Lecture 1.

The nature of electromagnetic radiation.

1. Basic introduction to the electromagnetic field:
¾ Dual nature of electromagnetic radiation
¾ Electromagnetic spectrum
2. Basic radiometric quantities: intensity and flux.
Recommended reading:
Petty: chapters 2-3

Basic introduction to electromagnetic field.

Electromagnetic (EM) radiation is a form of energy propagated through free space or
through a material medium in the form of electromagnetic waves.
EM radiation is so-named because it has electric and magnetic fields that simultaneously
oscillate in planes mutually perpendicular to each other and to the direction of
propagation through space.

9 Electromagnetic radiation has the dual nature:

its exhibits wave properties and particulate (photon) properties.

¾ Wave nature of radiation: Radiation can be thought of as a traveling

transverse wave.
z

G
G
Figure 1.1 A schematic view of an electromagnetic wave propagating along the z axis.
G G
The electric E and magnetic H fields oscillate in the x-y plane and perpendicular to the
direction of propagation.

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 • As a transverse wave, EM radiation can be polarized. Polarization is the
distribution of the electric field in the plane normal to propagation direction.

G
Figure 1.2 Electric field E orientation for polarized and non polarized electromagnetic
waves.

Poynting vector gives the flow of radiant energy and the direction of propagation as (in the cgs
system of units)
G G G
S = c 2ε 0 E × H [1.1]

here c is the speed of light in vacuum (c = 2.9979x108 m/s ≅ 3.00x108 m/s) and ε0 is vacuum
G
permittivity (or dielectric constant). S is in units of energy per unit time per unit area (e.g., W
-2
m )
G G
NOTE: E × H means a vector product of two vectors.
G
• S is often called instantaneous Poynting vector. Because it oscillates at rapid rates, a
detector measures its average value <S> over some tome interval that is a characteristic
of the detector.

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 • Waves are characterized by frequency, wavelength, speed and phase.
Frequency is defined as the number of waves (cycles) per second that pass a given point
in space (symbolized by ν~ ).
Wavelength is the distance between two consecutive peaks or troughs in a wave
(symbolized by the λ).

Relation between λ and ν~ : λ ν~ = c [1.2]

• Since all types of electromagnetic radiation travel at the speed of light, short-
wavelength radiation must have a high frequency.
• Unlike speed of light and wavelength, which change as electromagnetic energy is
propagated through media of different densities, frequency remains constant and
is therefore a more fundamental property.
Wavenumber is defined as a count of the number of wave crests (or troughs) in a given
unit of length (symbolized by ν):

ν = ν~ /c = 1/λ [1.3]

UNITS:
Wavelength units: length
Angstrom (A) : 1 A = 1x10-10 m;
Nanometer (nm): 1 nm=1x10-9 m;
Micrometer (µm): 1 µm = 1x10-6 m;

Wavenumber units: inverse length (often in cm-1)

NOTE: Conversion from the wavelength to wavenumber:

10 ,000 cm −1 µm
ν [cm ] =
−1
[1.4]
λ [ µm ]

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Frequency units: unit cycles per second 1/s (or s-1) is called hertz (abbreviated Hz)

Table 1.1 Frequency units

Unit Frequency,
(cycles/sec)
Hertz, Hz 1
Kilohertz, KHz 103
Megahertz, MHz 106
Gigahertz, GHz 109

¾ Particulate nature of radiation:

Radiation can be also described in terms of particles of energy, called photons

The energy of a photon is given as:

ε photon = h ν~ = h c/λ = hcν [1.5]

where h is Plank’s constant (h = 6.6256x10-34 J s).

• Eq. [1.5] relates energy of each photon of the radiation to the electromagnetic
wave characteristics (ν~ and λ).
• Photon has energy but it has no mass and no charge.
NOTE: The quantized nature of light is most important when considering absorption and
emission of electromagnetic radiation.

PROBLEM: A light bulb of 100 W emits at 0.5 µm. How many photons are emitted per
second?
Solution:

Energy of one photon is ε photon = hc/λ, thus, using that 100 W = 100 J/s, the number of

photons per second, N, is

−1 100 ( Js −1 ) λ ( m ) 100 × 0 .5 × 10 −6
N (s ) = = = 2 .517 × 10 20
h ( Js ) c ( ms −1 ) 6 .6256 × 10 − 34 × 2 .9979 × 10 8

NOTE: Large number of photons is required because Plank’s constant h is very small!!!

