= 23,000 Ksi, G = 9200 ksi, BHN = 300. This company casts Diesel crankshafts up to 22 ft. long. (Courtesy Pacific Car and Foundry Co., Renton, Wash.) FIGURE 2.15 (Ahove lef) Malleable Iron Swivel Hitch. Typical of many small parts suitably made of malleable iron. (Courtesy Eastern Malleable iron Co., Wilmington, Del.) FIGURE 2.16 (Above right) Welded Swivel Hitch. When compared with Fig. 2.15, ¢ one illustrates the different ways in which a particular part may be made. (Courtesy Eastern Malleable Iron Co., Wilmington, Del.) FIGURE 2.17 (Below left) Cast Steel Gear Box. Made of ASTM A 27-50, T, class 70-36. An example of a large complicated casting, weight about 1900 Ib. (Courtesy Steel Founders” Society, Cleveland.) FIGURE 2.18 (Below right) Die Casting—Carburetor. Excellent example of complex coring and shapes obtainable with die castings. A four-jet carburetor (two carburetors in one), zine bowl. Sharp corners, inside and outside, should be avoided in die castings. (Courtesy General Motors).@ FIGURE 2.19 Joining Section Changes—Castings. Unless an important useful purpose is seeved (unlikely), changing sections with sharp corners as ia (a) should be avoided in all design no matter what the manufacturing method may be. A radius as suggested by the proportions in (b) is acceptable; the proportions in (c) are good; and the plan in (d) ts better yet. It happens that these changes from (a) to (@) are progressively better for a part made in any manner when the load is repeated (Chapter 4). The best alternative for castings Is not to change the section thickness at all (not always possible to abide by this). (After Steel Castings Handbook FIGURE 2.20 Hot Spot at Joined Sections. The extra mass of metal at the corner, dimension ab, means possibly resulting in shrinkage cavities corner at b, the outsi srably such that the thickness ac to < the dotted curve is somewhat less than A (not always feasible on a ‘The radius r should be core @ hole near the center of mass ‘will oceur at the junction, If one part of the *‘cross”” Is offset, as at B, the foundryman can use external chills to prevent cavities. The minimum recommended offset is suggested by the dimensions shown. The fillet radius should be between } and 1 in., regardless of size of the ‘cross’. (After Steel Castings Handbook'*-**)). FIGURE 2.22 Wave Construction. The design at (a) resulted In cracked spokes. Curved spokes as in either the plan view (b) or end vlew (c) will flex under the cooling stresses, probably eliminating distortion aad cracking. (From Fundamentals of Steel Casting Desiga by G. W. Brigas). The tendency toward hot spots, arid therefore internal stresses due to un- equal cooling rates, is thus reduced. The general principle is to avoid extra mass concentrations. This can sometimes be done by using cores. See also Figs. 2.19, 2.20, 2.21, and 2.22, and Ref. (2.16) for more infor- mation. SSS SS ES » © @ Zz iN N ©.1% MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES [Ch.2 In one situation or plant, a certain part may be fabricated by welding, Fig. 2.16, whereas in another situation or plant, a casting, Fig. 2.15, may be a better answer. “Better” generally has to do with cost if the service conditions are met satisfactorily, the better one being the cheapest. The unit cost will be much affected by the quantity. For one quantity, a certain manufacturing process may be cheaper, but another process may be cheaper for another quantity. Of course, the process may be determined almost entirely by the part—it is difficult to think of a cheaper way to produce a complicated part such as a carburetor, Fig. 2.18, if many are to be made, than by die casting. 2.25 MISCELLANEOUS. * Complicated shapes and parts can be made from sintered metals (powder metallurgy). Their properties depend in part on the metals used, which include iron, copper, lead, tin, silver, tung- sten, molybdenum (and often carbon) in various combinations. The metals are in powder form, and mixed in the desired proportions (as 88 % Cu, 10% Sn, pius iron and graphite for bearings); the bonding of the adjacent sur- faces is accomplished by prolonged heating (sintering) at a temperature below the melting point. An additional process sometimes used, called infiltration, is to melt a layer of another metal, such as lead or copper, into the pores of the sintered material. Since the manufacture of such parts is highly specialized, a manufacturer should be consulted. Some standard items, as bearings, can be bought off the shelf. ‘One never knows when a startling new engineering material will be announced. An example is Pyroceram, a group of glass products of the Corning Glass Works that have unusually good mechanical properties at high temperature. This material is already in use in a number of consumer products and it has many industrial uses. A recent announcement des- cribes maraging nickel steels*, which attain yield strengths of as much as 250 ksi without quenching. There are compositions of 18% Ni, 20% Ni, or 25% Ni, together with several other alloys, all with low carbon (0.03 %). The 18% Ni is treated as follows: transformation to martensite occurs below 310°F, but the low carbon content results in soft and tough metal; transformed metal is held at 900°F for 3 hr. (maraging); it may be annealed and cold worked before maraging for improved properties. Typical properties: Rc = 50, sy = 250, su = 260, E = 27 x 10°ksi, « = 11%, Charpy = 16 ft-lb. at—420°F. Compare with 17-7 PH; § 2.15(b). Another development, recently announced by Du Pont, is a nickel alloy (about 98 % Ni, 2% thorium oxide), called TD nickel, with unusually good creep strength; retains useful strength to above 1800°F. 2.26 CLOSURE, There are a number of properties of engineering materials that have not been mentioned at all in this chapter. Some of these * International Nickel Co.2.26) CLosuRE ” Properties will be taken up later—in particular, the endurance strength (Chapter 4). No doubt, you have already noted that a particular material has many different “strengths”; it will serve you well to master the various “strength” concepts as you come to them. We must proceed with our study assuming that many environmental factors involving corrosion, embrittlement, etc. will not be overlooked ; for example, hydrogen embrittle- ment, sulfide cracking, stress-corrosion cracking, nitrogen embrittlement. There are many decisions that a designer must make, but perhaps the two crucial ones are the choice of material and the choice of design stresses. There are always choices and this is where the art (engineering) of design enters. After the decisions are made, many people (and computers) will be able to follow an outlined ‘routine using the mechanics-of-materials equations (science) to produce certain answers. It is suggested therefore that in all your problem work and in text examples and discussions you think critically of the design stresses, whether they are specified or not, and of the material, which is frequently specified. Since the engineer must first of all be able to solve the science side of design, our principal attention is directed to stress analysis and design stresses, with concurrent discussion of engineering factors.