CHAPTER-9
DRILLING FLUIDS
( FUNCTIONS, TYPES, COMPOSITION AND
PROPERTIES)
Drilling fluid or Drilling Mud is a circulating fluid used in Rotary drilling to perform
any or all the various functions required in drilling operations. Drilling fluid is a
fluid used to drill boreholes into the earth. In simple words any composition
which is used to aid in production and removal of cuttings from the well bore is
termed as a drill fluid. Often used while drilling oil and natural gas wells on
drilling rigs. The three main categories of drilling fluids are water-based muds
(which can be dispersed and non-dispersed), non-aqueous muds, usually called
oil-based mud, and gaseous drilling fluid, in which a wide range of gases can be
used.
Functions of drilling fluids
• Lifting the cuttings from the bottom of the hole and transport to the surface
• Control sub-surface pressures
• Plaster the walls of the well bore by forming a filter cake
• Cool & lubricate bit and drill string
• To hold cuttings and weight material when the circulation is interrupted
• To support part of the weight of drill pipe and casing
• To ensure maximum information about the formation penetrated
• Transmit hydraulic horsepower to the bit
• To minimize any adverse effects upon the formation adjacent to the well
bore
• Minimize formation damage.
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Types of Drilling fluids
Many types of drilling fluids are used on a day to day basis. Some wells require
that different types be used at different parts in the hole, or that some types be
used in combination with others. The various types of fluid generally fall into a
few broad categories :
Water base
Oil base
Aerated drilling fluids
• Water: Water by itself is pumped to do very specific things in very specific
formations
• Water-based mud (WBM): A most basic water-based mud system begins
with water, then clays and other chemicals are incorporated into the water to
create a homogenous blend resembling something between chocolate milk and
a malt (depending on viscosity). The clay (called "shale" in its rock form) is
usually a combination of native clays that are dissolved into the fluid while
drilling, or specific types of clay that are processed and sold as additives for the
WBM system. The most common of these is bentonite, frequently referred to in
the oilfield as "gel". Gel likely makes reference to the fact that while the fluid is
being pumped, it can be very thin and free-flowing , though when pumping is
stopped, the static fluid builds a "gel" structure that resists flow. When an
adequate pumping force is applied to "break the gel", flow resumes and the fluid
returns to its previously free-flowing state. Many other chemicals are added to a
WBM system to achieve various effects, including: viscosity control, shale
stability, enhance drilling rate of penetration, cooling and lubricating of
equipment.
• Oil-based mud (OBM): Oil-based mud can be a mud where the base fluid
is a petroleum product such as diesel fuel. Oil-based muds are used for many
reasons, some being increased lubricity, enhanced shale inhibition, and greater
cleaning abilities with less viscosity. Oil-based muds also withstand greater heat
without breaking down. The use of oil-based muds has special considerations.
These include cost and environmental considerations.
• Synthetic-based fluid (SBM): Synthetic-based fluid is a mud where the
base fluid is a synthetic oil. This is most often used on offshore rigs because it
has the properties of an oil-based mud, but the toxicity of the fluid fumes are
much less than an oil-based fluid. This is important when men work with the fluid
in an enclosed space such as an offshore drilling rig.
• Air: Compressed air is pumped either down the bore hole's annular space
or down the drill string itself.
• Air/water: The same as above, with water added to increase viscosity,
flush the hole, provide more cooling, and/or to control dust.
• Air/polymer: A specially formulated chemical, most often referred to as a
type of polymer, is added to the water & air mixture to create specific conditions.
A foaming agent is a good example of a polymer.
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Drilling Fluids
Aerated D/F Water base muds Oil base muds
Invert muds- SBM True muds
Air Mist
Foam Stable Foam
Water Solutions Muds Emulsions
Inhibitive Non- inhibitive
Composition of Water Base Muds
Water-based drilling mud most commonly consists of bentonite clay (gel) with
additives such as barium sulfate (barite), calcium carbonate (chalk) or hematite
for increasing the specific gravity or weight of mud. Various thickeners are used
to influence the viscosity of the fluid, eg. Xanthan gum, guar gum, glycol,
carboxymethylcellulose, polyanionic cellulose (PAC), or starch. In turn,
deflocculants are used to reduce viscosity of clay-based muds; anionic
polyelectrolytes (eg. acrylates, polyphosphates, lignosulfonates (Lig) or tannic
acid derivates such as Quebracho) are frequently used. Red mud was the name
for a Quebracho-based mixture, named after the color of the red tannic acid
salts; it was commonly used in 1940s to 1950s, then was made obsolete when
lignosulfonates became available. Many other chemicals are also used to
maintain or create some of the properties of mud
Mud Engineer :
The name given to an oil field service company individual who is charged with
maintaining a drilling fluid or completion fluid system on an oil and/or gas drilling
rig.
Solid Particles:
Colloids – 0.005 to 1 micron, Silt – 1 to 50 micron,
Sand – 50 to 420 microns ( 1 micron = 0.001 mm)
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Water Base Mud
Water - Fresh/ Saline Solids
Clays Organic Colloids Inert Solids
• Water based muds additives
• Viscosifiers and Filtration loss reducers:
o Bentonite, Attapulgite clays,Asbestos, X-C Polymer,Carboxy MethylCellulose
(CMC ),
o Poly Anionic Cellulose ( PAC), Pre – gelatinised Starch
• Weighting material : Calcium carbonate (sp.gr – 2.71 ) Barytes (sp.gr–
4.25 ) , Hematite (sp.gr – 5), Galena( sp.gr- 6.7 to 7 )
• Salts –
o NaCl, KCl, CaCl2
• Thinners :
o Chrome lignosulphonate, Cutch, Modified tannins .