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 ¾ Spectrum of electromagnetic radiation:

The electromagnetic spectrum is the distribution of electromagnetic radiation according

to energy or, equivalently, according to the wavelength or frequency.

Figure 1.3 Schematic representation of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Figure 1.4 Visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum.

NOTE: In remote sensing, sensor’s spectral bands in the visible are often called by their
color (e.g., blue, green, and read channels)

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Effects of atmospheric gases:

Figure 1.5 A generalized diagram showing relative atmospheric radiation transmission

at different wavelengths. Blue zones show low passage of incoming and/or outgoing
radiation and white areas show atmospheric windows, in which the radiation doesn't
interact much with air molecules and hence, isn't absorbed.

Figure 1.6 Schematics showing the role of Earth’s atmospheric composition in remote
sensing.

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Table 1.2 Common names and relationships between radiation components.
Name of Wavelength Spectral equivalence
spectral region, µm
region
Solar 0.1 - 4 Ultraviolet + Visible + Near infrared = Shortwave
Terrestrial 4 - 100 Far infrared = Longwave
Infrared 0.75 - 100 Near infrared + Far infrared
Ultraviolet 0.1 - 0.38 Near ultraviolet + Far ultraviolet =
UV-A + UV-B + UV-C + Far ultraviolet
Shortwave 0.1 - 4 Solar = Near infrared + Visible + Ultraviolet
Longwave 4 - 100 Terrestrial = Far infrared
Visible 0.38 - 0.75 Shortwave - Near infrared - Ultraviolet
Near infrared 0.75 - 4 Solar - Visible - Ultraviolet =
Infrared - Far infrared
Far infrared 4 - 100 Terrestrial = Longwave = Infrared - Near infrared
Thermal 4 - 100 Terrestrial = Longwave = Far infrared
(up to 1000)
Microwave 103 - 106 Microwave
Radio > 106 Radio

Table 1.3 Microwave frequency bands used in remote sensing

Bands Frequency
“Old” “New” [GHz]
L D 1-2
S E, F 2-4
C G, H 4-8
X I, J 8-12
Ku J 12-18
K J 18-26
Ka K 26-40

Example: L-band is used onboard American SEASAT and Japanese JERS-1 satellites.

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2. Basic radiometric quantities: intensity and flux.
Solid angle is the angle subtended at the center of a sphere by an area on its surface
numerically equal to the square of the radius
s
Ω= [1.6]
r2
UNITS: of a solid angle = steradian (sr)

r A differential solid angle can be expressed as

Ω ds
s dΩ = = sin( θ ) d θ d φ ,
r2
using that a differential area is
ds = (r dθ) (r sin(θ) dφ)
Example: Solid angle of a unit sphere = 4π

PROBLEM: What is the solid angle of the Sun from the Earth if the distance from the
Sun to the Earth is d=1.5x108 km? Sun’s radius is Rs = 6.96x105 km.
π R s2
SOLUTION: Ω = = 6 . 76 x10 − 5 sr
d2

Intensity (or radiance) is defined as radiative energy in a given direction per unit time
per unit wavelength (or frequency) range per unit solid angle per unit area perpendicular
to the given direction:
dε λ
Iλ = [1.7]
ds cos(θ ) dΩ dtd λ
Iλ is referred to as the monochromatic intensity.
• Monochromatic does not mean at a single wavelengths λ, but in a very narrow
(infinitesimal) range of wavelength ∆λ centered at λ.
NOTE: same name: intensity = specific intensity = radiance

UNITS: from Eq.[1.7]:

(J sec-1 sr-1 m-2 µm-1) = (W sr-1 m-2 µm-1)

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Figure 1.7 Intensity is the flow of radiative energy carried by a beam within the solid
angle d Ω .

Properties of intensity:
G G
a) In general, intensity is a function of the coordinates ( r ), direction ( Ω ),
wavelength (or frequency), and time. Thus, it depends on seven independent
variables: three in space, two in angle, one in wavelength (or frequency) and one
in time.
b) In a transparent medium, the intensity is constant along a ray.