• Chemicals for pH control :
o Caustic soda ( NaOH), Lime (Ca (OH)2 ), Soda Ash( Na2Co3),
Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3)
• Other Chemicals:
o PHPA, Sulphonated Asphalt, Drilling Detergent, E.P. Lube. , Piplex
• Selection criteria for D/Fluids
• Formation Pressures
• Formation Temperatures
• Lithology
• Connate water encountered during drilling
• Availability of soft water
• Economics
Properties of Drilling fluids
Drilling fluid properties are essential information that everybody should
understand.
Density: Mud density is the weight per unit volume of mud and normally it is
reported in Pound Per Gallon (PPG). Mud density is used for providing
hydrostatic pressure to control well for drilling operation.
Viscosity: It is defined as the internal resistance of fluid flow. There are 2 types
of viscosity which are Funnel Viscosity and Plastic Viscosity.
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1) Funnel Viscosity: It is time, in seconds for one quart of mud to flow through a
Marsh funnel which has a capacity of 946 cm3 . A quart of water exits the funnel
in 26 seconds. This is not a true viscosity, but serves as a qualitative measure of
how thick the mud sample is. The funnel viscosity is useful only for relative
comparisons.
2) Plastic Viscosity (PV): A parameter of the Bingham plastic rheological model
(See Figure 3). PV is the slope of the shear stress-shear rate plot above the
yield point (See Figure 4). Viscometer is equipment to measure Plastic Viscosity
(See Figure 2). Plastic Viscosity is derived from the 600 rpm reading minus the
300 rpm reading and PV is in centipoises (cp). A low PV indicates that the mud
is capable of drilling rapidly because of the low viscosity of mud exiting at the bit.
High PV is caused by a viscous base fluid and by excess colloidal solids. To
lower PV, a reduction in solids content can be achieved by dilution or by using
the solid removal equipments such as shale shakers, desanders, desilters,etc.
There are many rheology models shown in Figure 3. There are many theology
models. Normally Bingham Plastic Model is used to describe mud properties as
Plastic Viscosity and Yield Point . (See Figure 4).
Figure 9- 2 Viscometer
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Figure 9-3 Rheology Model
Figure 9-4 Bingham Plastic Model describes PY and VP
Yield Point: Physical meaning is the resistance to initial flow, or the stress
required starting fluid movement. The Bingham plastic fluid plots as a straight
line on a shear-rate (x-axis) versus shear stress (y-axis) plot, in which YP is the
zero-shear-rate intercept (PV is the slope of the line). YP is calculated from 300-
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rpm and 600-rpm viscometer dial readings by subtracting PV from the 300-rpm
dial reading and it is reported as lbf/100 ft2. YP is used to evaluate the ability of
mud to lift cuttings out of the annulus. A higher YP implies that drilling fluid has
ability to carry cuttings better than a fluid of similar density but lower YP.
Gel Strength: It is the ability of fluid to suspend fluid while mud is in static
condition. Before testing gel strength, mud must be agitated for awhile in order to
prevent precipitation and then let mud is in static condition for a certain limited
time (10 seconds, 10 minutes or maybe 30 minutes) and then open the
viscometer at 3 rpm and read the maximum reading value. In a morning report,
there are 3 values of gel strength, which are Gel 10sec (lbf/100 ft2), Gel 10 mins
(lbf/100 ft2) and Gel 30 mins (lbf/100 ft2).
Ph: This value tells the acid of drilling fluid. Ph paper is used to measure Ph.
Retort Test: There are 2 values that are Saraline Water Ratio (SWR) and Solid
Content (LGS, Barite) obtained from this testing. Mud is retorted in retort test
skid at 950 F for 2 hrs. High temperature can vaporize liquid phase into gas
phase and then gas phase will be transferred to a condenser and condense in
liquid form. Liquid is stored in a tube that has a level indicator to see how much
of water and oil (saraline) extracted. Moreover, solid left in the retort reflects the
solid content in mud.
Filtration loss :
It determines the rate at which the fluid is forced from the filter press containing
the mud sample under specified conditions of pressure and time , usually 100
psi, and 30 minutes, and measuring the thickness of residual solids film
deposited on the filter paper by the loss of the liquid. Most filter presses in use
today are based on the original Baroid low pressure filter press.
Measurement of Properties of Drilling Fluids :
• Viscosity- Marsh – Units : Seconds/Quart( 1 quart = 946 ml )
• Specific Gravity or Mud Weight ( ppg )
Mud wt (ppg) / 8.33 = Specific Gravity
• Hydrostatic Pressure ( psi ) = 0.052 x depth in feet x Mud wt in ppg
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• Equiv. Cir. Weight = Mud wt.(ppg) + 0.1/ D [ YP + (PV x V)/300 D]
Where D = Dh - Dp , V =Annular Velocity (ft/min)
• AV- Apparent Viscosity -Cps – θ600/2
• PV- Plastic Viscosity- Cps PV= θ600 – θ300
• YP – Yield Point (lb/ 100sq ft) YP= θ300 - PV
• Gel Strength - (lb/ 100sq ft)
• p H- Acidic, Neutral, Alkaline
• Solid contents - Units :%
• Sand content – Units %
• Filtration loss –
o Units: cubic centimetre
o Filtrate collected in 30 minutes Or Filtrate collected in 7.5 min x 2
• Rule of Thumb (for dispersed muds only):
• Marsh funnel viscosity = 4x Mud wt. (ppg)
• PV = 2x Mud wt ( ppg)
• YP = Mud weight (ppg)
• Solid contents = 3.2 [ Mud wt.(ppg) -6.4] + 1
• Funnel Gelation = 120% of Funnel Viscosity
• Drilling complications
• Kick
• Stuck-up
• Lost Circulation
• Dog leg
• Fishing
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