• If intensity does not depend on the direction, the electromagnetic field is said to
be isotropic.
• If intensity does not depend on position the field is said to be homogeneous.

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Flux (or irradiance) is defined as radiative energy in a given direction per unit time per
unit wavelength (or frequency) range per unit area perpendicular to the given direction:

dε λ
Fλ = [1.8]
dtdsd λ
UNITS: from Eq.[1.8]:
(J sec-1 m-2 µm-1) = (W m-2 µm-1)

From Eqs. [1.7]-[1.8], the flux is integral of normal component of radiance over some
solid angle

Fλ = ∫ I λ cos( θ ) d Ω
Ω
[1.9]

NOTE: Many satellite sensors have a narrow viewing angle and hence measure the
intensity (not flux). To measure the flux, a sensor needs to have a wide viewing angle.

• Depending on its spectral resolution, a detector measures electromagnetic

radiation in a particular wavelength range, ∆λ. The intensity I∆λ and flux F∆λ in
this range are determined by integrating over the wavelength the monochromatic
intensity and flux, respectively:
λ2 λ2
I ∆λ = ∫ I λ dλ F∆λ = ∫ Fλ dλ [1.10]
λ1 λ1

NOTE: Lecture 2 gives classification of the sensors with respect to their spectral
resolution: broad-band, narrow-band, spectral and hyperspectral.
Examples:
Broad-band sensor: CERES (Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System)
Three bands (channels): Solar region: 0.3 - 5.0 µm; IR window: 8 - 12 µm; and total: 0.3
to > 100 µm
Narrow-band sensor: MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer)

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Table 1.4 MODIS spectral bands
Primary Use Band Bandwidth¹ Spectral Required
Radiance² SNR³

Land/Cloud/Aerosols 1 620 - 670 21.8 128

Boundaries
2 841 - 876 24.7 201

Land/Cloud/Aerosols 3 459 - 479 35.3 243

Properties
4 545 - 565 29.0 228

5 1230 - 1250 5.4 74

6 1628 - 1652 7.3 275

7 2105 - 2155 1.0 110

Ocean Color 8 405 - 420 44.9 880

Phytoplankton
Biogeochemistry 9 438 - 448 41.9 838

10 483 - 493 32.1 802

11 526 - 536 27.9 754

12 546 - 556 21.0 750

13 662 - 672 9.5 910

14 673 - 683 8.7 1087

15 743 - 753 10.2 586

16 862 - 877 6.2 516

Atmospheric 17 890 - 920 10.0 167

Water Vapor
18 931 - 941 3.6 57

19 915 - 965 15.0 250

Surface/Cloud 20 3.660 - 0.45 0.05

Temperature 3.840 (300K)

21 3.929 - 2.38 2.00

3.989 (335K)

22 3.929 - 0.67 0.07

3.989 (300K)

23 4.020 - 0.79 0.07

4.080 (300K)

Atmospheric 24 4.433 - 0.17 0.25

Temperature 4.498 (250K)

25 4.482 - 0.59 0.25

4.549 (275K)

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Cirrus Clouds 26 1.360 - 6.00 150(SNR)
Water Vapor 1.390

27 6.535 - 1.16 0.25

6.895 (240K)

28 7.175 - 2.18 0.25

7.475 (250K)

Cloud Properties 29 8.400 - 9.58 0.05

8.700 (300K)

Ozone 30 9.580 - 3.69 0.25

9.880 (250K)

Surface/Cloud 31 10.780 - 9.55 0.05

Temperature 11.280 (300K)

32 11.770 - 8.94 0.05

12.270 (300K)

Cloud Top 33 13.185 - 4.52 0.25

Altitude 13.485 (260K)

34 13.485 - 3.76 0.25

13.785 (250K)

35 13.785 - 3.11 0.25

14.085 (240K)

36 14.085 - 2.08 0.35

14.385 (220K)

* Footnotes:
1
Bands 1 to 19 are in nm; Bands 20 to 36 are in µm
2
Spectral Radiance values are (W/m² -µm-sr)
3
SNR = Signal-to-noise ratio
4
NE(delta)T = Noise-equivalent temperature difference

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